DISPLAY DEVICES

• Video display systems (CRT’s)

– Raster-scan displays (refresh)

– Random-scan displays (vector refresh)

– Color CRT monitors

• Flat-panel displays

– Plasma panels

– LCD’s (Liquid Crystal Display)

– Electroluminescent displays

– Flat-panel characteristics

• 3D Viewing devices

– VR-systems (Virtual Reality)

2.1 CRT principle

Below figure illustrates the basic operation of a CRT. A beam of electrons (cathode rays),

emitted by an electron gun, passes through focusing and deflection systems that direct the

beam towards specified position on the phosphor-coated screen. The phosphor then emits a

small spot of light at each position contacted by the electron beam. Because the light

emitted by the phosphor fades very rapidly, some method is needed for maintaining the

screen picture. One way to keep the phosphor glowing is to redraw the picture repeatedly

by quickly directing the electron beam back over the same points. This type of display is

called a refresh CRT.

The primary components of an electron gun in a CRT are the heated metal cathode and a

control grid. Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing a current through a coil of

wire, called the filament, inside the cylindrical cathode structure. This causes electrons to be

“boiled off” the hot cathode surface. In the vacuum inside the CRT envelope, negatively

charged electrons are then accelerated toward the phosphor coating by a high positive

voltage. The accelerating voltage can be generated with a positively charged metal coating

on the in side of the CRT envelope near the phosphor screen, or an accelerating anode can

be used, a in fig below . Sometimes the electron gun is built to contain the accelerating

anode and focusing system within the same unit.

Spots of light are produced on the screen by the transfer of the CRT beam energy to the

phosphor. When the electrons in the beam collide with the phosphor coating, they are

stopped and there are stopped and their kinetic energy is absorbed by the phosphor. Part of

the beam energy s converted by friction into heat energy, and the remainder causes

electron in the phosphor atoms to move up to higher quantum-energy levels. After a short

time, the “excited” phosphor electrons begin dropping back to their stable ground state,

giving up their extra energy as small quantum of light energy. What we see on the screen is

the combined effect of all the electrons light emissions: a glowing spot that quickly fades

after all the excited phosphor electrons have returned to their ground energy level. The

frequency (or color ) of the light emitted by the phosphor is proportional to the energy

difference between the excited quantum state and the ground state.

Different kinds of phosphor are available for use in a CRT. Besides color, a major difference

between phosphors is their persistence: how long they continue to emit light (that is, have

excited electrons returning to the ground state) after the CRT beam is removed. Persistence

is defined as the time it takes the emitted light from the screen to decay to one-tenth of its

original intensity. Lower-persistence phosphors require higher refresh rates to maintain a

picture on the screen without flicker. A phosphor with low persistence is useful for

animation; a high-persistence phosphor is useful for displaying highly complex, static

pictures. Although some phosphor have a persistence greater than 1 second, graphics

monitor are usually constructed with a persistence in the range from 10 to 60 microseconds

2.2 Raster-scan technique

In a raster- scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time

from top to bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is
turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots. Picture definition is stored in

memory area called the refresh buffer or frame buffer. This memory area holds the set of

intensity values for all the screen points. Stored intensity values are then retrieved from the

refresh buffer and “painted” on the screen one row (scan line) at a time (Fig. 4). Each screen

point is referred to as a pixel or pel (shortened forms of picture element).

Refreshing on raster-scan displays is carried out at the rate of 60 to 80 frames per second,

although some systems are designed for higher refresh rates. Sometimes, refresh rates are

described in units of cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz), where a cycle corresponds to one

frame. At the end of each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left side of the screen

to begin displaying the next scan line. The return to the left of the screen, after refreshing

each scan line, is called the horizontal retrace of the electron beam. And at the end of each

frame (displayed in 1/80th to 1/60th of a second), the electron beam returns (vertical

retrace) to the top left corner of the screen to begin the next frame.

On some raster-scan systems (and in TV sets), each frame is displayed in two passes using an

interlaced refresh procedure. In the first pass, the beam sweeps across every other scan line

from top to bottom. Then after the vertical retrace, the beam sweeps out the remaining

scan lines (fig.below). Interlacing of the scan lines in this way allows us to see the entire

screen displayed in one-half the time it would have taken to sweep across all the lines at

once from top to bottom

2.3 Random-scan technique

Random scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time and for this reason are also

referred to as vector displays (or stroke-writing or calligraphic displays). The component

lines of a picture can be drawn (Figure 5) and refreshed by a random-scan system in any

specified order.

Refresh rate on a random-scan system depends on the number of lines to be displayed.

Picture definition is now stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of memory

referred to as the refresh display file. Sometimes the refresh display file is called the display

list, display program, or simply the refresh buffer. To display a specified picture, the system

cycles through the set of commands in the display file, drawing each component line in turn.

After all line- drawing commands have been processed, the system cycles back to the first

line command in the list. Random-scan displays are designed to draw al the component lines

of a picture 30 to 60times each second.

2.4 Color CRT monitor

The beam penetration method for displaying color pictures has been used with randomscan
monitors. Two layers of phosphor, usually red and green, are coated on to theinside of

the CRT screen, and the displayed color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates

into the phosphor layers.

2.5 Shadow-mask

Shadow-mask methods are commonly used in raster-scan systems (including color TV)

because they produce a much wider range of color than the beam penetration method. A
shadow-mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel position. One phosphor dot

emits a red light, another emits a green light, and the third emits a blue light. This type of

CRT has three electron guns, one for each color dot, and a shadow- mask grid just behind

the phosphor –coated screen. Figure 6 below illustrates the delta-delta shadow-mask

method, commonly used in color CRT systems. The three electron beam are deflected and

focused as a group onto the shadow mask, which contains a series of holes aligned with the

phosphor-dot patterns. When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask,

they activate a dot triangle, which appears as a small color spot the screen the phosphor

dots in the triangles are arranged so that each electron beam can activate only its

corresponding color dot when it passes through the shadow mask

2.6 Flat panel

The term flat–panel displays refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume,

weight, and power requirements compared to a CRT. A significant feature of flat-panel

displayed is that they are thinner than CRTs, and we can hang them on walls or wear them

on our wrists.

We can separate flat-panel displays into two categories: emissive displays and non-emissive

displays. The emissive displays (or emitters) are devices that displays and light-emitting

diodes are examples of emissive displays. Non-emissive displays (or non-emitters) use
optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns.

The most important example of a non-emissive flat-panel display is a liquid- crystal device.

Plasma panels, also called gas discharge displays, are constructed by filling the region

between two glass plates with a mixture of gases that usually include neon. A series of

vertical conducting ribbons is placed on one glass panel, and a set of horizontal ribbons is

built into the other glass panel. Firing voltages applied to a pair of horizontal and vertical

conductors cause the gas at the intersection of two conductors to break down into glowing

plasma of electrons and ions. Picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer, and the firing

voltages are applied to refresh the pixel positions (at the intersections of the conductors) 60

times per second.

Another type of emissive device is the light-emitting diode (LED). A matrix of diodes is

arranged to form the pixel positions in the display, and picture definition is stored in refresh

buffer. As in scan- line refreshing of a CRT, information is read from the refresh buffer and

converted to voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce the light patterns in

the display.

2.7 Liquid- crystal displays

Liquid- crystal displays (LCDs) are commonly used in systems, such as calculators (Figure 7)

and portable, laptop computers. These non-emissive devices produce a picture by passing

polarized light from the surrounding or from an internal light source through a liquid- crystal

material that can be aligned to either block or transmit the light.

The term liquid crystal refers to the fact that these compounds have a crystalline

arrangement of molecules, yet they flow like a liquid. Flat-panel displays commonly use

nematic (threadlike) liquid-crystal compounds that tend to keep the long axes of the rodshaped
molecules aligned. A flat-panel display can then be constructed with a nematic liquid

crystal, as demonstrated in fig. below. Two glass plates, each containing a light polarizer at

right angles to the other palate, sandwich the liquid-crystal material. Rows of horizontal

transparent conductors are built into one glass plate, and columns of vertical conductors are

put into the other plate. The intersection of two conductors defines a pixel position.

Normally, the molecules are aligned as shown in the “on state” of Figure 8. Polarized light

passing through the material is twisted so that it will pass through the opposite polarizer.

The light is reflected back to the viewer. To turn off the pixel, we apply voltage to the two
intersecting conductors to align the molecules so that the light is not twisted. This type of

flat-panel device is referred to as a passive matrix LCD. Picture definition is stored in a

refresh buffer, and the screen is refreshed at the rate of 60 frames per second, as in the

emissive devices. Back lighting is also commonly applied using solid-state electronic devices,

so that the system is not completely dependent on outside light sources. Colors can be

displayed by using different materials or dyes and by placing a triad of color pixels at each

screen location. Another method for constructing LCDs is to place a transistor at each pixel

location, using thin-film transistor technology.

The transistors are used to control the voltage at pixel locations and to prevent charge from

gradually leaking out of the liquid-crystal cells. These devices are called active-matrix

displays
What's the difference between vector graphics and raster
graphics?
Vector graphics are graphics in which the image is represented in a mathematical fashion. What this allows
one to do is to zoom in an image to infinite precision. They are ideal for situations in which an image might
be used at various resolutions and dimensions.

Raster graphics are of a fixed dimension, somewhat like a grid pattern with specified values at each point.
These graphics are the default for things from the real world (IE, scanned images, photographs, etc). They
are ideal for use when an image will only be used once, and will never need to be enlarged, or if portions
are coming from a photograph or other real-world image.

Vector graphics are a collection of geometrical elements (primitives like circles, squares, triangles... as well
as polygons and curves) that you can enlarge to any size.

Raster (Pixel) graphics is a collection of coloured dots. You can't enlarge it without the dots starting to
show.

They're based on the mathematical idea of vectors:

Vector graphics can do more than just lines, though. They can draw other "primitives" like squares, circles,
curves.

A raster image is made of up pixels, each a different color, arranged to display an image.

A vector image is made up of paths, each with a mathematical formula (vector) that tells the path how it is

shaped and what color it is bordered with or filled by.

The major difference is that raster image pixels do not retain their appearance as size increases – when you blow

a photograph up, it becomes blurry for this reason. Vector images do retain appearance regardless of size, since

the mathematical formulas dictate how the image is rendered.

Pros and cons of raster and vectors

Raster images are capable of displaying a myriad of colors in a single image and allow for color editing beyond

that of a vector image. They can display finer nuances in light and shading at the right resolution. Vector images

are scalable, so that the same image can be designed once and resized infinitely for any size application –

from business card to billboard.

Raster images cannot be made larger without sacrificing quality. Vector images cannot display the natural

qualities of photographs. Raster images are often large files, while vector images are relatively lightweight.

Raster images are used in web and print, vector images cannot as of this writing be used in electronic format –

they must be converted to a raster first. Vectors display at the highest resolution allowed by the output device,

while rasters blur when blown up.

When should I use a raster or a vector?

Raster images are primarily used with photos, which is why Photoshop is a raster editing program. Adobe

Illustrator, on the other hand, is a vector drawing program that automatically creates your vector formulas as you

draw. Logos, letterhead, and other graphic elements are typically best created as vectors; while photographs are

best left for rasters. All vectors must be converted to raster for web use. Text is typically rendered in vector

format.

If you’re not sure whether you should create a raster or vector file, follow this simple rule of thumb: If you’re

drawing something from scratch with only a few colors, go with vector. If you’re editing a photo with multiple

colors, go with raster. Many projects use vector drawings and vector images together – a brochure, for example,
might include a corporate logo (vector) plus an image of happy customers (raster).

Raster images are made of pixels. A pixel is a single point or the smallest single component in a display device.
Let's think of them as little tiny squares* or dots of color or shade.

Vector images are mathematical calculations from one point to another that form geometrical shapes.
I've magnified the raster and vector images above and we can easily see the differences between the two but
sometimes you cannot see the difference at a glance on a normal view. Vector graphics also display anoutline
or wireframe view and this is very important for certain processes, more details below.

When a raster image is scaled up, it usually loses quality. A raster image can be enlarged by either adding
more pixels (which Photoshop randomly - but smartly - adds) or enlarging the size of the pixel. Either way you
are spreading the original data over a larger area at the risk of losing clarity.

A vector program will use a mathematical formula to build an image that can be scaled to any size without
losing quality.
Raster (Bitmap) Vector
• Made of pixels; tiny dots or • Made of mathematical calculations
squares* of color that form objects and lines

• Represents and edits photo and • Can be scaled to any size without
photo-like elements better than losing quality
vector programs with the use of
continuous tones. The use of • Resolution-independent: Can be
different color pixels allows for printed at any resolution
smooth blends of colors.
• Number of colors can be easily
Disadvantages  increased or reduced to adjust
printing budget.
• Is bound by the number of pixels in
the image. It cannot be scaled up • A large dimension vector graphic
without losing quality. can maintain a small file size.

•Large (dimension) & detailed images • Vector art is required by many

equal large file size service providers

• Some service providers like • Can be easily converted to raster

engravers, stencil-cut signs, etc,
must have vector art. Disadvantages 

• It is more difficult to print raster • It is not the best format for

images using a limited amount of photographs or photo-like elements
spot colors with blends of color

• Depending on the complexity of the

image, conversion to vector may be
time consuming
Geometry
By now we know that the smallest element is a point and that for a raster
device, it is pixel. Pixel is the smallest addressable element of raster device. It
is derived from the “Picture Element”. The number of pixel of a display
device determines the resolution of the device, and therefore higher number
of pixels is preferred for graphics applications.
Each of these pixels is associated with the coordinate of Cartesian plane.
These coordinates identify pixel or point. To draw any image or object, some
of pixels are activated by setting some intensity. In other words, the pixels
turned on. For example, to draw a straight line segment the adjacent pixels
between two points are turned on.
Point
AS in the figure Point A has been positioned in the XY-plane and (x1, y1) is
the position of point A. It implies that the A is located at x1 distance in X
direction and at y1 distance in Y direction from the origin (0,0). Where the
(x1,y1) is known as the coordinates of point A.

Line
Any two points specified in the Plane will define a line, which means that for
defining the line we must have to specify two points. In the figure 2.2, two
points P1(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2)define a line l1. To define the line we need an
equation. A random point P(xi,yi) is said to be on the line l1 if and only if it
satisfies the equation of the line. The equation of a straight line can be
derived with the help of slope concept of a straight line. The slope is the
rate at which an ordinate of a point on a plane changes with respect to a
change in the horizontal coordinate. The notion slope is denoted by m. Thus,

So the slope of any line can be one of four types: the straight line 1) with
positive slope, 2) with negative slope, 3) with zero slope and 4) with
undefined slope.

Rasterization of graphics primitives

Points and Lines

Point plotting is accomplished by converting a single coordinate position furnished by

an application program into appropriate operations for the output device. With a CRT

monitor, for example, the electron beam is turned on to illuminate the screen phosphor at

the selected location

Line drawing is accomplished by calculating intermediate positions along the line path

between two specified end points positions. An output device is then directed to fill in

these positions between the end points

Properties of a circle

A circle is defined as a set of points that are all the given distance (xc,yc).

An ellipse is an elongated circle. Therefore, elliptical curves can be generated by modifying circle-
drawing procedures to take into account the different dimensions of an ellipse along the major and
minor axes.

 Point – set of values that denotes a location in a space.

 Vector – set of values that denotes a direction in a space.

 Orthogonal vectors – perpendicular vectors, angle between them is 90°.

 Line – set of points that satisfy a linear equation of two variables.

 Line segment – part of a line that is bounded by two distinct points.

Points and Vectors

We have already discussed the difference between points and vectors. As also mentioned, points will define
specific locations in the space. 
As for vectors, these are the main component in lighting calculations. When we have some polygons in our
space, we can define a directional lighting and color the polygons according to the angle they face the light's
direction. Usually we want our vectors normalized, because this will simplify and allow for more interesting
calculations.

Polygon:
Polygon is a representation of the surface. It is primitive which is closed in nature. It is formed using a
collection of lines. It is also called as many-sided figure. The lines combined to form polygon are
called sides or edges. The lines are obtained by combining two vertices.
Types of Polygons
1. Concave
2. Convex

A polygon is called convex of line joining any two interior points of the polygon lies inside the
polygon. A non-convex polygon is said to be concave. A concave polygon has one interior angle
greater than 180°. So that it can be clipped into similar polygons.

A polygon can be positive or negative oriented. If we visit vertices and vertices visit produces
counterclockwise circuit, then orientation is said to be positive.