Reviewing some READINGS in Literary Translation:

Literary translation constitutes one translation type that is largely

related to the transmission of entire cultures from the original literary
work to the target readers. The translation of literature is known to
represent a window to the source culture relayed in the TT and received
by the TT recipients who belong to another different culture.
Consequently, the process of literary translation is a closed circuit, i.e.
a circuit initiated by the usage of language to express culture
manifested in literature which is, then, translated to bridge gaps
between diverse nations and cultures by using various languages and
so on. It is worth initiating the review of literary translation with what
Benjamin (1923, as reprinted in Venuti, 2000) stated concerning his
viewpoint of bad translations. Benjamin assumed that a poor
translation of a literary work only encompasses the informational
dimension included in the ST. Thus, Benjamin suggested that in
translating poetry, for instance, translators should also employ their
own sense of poetic language to reproduce a well-balanced literary
translation. As a result, Benjamin asked "what does a literary work
'say'? What does it communicate? . . . Its essential quality is not
statement or the imparting of information" (p.15).

Literary translation is primarily a translation of 'texts.' In his

attempt to define 'textual meaning,' Crystal (1978) indicated that the
textual meaning exists "when, at a particular point in a play or novel, a
sentence or word appears whose significance can only be appreciated
in the light of what has gone before" (p.386). This asserts the major
importance of having a comprehensive understanding of the contexts
surrounding literary works, especially when they are translated. These
literary contexts reveal diverse ideas and beliefs which belong to the
original author's traditional thought and culture.

-1-
 In order to clarify literary translation, Waldrop (1984), firstly,
explained that translation has to do with the diffusion of conceptions
from one language to another. Waldrop, then, stressed that transmitting
conceptions is vital in literary translation where "the unit of translation
is the whole work rather than the single sentence or line" (p.44).

Along the same lines, Rabassa (1984a) argued that literary

translators should get closer to the original author of the ST by having a
full understanding of the author's ways of manipulating and expressing
ideas in the ST. Rabassa (1984b) indicated that in order to penetrate
readers' minds and influence them, a translator "must attempt a faithful
but harmonious and artistic rendering" (p.39) in translating literary
works.

Nevertheless, Waldrop (1984) asserted that the translators' own

times and cultural backgrounds will overtly affect their most faithful
translations of literary works.

Lefevere and Bassnett (1990) characterized translating literature

as a rewriting of the original literary work, as "these 'rewritings' are at
least as influential in ensuring the survival of a work of literature as the
originals" (p.10). One further reason for regarding a literary translation
as a rewriting of the original work is the transparency expected to exist
between the ST and its TT, i.e. the literary translation mirrors every
idea, thought, or cultural aspect conveyed in the ST to enable the TT
recipients to perceive their TT in a similar way as the ST ones do.

Venuti (1995) pointed out that long ago Schleiermacher deduced

that literary translators were the only ones permitted to use the
domestication or foreignization strategies of translating foreign texts.
Venuti added that the vital position of literary translation has expanded

-2-
to represent "the field where innovative theories and practices emerge"
(p.41). Venuti indicated that translators, in literary translation, have to
consider any of the latest happenings and constraints in the target
culture to be able to address the TT audience.

One of the translation methods translators employ in literary

translation is the 'adaptation' of the ST to make it conform to the
cultural facets and norms of the TL to enable the TT readers to perceive
the cultural, literary content of the original text. Shuttleworth and
Cowie (1997) defined 'adaptation' as that traditional term used to refer
to some modifications which translators carry out in a text oriented to
particular recipients and generated for a definite aim lurking within
that translation.

Venuti (1998) characterized translation as that activity which

skillfully uses tremendous effort in portraying the ST foreign culture
and literature to the TT audience. Consequently, Venuti clarified that
"foreign texts are often rewritten to conform to styles and themes that
currently prevail in domestic literatures" (p.67). Venuti further added
that literary translation is regarded as a source of diffusing various
languages and cultures with respect to the audience, as TTs "are always
intelligible to, if not intentionally made for, specific cultural
constituencies at specific historical moments" (p.93). Venuti also
believed that the domestic cultural background of the TT readers is
usually liable to the impact of the ST foreign culture. Thus, Venuti
deduced that "a translation practice cannot fail to produce a text that is
a potential source of cultural change" (p.87).

Enani (2000) referred to the translators of culture as cultural

media where cultural connotations of the translated texts are included.
Enani, moreover, stressed that one problem created in translating
cultures is the audience or rather "the change of audience" (p.35) to
whom the translated literary work is oriented. This problem arises
-3-
from the fact that recipients differ according to their various cultures,
ideologies, and ways of perceiving texts. Therefore, as Landers (2001)
put it, it is extremely important for literary translators to understand the
SL culture well to be capable of transferring it clearly to TT receivers.
Hence, Landers stressed the importance of culture in literary
translation, stating that culture "shapes and changes a language,
sometimes separating rather than uniting" (p.74). That is, culture
separates different peoples into different communities with diverse
ideas and thoughts. This cultural difference is quite obvious in literary
works and their translations.

El-Batal (2006) ascertained the importance of regarding the

diverse cultures, from which different languages originate, in the
process of literary translation. According to el-Batal, culture comprises
"language, ideas, beliefs, customs, institutions, rituals and so on. Thus,
if language is part of culture, it is no less true that culture as a whole is
transmitted very largely through language" (p.128). Furthermore, el-
Batal indicated that the cardinal goal of literary translation is to permit
the TT audience to perceive and enjoy the translation product of a
literary work.

Hutnyk (2006) confirmed the substantial importance of culture in

translation. Hutnyk added that translating cultures can never be
perfect, and he clarified that "each translation is a new creativity . . .
Culture as identity cannot be perfectly translated; cultural artifacts can
be remade in other codes" (p.354). Understanding culture helps in
reaching a comprehensive understanding of literary translation.

In relation to the strong bond between culture and understanding

literary translation, Bertens (2008) confirmed the significance of
culture conveyed in literature by arguing that "[e]verything is culture,
and culture can be read and picked apart like a literary text" (p.144). In

-4-
this sense, Bertens pointed out how every facet in life is related to
culture which, in turn, is revealed and illustrated in literature and its
translation as well. Hence, Bertens stated that

... literature does not simply reflect relations of power, but actively
participates in the consolidation and/or construction of discourses and
ideologies, just as it functions as an instrument in the construction of
identities, not only at the individual level – that of the subject – but also
on the level of the group or even that of the national state. Literature is
not simply a product of history, it also actively makes history. (Bertens,
2008, p.140)

In conclusion, literary translation, thus, helps to uncover these

diverse identities and cultures to be exchanged among different nations
through the literary works translated. According to Bertens (2008),
literature orients its various recipients to comprehend the human nature
and condition, and it also enables them to assess the world surrounding
them.

REFERENCES:

Benjamin, W. (1923). The task of the translator. Trans. Harry Zohn. In L. Venuti
(Ed.) (2000), The Translation Studies Reader (pp .15-25). London and New
York: Routledge.
Bertens, H. (2008). Literary Theory: The Basics. (2nd ed.). London and New York:
Taylor & Francis Group.
Crystal, D. (1978). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell.
El-Batal, M. (2006). Translating Contemporary Egyptian Literature: Theory and
Practice. Giza: Egyptian International Publishing Company – Longman.
Enani, M. M. (2000). On Translating Arabic: A Cultural Approach. Cairo: G. E. B.
O.
Hutnyk, J. (2006). Culture. Theory, Culutre & Society, 23(2-3), 351-375.
Landers, C. E. (2001). Literary Translation: A Practical Guide. Clevedon, Buffalo:
Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Lefevere, A., & Bassnett, S. (1990). Introduction: Proust's Grandmother and the
Thousand and One Nights: The 'Cultural Turn' in Translation Studies. In S.

-5-
 Bassnett & A. Lefevere (Eds.), Translation, history, and culture (pp. 1-13).
London: Pinter Publishers.
Rabassa, G. (1984a). If This Be Treason: Translation and Its Possibilities. In W.
Frawley (Ed.), Translation: Literary Linguistic and Philosophical
Perspectives (pp. 21-29). London and Toronto: Associated University
Presses.
Rabassa, G. (1984b). The Silk Purse Business: A Translator's Conflicting
Responsibilities. In W. Frawley (Ed.), Translation: Literary Linguistic and
Philosophical Perspectives (pp. 35-40). London and Toronto: Associated
University Presses.
Shuttleworth, M., & Cowie, M. (1997). Dictionary of Translation Studies. UK: St.
Jerome Publishing.
Venuti, L. (1995). The Translator's Invisibility. London and New York: Routledge.
Venuti, L. (1998). The Scandals of Translation: Towards an ethics of difference.
London and New York: Routledge.
Waldrop, R. (1984). The Joy of the Demiurge. In W. Frawley (Ed.), Translation:
Literary, Linguistic, and Philosophical Perspectives (pp. 41-48). London and
Toronto: Associated University Presses.

-6-