UNIVERSITY OF GUYANA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

CIV 2109-Statics & Introduction

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 PRESENTATION OUTLINE
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Role of Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects
3.0 Classification of Structures
4.0 Analytical Models
References

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 1.0 INTRODUCTION
➢ Structural analysis is the prediction of the performance of a given
structure under prescribed loads and/or other external effects,
such as support movements and temperature changes.
➢ The performance characteristics commonly of interest in the design of
structures are:
1. Axial forces, shear forces, and bending moments;
2. Deflections; and
3. Support reactions.

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 1.0 INTRODUCTION
➢ The analysis of a structure usually involves determination of the
quantities (given on slide 3) as caused by a given loading condition.

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 2.0 Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects
➢ Structural engineering is the science and art of planning,
designing, and constructing safe and economical structures that
will serve their intended purposes.
➢ Structural analysis is an integral part of any structural engineering
project, its function being the prediction of the performance of the
proposed structure.
➢ A flowchart showing the various phases of a typical structural
engineering project is presented on slide 6.
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2.0 Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects

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 2.0 Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects
Planning Phase
➢ The planning phase usually involves the establishment of the functional
requirements of the proposed structure, the general layout and
dimensions of the structure, consideration of the possible types of
structures (e.g., rigid frame or truss) that may be feasible and the types
of materials to be used (e.g., structural steel or reinforced concrete).
➢ This phase may also involve consideration of non-structural factors,
such as aesthetics, environmental impact of the structure, and so on.
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 2.0 Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects
Planning Phase
➢ The outcome of this phase is usually a structural system that meets the
functional requirements and is expected to be the most economical.
➢ This phase is perhaps the most crucial one of the entire project and
requires experience and knowledge of construction practices in
addition to a thorough understanding of the behaviour of structures.

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 2.0 Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects
Preliminary Structural Design
➢ In the preliminary structural design phase, the sizes of the various
members of the structural system selected in the planning phase are
estimated based on approximate analysis, past experience, and code
requirements.
➢ The member sizes thus selected are used in the next phase to estimate
the weight of the structure.

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 2.0 Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects
Estimation of Loads
➢ Estimation of loads involves determination of all the loads that can be
expected to act on the structure.

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 2.0 Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects
Structural Analysis
➢ In structural analysis, the values of the loads are used to carry out an
analysis of the structure in order to determine the stresses or stress
resultants (axial forces, shear forces and bending moments) in the
members and the deflections at various points of the structure.

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 2.0 Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects
Safety and Serviceability Checks
➢ The results of the analysis are used to determine whether or not the
structure satisfies the safety and serviceability requirements of the
design codes.
➢ If these requirements are satisfied, then the design drawings and the
construction specifications are prepared, and the construction phase
begins.

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 2.0 Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects
Revised Structural Design
➢ If the code requirements are not satisfied, then the member sizes are
revised, and the estimation of loads, structural analysis, safety and
serviceability checks are repeated until all the safety and serviceability
requirements are satisfied.

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 3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
➢ Perhaps the most important decision made by a structural engineer in
implementing an engineering project is the selection of the type of
structure to be used for supporting or transmitting loads.
➢ Commonly used structures can be classified into five basic categories,
depending on the type of primary stresses that may develop in their
members under major design loads.
➢ However, it should be realized that any two or more of the basic
structural types may be combined in a single structure, such as a building
or a bridge, to meet the structure’s functional requirements.
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 3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Commonly used structures can be classified into five basic categories:
1. Tension Structures
2. Compression Structures
3. Trusses
4. Shear Structures
5. Bending Structures

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 3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Tension Structures
➢ The members of tension structures are subjected to pure tension under
the action of external loads.
➢ Because the tensile stress is distributed uniformly over the cross-
sectional areas of members, the material of such a structure is utilized in
the most efficient manner.
➢ Tension structures composed of flexible steel cables are frequently
employed to support bridges and long-span roofs.

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 3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Tension Structures
➢ Because of their flexibility, cables have negligible bending stiffness and can
develop only tension.
➢ Thus, under external loads, a cable adopts a shape that enables it to
support the load by tensile forces alone.
➢ In other words, the shape of a cable changes as the loads acting on it
change.
➢ An example of a cable structure is a typical suspension bridge.

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 3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Tension Structures
➢ Because suspension bridges and other cable structures lack stiffness in
lateral directions, they are susceptible to wind-induced oscillations.
➢ Bracing or stiffening systems are therefore provided to reduce such
oscillations.
➢ Other examples of tension structures include vertical rods used as
hangers (for example, to support balconies or tanks) and membrane
structures such as tents.

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 3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Compression Structures
➢ Compression structures develop mainly compressive stresses under the
action of external loads.
➢ Two common examples of such structures are columns and arches.
➢ Columns are straight members subjected to axially compressive loads.
➢ When a straight member is subjected to lateral loads and/or moments in
addition to axial loads, it is called a beam-column.

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 3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Compression Structures
➢ An arch is a curved structure, with a shape similar to that of an inverted
cable.
➢ Such structures are frequently used to support bridges and long-span
roofs.
➢ Arches develop mainly compressive stresses when subjected to loads and
are usually designed so that they will develop only compression under a
major design loading.

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 3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Trusses
➢ Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their ends by
hinged connections to form a stable configuration.
➢ When the loads are applied to a truss only at the joints, its members
either elongate or shorten.
➢ Thus, the members of an ideal truss are always either in uniform tension
or in uniform compression.
➢ Real trusses are usually constructed by connecting members to gusset
plates by bolted or welded connections.
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 3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Trusses
➢ Although the rigid joints thus formed cause some bending in the
members of a truss when it is loaded, in most cases such secondary
bending stresses are small, and the assumption of hinged joints yields
satisfactory designs.
➢ Trusses, because of their light weight and high strength, are among the
most commonly used types of structures.
➢ Trusses are used in a variety of applications, ranging from supporting
roofs of buildings to serving as support structures in space stations.
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 3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Shear Structures
➢ Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete shear walls, are used in
multi-storey buildings to reduce lateral movements due to wind loads
and earthquake excitations.
➢ Shear structures develop mainly in plane shear, with relatively small
bending stresses under the action of external loads.

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 3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Bending Structures
➢ Bending structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of
external loads.
➢ Some of the most commonly used structures, such as beams, rigid
frames, slabs, and plates, can be classified as bending structures.
➢ A beam is a straight member that is loaded perpendicular to its
longitudinal axis.

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 3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Bending Structures
➢ Rigid frames are composed of straight members connected together
either by rigid (moment-resisting) connections or by hinged connections
to form stable configurations.
➢ Unlike trusses, which are subjected only to joint loads, the external loads
on frames may be applied on the members as well as on the joints.
➢ The members of a rigid frame are, in general, subjected to bending
moment, shear, and axial compression or tension under the action of
external loads.
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 3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Bending Structures
➢ Frames, like trusses, are among the most commonly used types of
structures.
➢ Structural steel and reinforced concrete frames are commonly used in
multi-storey buildings, bridges, and industrial plants.
➢ Frames are also used as supporting structures in airplanes, ships,
aerospace vehicles, and other aerospace and mechanical applications.

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 4.0 ANALYTICAL MODELS
➢ An analytical model is a simplified representation, or an ideal, of
a real structure for the purpose of analysis.
➢ The objective of the model is to simplify the analysis of a complicated
structure.
➢ The analytical model represents, as accurately as practically possible,
the behavioural characteristics of the structure of interest to the
analyst, while discarding much of the detail about the members,
connections, and so on, that is expected to have little effect on the
desired characteristics.
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 4.0 ANALYTICAL MODELS
➢ Establishment of the analytical model is one of the most important
steps of the analysis process; it requires experience and knowledge of
design practices in addition to a thorough understanding of the
behaviour of structures.
➢ The structural response predicted from the analysis of the model is
valid only to the extent that the model represents the actual structure.

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 4.0 ANALYTICAL MODELS
➢ Development of the analytical model generally involves consideration
of the following factors:
1. Plane Versus Space Structure
2. Line Diagram
3. Connections
4. Supports

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 4.0 ANALYTICAL MODELS
Plane Versus Space Structure
➢ If all the members of a structure as well as the applied loads lie in a
single plane, the structure is called a plane structure.
➢ The analysis of plane, or two-dimensional, structures is considerably
simpler than the analysis of space, or three-dimensional, structures.
➢ Fortunately, many actual three-dimensional structures can be
subdivided into plane structures for analysis.

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 4.0 ANALYTICAL MODELS
Plane Versus Space Structure
➢ Although a great majority of actual three-dimensional structural
systems can be subdivided into plane structures for the purpose of
analysis, some structures, such as latticed domes, aerospace structures,
and transmission towers, cannot, due to their shape, arrangement of
members, or applied loading, be subdivided into planar components.
➢ Such structures, called space structures, are analysed as three-
dimensional bodies subjected to three-dimensional force systems.

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 4.0 ANALYTICAL MODELS
Line Diagram
➢ The analytical model of the two- or three-dimensional body selected
for analysis is represented by a line diagram.
➢ On this diagram, each member of the structure is represented by a line
coinciding with its centroidal axis.
➢ The dimensions of the members and the size of the connections are
not shown on the diagram.

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 4.0 ANALYTICAL MODELS
Connections
➢ Two types of connections are commonly used to join members of
structures:
1. Rigid connections and
2. Flexible, or hinged, connections.

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 4.0 ANALYTICAL MODELS
Rigid Connections
➢ A rigid connection or joint prevents relative translations and
rotations of the member ends connected to it; that is, all member ends
connected to a rigid joint have the same translation and rotation.
➢ In other words, the original angles between the members intersecting
at a rigid joint are maintained after the structure has deformed under
the action of loads.

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 4.0 ANALYTICAL MODELS
Rigid Connections
➢ Such joints are, therefore, capable of transmitting forces as well as
moments between the connected members.
➢ Rigid joints are usually represented by points at the intersections of
members on the line diagram of the structure.

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 4.0 ANALYTICAL MODELS
Hinged Connections
➢ A hinged connection or joint prevents only relative translations of
member ends connected to it; that is, all member ends connected to a
hinged joint have the same translation but may have different
rotations.
➢ Such joints are thus capable of transmitting forces but not moments
between the connected members.

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 4.0 ANALYTICAL MODELS
Hinged Connections
➢ Hinged joints are usually depicted by small circles at the intersections
of members on the line diagram of the structure.
➢ The perfectly rigid connections and the perfectly flexible frictionless
hinges used in the analysis are merely idealizations of the actual
connections, which are seldom perfectly rigid or perfectly flexible.
➢ However, actual bolted or welded connections are purposely designed
to behave like the idealized cases.

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 4.0 ANALYTICAL MODELS
Supports
➢ Supports for plane structures are commonly idealized as either:
1. Fixed supports, which do not allow any movement;
2. Hinged or pinned supports, which can prevent translation but
permit rotation;
3. Roller, or link, supports, which can prevent translation in only one
direction.

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REFERENCES
✓ Hibbeler, R., 2012. Structural Analysis. 8th ed. New Jersey: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
✓ Kassimali, A., 2011. Structural Analysis. 4th ed. Stamford: Cengage
Learning.

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 Figure 1: Suspension Bridge
[Source: https://www.stabroeknews.com/2016/06/25/news/guyana/bartica-potaro-road-rehabilitated/ ]
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Figure 2:Tacoma Narrows Bridge Oscillating before Its Collapse in 1940
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Figure 3: Column
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 Figure 4: Arch
Source: https://brewminate.com/romes-enduring-arch/ 43
 Figure 5:Truss
Source: https://www.change.org/p/otto-engineering-inc-save-the-carpentersville-truss-bridge
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Figure 6: Gusset Plate
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 Figure 7: Shear Wall
Source: https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/shear-wall-types-efficiency/6820/
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Figure 8: Beam

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 Figure 9: Rigid Frame
Source: https://roofsystemstt.com/our-services/structural-roof-framing/
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Figure 10: Rigid Joints
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 Figure 11: Hinged Joints
Source: https://sds2.com/case-study-connection-optimization 50
 Figure 12: Fixed Support
Source: https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/types-of-supports-reactions-uses-structures/16974/
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 Figure 13: Pinned Support
Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/424182858626407753/ 52
 Figure 14: Roller
Source: https://www.eng-tips.com/viewthread.cfm?qid=466011 53
THE END
QUESTIONS?

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