1.

0 ALTERNATING
VOLTAGES AND
CURRENT

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 1.1 UNDERSTAND ALTERNATING CURRENT

1.1.1 DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN DIRECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATING

CURRENT

DC AC
The flow of electrical charge is only The movement of electrical charge
in one direction periodically reverses directions.

The output voltage will remain AC source of electrical power

essentially constant over time charges constantly in amplitude &
regularly changes polarity

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 1.1.2 EXPLAIN WHY AC IS USED IN PREFERENCE TO DC
DC CRITERIA AC
DC does get used in some local Handling AC is the form in which electrical
commercial applications power is delivered to business &
residences

(a) When a large amount of electrical energy is required, it is much economical & easier
to generate & transmit AC instead of DC and much cheaper.

(b) Easily to change an AC voltage to a higher or lower voltage by passing it through a

device known as transformer.

(c) AC may easily converted to DC that can in turn be used to operate various types of
DC circuits @equipment.

(d) AC signal are used extensively in electronic to carry information from 1point to
another within electronic circuit.

(e) AC may also be converted into electromagnetic waves (radio waves) which
can radiate @ travel through space, mean AC signals can be transmitted
from one location to another without the use of wires @ transmission lines.3
 1.1.3 LIST THE SOURCES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

DC AC
- Dry cell battery - Alternating current generator
- Solar cell

WHERE IS AC USED?
- In any application where a large quantities of power are needed.

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 1.2 UNDERSTAND THE GENERATION OF
ALTERNATING CURRENT
1.2.1 EXPLAIN FARADAY’S & LENZ’S LAW INVOLVED IN GENERATING AC
CURRENT
- Faraday’s Law: Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire
will cause a voltage (emf) to be induced in the coil.

- Lenz’s Law: There is an induced current in a closed conducting loop if and

only if the magnetic flux through the loop is changing. The direction of
the induced current is such that the induced magnetic field always
opposes the change in the flux.

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Generation of a sine wave:
- Sinusoidal voltages are produced by ac generators and electronic
oscillators.
- 2 way to generate AC current:
(a) Conductor rotates in a constant magnetic field, a sinusoidal wave is
generated
When the loop is moving perpendicular to the
lines of flux, the maximum voltage is induced.

N B D S
A B C D
A

Motion of conductor Conductor When the conductor is moving parallel with the
lines of flux, no voltage is induced.

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(b) Conductor remain constant whole the magnetic field moved.

- A bar magnet passes through a coil

When magnet’s S-pole is When magnet’s N-pole is moving

The induced I become zero. into coil, induced I flows in such a
leaving the coil, induced I flows I is about to change
in such a direction as to direction as to produce a N-pole
direction. to oppose the approaching of
produce a N-pole to oppose the
leaving of magnet. magnet.

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- Induced Voltage: the voltage produced within the conductor.
- The voltage induced in a conductor is directly proportional to the rate at
which the conductor cuts the magnetic lines of forces.

3. The length of the conductor in the 1. The strength of magnetic

field field
-The longer the conductor, the -Stronger magnetic field will
greater the induced voltage coz Factor
result in more lines of force,
longer conductor cut more line of affected the induced voltagewill higher.
force as it moves through the field. amount of
voltage
induced

2. The speed of conductor

4. The angle at which the conductor movement
cuts the field.

-If the conductor moves at a right angle with -The faster the conductor moves, the
respect to the field, maximum amount of greater the induced voltage coz it cut
voltage is induced. more lines of force in a given period of
time, voltage increase.
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1.2.2 DRAW AC WAVEFORMS PRODUCED BY A SIMPLE ALTERNATINGCURRENT
GENERATOR ( 1 LOOP 2 POLE MAGNET )

Generators convert rotational energy to electrical energy. When a conductor is

in a magnetic field and either the field or the conductor moves, an emf
(voltage) is induced in the conductor. This effect is called electromagnetic
induction.

A loop of wire rotating in a magnetic field produces a voltage which constantly

changes in amplitude and direction.

The waveform produced is called a sine wave and is a graphical picture of

alternating current (ac). One complete revolution (360°) of the conductor
produces one cycle of ac.

The cycle is composed of two alternations: a positive alternation and a

negative alternation. One cycle of ac in one second is equal9 to 1 hertz (1 Hz).
10
Basic Single Coil AC Generator

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AC GENERATOR:
- The AC generator has slip rings that pick up the induces voltage through a
complete relation cycle.
- The induced voltage is related to the number of lines f flux cut.
- When the loop in moving parallel with the lines of flux, no voltage is
induced.
- When the loop in moving perpendicular to the lines of flux, the maximum
voltage is induced.

MULTI POLE AC GENERATOR:

- By increasing the number of poles, the number of cycle per revolution can
be increased.

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 1.2.3 DEVELOP AN EQUATION OF A SINUSOIDALWAVEFORM,
e = Em sin ( wt + θ )

e = Em sin ( wt + θ )

Em = is the peak voltage (unit: volt).

w = is the angular frequency (unit: radians per second)
The angular frequency is related to the physical frequency, (unit =
hertz), which represents the number of cycles per second , by the
equation .
t = is the time (unit: second).
θ = the phase, specifies where in its cycle the oscillation begin at t= 0.

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 B

O C

Sin θ = BC/OB
OB Sin θ = BC
If θ= wt, OB = Em, BC = e
So, e = Em Sin wt

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 1.3 UNDERSTAND A SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE
AND CURRENT VALUES
1.3.1 DEFINE FREQUENCY, PERIOD, PEAK VALUE OR AMPLITUDE AND
THEIR RELATIONS.
FREQUENCY:
- Frequency ( f ) is the number of cycles that a sine wave completes in one
second.
- Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
- The more cycles completed in 1 sec, the higher the frequency.
- Relationship between frequency (f) & period (T) is f = 1/T

1.0 s

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If 3 cycles of a wave occur in one second, the frequency is 3.0 Hz

- The period and frequency are reciprocals of each other.
1 1
f = T=
ANDT f

- Thus, if you know one, you can easily find the other.

0.02 MHz = 20 kHz.

If the period is 50 s, the frequency is

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PERIOD:
- The time required for a sine wave to complete 1 full cycle is called a period
(T).
- A cycle consists of 1 complete +ve and 1 complete –ve alternation.
- The period of sine wave can be measured between any 2 corresponding points
on the waveform.

AMPLITUDE@ PEAK VALUE (Vp/Ip):

- The amplitude is the maximum value of a voltage or current.
- The amplitude of a sine wave is only measured from the center to the
maximum point.
20 V

15 V

10 V A
The amplitude (A) of this sine wave
is 20 V
0V t (s)
0 25 37.5 50.0
The period is 50.0 s
-10 V

-15 V

-20 V T 17
PEAK TO PEAK VALUE:
- The voltage @ current from the +ve and –ve peak.
- The peak to peak values are represented as Vpp @ Ipp.
- Where: Vpp = 2Vp @ Ipp = 2Ip

20 V

15 V

10 V

0V t (s)
0 25 37.5 50.0

VPP
-10 V

-15 V

-20 V

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 1.3 .2 DATERMINE THE VARIOUS VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF A
SINE WAVE

a. INSTANTANEOUS VALUE AT ANY POINT:

- The instantaneous values of a sine wave voltage @ current are different
at any different point along the curve, having +ve and –ve value.
- Represent as: v @ I

b. RMS VALUE:
- The rms ( root mean square ) value @ effective value of a sinusoidal
voltage is equal to the dc voltage that produces the same amount of heat
in a resistance as does the sinusoidal voltage.
- V rms = 0.707 Vp
- I rms = 0.707 Ip
- 0.707 = 1/√2
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c. AVERAGE VALUE:
- By definition, the average value is as 0.637 times the peak value
- The average value is the total area under the half cycle curve divided by the
distance in radians of the curve along the horizontal axis.
- Vavg = 0.637 Vp @ 2/π Vp
- Iavg = 0.637 Ip @ 2/π Ip

20 V
The peak voltage of this
waveform is 20 V. 15 V

10 V VP Vrms
The rms voltage is Vavg
0V t (s)
14.1 V. 0 25 37.5 50.0

-10 V

The average value for the -15 V

sinusoidal voltage is -20 V
20
12.7 V.
d. FORM FACTOR:
- Rms value _ = 1.11
Average value

e. PEAK FACTOR:
- Peak value @ maximum value = 1.414
0.707 peak value rms value

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 1.3.3 CALCULATE MEAN VALUE, RMS VALUE AND PEAK FACTOR FOR A
GIVEN WAVEFORM:
EXAMPLE:
20 V

15 V

10 V

0V t (s)
0 25 37.5 50.0

-10 V

-15 V
-20 V
Mean/ average value = 0.637 Vp
Peak factor = Vp / rms value
= 0.637 . 20V = 20V / 14.14
= 12.74V = 1.414
Rms value = 0.707 Vp
= 0.707 . 20V
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= 14.14 V
 1.4 UNDERSTAND ANGULAR
MEASUREMENT OF A SINE WAVE

1.4.1 SHOW HOW TO MEASURE A SINE WAVE IN TERMS

OF ANGLES
- Angular measurements can be made in degrees (o) or radians.
1.0
0.8
R 0.6
0.4
0.2
R 0   3  5 3 7 2
0
-0.2 4 2 4 4 2 4

-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
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 1.4.2 DEFINE RADIAN

- The radian (rad) is the angle that is formed when the arc is equal to the radius of a
circle. There are 360o or 2 radians in one complete revolution.
- Radian = the standard unit of angular measurement.

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 1.4.3 CONVERT RADIANS TO DEGREE

- Because there are 2 radians in one complete revolution and 360o in a revolution,
the conversion between radians and degrees is easy to write.
- To find the number of radi ans, given the number of degrees:

2 rad
rad =  degrees
360

- To find the number of degrees, given the radians:

360
deg =  rad
2 rad

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1.4.4 DETERMINE THE PHASE ANGLE OF A SINE WAVE

Phase shift:
- The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement that specifies the
position of a sine wave relative to a reference.
- To show that a sine wave is shifted to the left or right of this reference, a
term is added to the equation given previously.

e = Em sin(t   )
Where,
θ = phase shift

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Example of a wave that lags the reference:
…and the equation has a
Reference
negative phase shift
40
30 Peak voltage
20
v = 30 V sin ( − 45o)
Voltage (V)

10
0
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405

-20
-30 Notice that a lagging sine wave is
- 40 below the axis at 0 o

Angle ()

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Example of a wave that leads the reference:

Notice that a leading sine wave is

Reference above the axis at 0 o
40
30 Peak voltage
20
v = 30 V sin ( +45o)
Voltage (V)

10

-45 0 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

-10
-20 …and the equation has a
-30 positive phase shift
-40

Angle ()

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 1.5 UNDERSTAND A PHASOR TO
REPRESENT A SINE WAVE

1.5.1 DEFINE PHASOR

- A phasor is a straight line drawn in such a way that its
length is related to the amplitude of the sine wave
represented, and its angular position relative to other
phasors is related to the phase difference between the
quantities.

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 1.5.2 EXPLAIN HOW PHASORS ARE RELATED TO THE SINE WAVE
FORMULA
- The sine wave can be represented as the projection of a vector rotating at
a constant rate. This rotating vector is called a phasor.
- Phasors allow ac calculations to use basic trigonometry. The sine function
in trigonometry is the ratio of the opposite side of a right triangle to the
adjacent side.
hypotenuse opposite side
sin  =
hypotenuse
opposite side
right
 angle
adjacent side
90

Vp Vp = 25 V
v = Vp sin = 19.2 V
= 50
0 50
Vp
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31
 1.5.3 DRAW A PHASOR DIAGRAM

a. At any point in time, the length of the red dotted line represents the
instantaneous value of the wave.
b. The length of the phasor represents the amplitude of the wave.
c. The angle of the phasor gives the phase of the waveform.
d. Increments in phasor angle in the circular diagram are equivalent to time
or angle increments along the horizontal axis of the waveform diagram.
e. So with this addition of angular information, the phasor gives a relatively
simple way to show the complex relationships that exist between sine
waves in an ac circuit.
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- The position of a phasor at any instant can be expressed as a positive
angle, measured counterclockwise from 0 or as a negative angle equal to
 − 360.

positive angle of 

negative angle of  − 360

phasor

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 1.5.4 DISCUSS ANGULAR VELOCITY

- When a phasor rotates through 360 or 2 radians, one complete cycle is

traced out.
- The velocity of rotation is called the angular velocity ().
 = 2f
(Note that this angular velocity is expressed in radians per second.)

v = Vpsin wt + θ

- The instantaneous voltage at any point in time is given by

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 1.6 UNDERSTAND THE BASIC CIRCUIT
LAWS TO RESISTIVE AC CIRCUIT

1.6.1 APPLY OHM’S LAW TO RESISTIVE CIRCUITS WITH AC SOURCES

- The voltage v across a resistor is proportional to the current i travelling

through it.
- Further, this is true at all times: v = Ri. So, if the current in a resistor is

i = Im . sin (ωt) ,
we write: v = R.i = R.Im sin (ωt)
v = Vm. sin (ωt)
where Vm = R.Im

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- So for a resistor, the peak value of voltage is R times the peak value of
current.
- Further, they are in phase: when the current is a maximum, the voltage is
also a maximum. (Mathematically, φ = 0.)
- The first animation shows the voltage and current in a resistor as a
function of time.

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 1.6.2 APPLY KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW AND CURRENT LAW TO
RESISTIVE CIRCUITS WITH AC SOURCES

Kirchhoff's Current Law:

- The sum of current into a junction equals the sum of current out of the
junction.
- i2 + i3 = i1 + i4

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law:

- The algebraic sum of the voltage (potential)
differences in any loop must equal zero.
- v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 = 0

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 1.6.3 DETERMINE POWER IN RESISTIVE AC CIRCUITS

- You know that in a direct current circuit the power is equal to the voltage
times the current, or P = E X I.
- The TRUE POWER depends upon the phase angle between the current and
voltage. True power of a circuit is the power actually used in the circuit.
Measured in watts.

- P=i2R where i=I sin(dt-)

P=I2R* sin2(dt-)
- Since P=i2R, then average power is
P=i2R/2 and if R is constant,
- Pav=IrmsVrms cos
For pure resistive load, =
For pure inductive load, =+
For pure capacitive load, =−
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 Example:

-In this example, the current to the load would be 2 amps.

-The power dissipated at the load would be 240 watts.
-Because this load is purely resistive (no reactance), the current is in phase with the
voltage, and calculations look similar to that in an equivalent DC circuit.
-If we were to plot the voltage, current, and power waveforms for this circuit, it would
look like Figure below.

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