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[BASIC THERMODYNAMICS] Definitions - 2
Properties like Temperature, Pressure and Volume or specific volume can be measured using instruments
but we do not have meters for measuring- Internal energy, Enthalpy and Entropy.
Internal Energy (u, U): It is defined as the sum of microscopic energies of all the molecules of a
system, which may appear in several complex forms. These forms may include—
 Intermolecular potential energy, associated with forces between the molecules.
 Molecular kinetic energy associated with translational and rotational velocity of each molecule.
 Intra-molecular energy within the molecular/atomic structures and related forces.
Internal energy (u, U) is primarily a function of temperature.
Enthalpy (h, H): Enthalpy is a mathematical combination of internal energy and pressure energy of the
fluid. It is expressed as -
H = U + pV (in extensive form)
h = u + pv (in intensive form)
Common expression in SI system has a unit of kj/kg (intensive). Enthalpy is also a function of
Temperature.
Entropy (s,S): Entropy represents the disorder or uncertainty of the microscopic level, even it is used as
a property at macroscopic level. Entropy is also mainly a function of Temperature. Like enthalpy is a
calculated property of matter.
Entropy can be viewed as molecular disorder or molecular randomness. As the system becomes more
disordered the position of the molecules become less predictable and the entropy increases. The lowest
entropy is found in solids and highest in gaseous fields.
State and Equilibrium:

State is the condition of a system as defined by the values of all its properties. It gives a complete
description of the system.
At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values. If the
value of even one property changes, the state will change to a
different one.
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states. The word equilibrium

implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system. A system
in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its
Fig. A system at two different surroundings. i.e. all properties will be uniform throughout the system.
states.
A system in thermodynamic equilibrium satisfies the following requirements:

1. Thermal Equilibrium : Temperature is the same throughout the entire system (i.e. no heat flow)
2. Mechanical Equilibrium : No change in pressure at any point of the system with time (pressure
may vary with elevation due to gravitational effect.)
3. Chemical Equilibrium : Chemical composition does not change with time. (No chemical
reactions occur.)
ME 2101 [These Handouts are not alternative of Textbooks] Page 1

Path and Process:

A thermodynamic process is the succession of thermodynamic states that a system passes through as it
goes from an initial state to a ﬁnal state.
The series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the path of the process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states of the process, as well as
the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
As a matter of rule we allow one of the properties to remain constant during a process.
•Isothermal (T) •Isobaric (p) •Isochoric (v)
•Isentropic (s) •Isenthalpic (h) •Isosteric (concentration)
•Adiabatic (no heat addition or removal)

Cycle:
A cyclic process or a cycle is a series of processes which return the system to the initial state. Hence the
change in value of any property in a cycle is zero.
Fig. Cyclic process (cycle)
Example showing a cycle consisting of two processes
Quasi-static or Quasi-equilibrium Process:

A quasi-static process is one in which-
 The deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium is infinitesimal.
 All states of the system passes through are equilibrium states.
A quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a sufficiently slow process that allows the system to
adjust itself internally so that properties in one part of the system do not change any faster than those at
other parts.

 If we remove the masses slowly one by one the pressure of the gas will
displace the piston gradually. It is quasi-static.
 On the other hand if we remove all the masses at once the piston will be
kicked up by the gas pressure.
Process- Flow and Non-flow:

The process undergone by the fluid in a closed system is a ‘Non-flow Process’ while the process in an
open system is called ‘Flow Process’.
Definition Of Temperature and Zeroth Law Of Thermodynamics

Temperature is a property of a system which determines the degree of hotness.
Obviously, it is a relative term.
eg: A hot cup of coffee is at a higher temperature than a block of ice. On the other hand, ice is hotter
than liquid hydrogen.
Zeroth Law:
If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system separately then they are in thermal
equilibrium themselves.
Explanation of Zeroth Law:

Let us say TA, TB and TC are temperatures of systems A, B and C respectively.
 A and C are in thermal equilibrium. TA=TC
 B and C are in thermal equilibrium. TB=TC

Consequence of ‘0’th law

 A and B will also be in thermal equilibrium TA=TB.
 All temperature measurements are based on this LAW.
Pressure (absoulute, gage, vacuum):

The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured relative to
absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated
to read zero in the atmosphere and so they indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the
local atmospheric pressure. This difference is called the gage pressure.
Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages
that indicate the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are all positive quantities and are related to each other by

 A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.7 psi at a location where the atmospheric
pressure is 14.7 psi. Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.
REFERENCE: ANJAN GOSWAMI

Assistant Professor,
Dept. of MPE, AUST

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[BASIC THERMODYNAMICS] Definitions - 2

State and Equilibrium:

Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states. The word equilibrium

A system in thermodynamic equilibrium satisfies the following requirements:

ME 2101 [These Handouts are not alternative of Textbooks] Page 1

Path and Process:

ME 2101 [These Handouts are not alternative of Textbooks] Page 2

Fig. Cyclic process (cycle)

Example showing a cycle consisting of two processes

Quasi-static or Quasi-equilibrium Process:

ME 2101 [These Handouts are not alternative of Textbooks] Page 3

Process- Flow and Non-flow:

Definition Of Temperature and Zeroth Law Of Thermodynamics

Explanation of Zeroth Law:

ME 2101 [These Handouts are not alternative of Textbooks] Page 4

Consequence of ‘0’th law

Pressure (absoulute, gage, vacuum):

ME 2101 [These Handouts are not alternative of Textbooks] Page 5

REFERENCE: ANJAN GOSWAMI

ME 2101 [These Handouts are not alternative of Textbooks] Page 6

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