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Chap2B Discrete Mathematics

The document discusses: 1) Valid and invalid arguments, and how to test the validity of arguments using truth tables. 2) Logic diagrams and gates, how to represent logical expressions using circuits, and how to write boolean expressions for circuits. 3) Normal forms for logical expressions including disjunctive normal form (DNF) and conjunctive normal form (CNF). 4) Principal disjunctive normal form (PDNF) and principal conjunctive normal form (PCNF) which are unique representations of expressions using minimal terms.

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45 views

Chap2B Discrete Mathematics

The document discusses: 1) Valid and invalid arguments, and how to test the validity of arguments using truth tables. 2) Logic diagrams and gates, how to represent logical expressions using circuits, and how to write boolean expressions for circuits. 3) Normal forms for logical expressions including disjunctive normal form (DNF) and conjunctive normal form (CNF). 4) Principal disjunctive normal form (PDNF) and principal conjunctive normal form (PCNF) which are unique representations of expressions using minimal terms.

Uploaded by

ching jennifer
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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AAMS3653 Discrete Mathematics

Valid and Invalid Arguments

Argument
➢ A sequence of statement.

➢ All statements except the final one are called premises /


assumptions / hypothesis.

➢ Final statement is called conclusion.

➢ The symbol “”, read as “therefore”, place just before


the conclusion.

Validity
➢ An argument form is valid when no matter what
particular statements are substituted for the statement
variables in its premises, if the resulting premises are all
true then the conclusion is also true.

Note:
➢ The truth of conclusion is said to be inferred or deduced
from the truth of the premises when an argument is valid
and its premises are true.

Steps to Test Validity of an Argument


1) Identify the premises and conclusion of the argument.
2) Construct a truth table showing the truth values of all
premises and the conclusion.
3) Find the row (critical row) in which all the premises are
true.
4) In each critical row, determine the conclusion.

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AAMS3653 Discrete Mathematics

a) If in each critical row the conclusion is also true, then


the argument form is valid.
b) If there is at least ONE critical row in which the
conclusion is false, the argument form is invalid.

Eg 18: Show that the following argument form is valid:


p(qr)
r
pq

p q r qr p(qr) r pq

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AAMS3653 Discrete Mathematics

Eg 19: Show that the following argument form is valid:


pq
pq
r
q

p q r pq p pq r

Eg 20: Show that the following argument form is invalid:


p→qr
q→pr
p→r

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AAMS3653 Discrete Mathematics

Logic Diagram

➢ The basic electronic components of a digital system.

➢ The symbol “0” and “1”, which denote false and true
respectively, are called binary digits or bits.

Black Box and Gates

➢ The output of black box is completely specified by


constructing an input / output table, that lists all its
possible input signals together with their corresponding
output signals.
➢ An efficient method for designing more complicated
circuits is to build them by connecting less complicated
black box circuits using gates as below,

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AAMS3653 Discrete Mathematics

Notes:
➢ The action of the Not-, AND- and OR- gates on signals
correspond exactly to those of the logical connectives ,
, and  on statements.

➢ Never combine two input wires.

➢ A signal input wire can be split halfway and used as


input for two separate gates.

➢ An output wire can be used as input.

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AAMS3653 Discrete Mathematics

➢ No output of a gate can eventually feed back into that


gate.

Eg 21: Constructing the input/ output table for the given


circuit.

The Boolean Expression Corresponding to a Circuit

➢ The variables of an input signal (0 and 1) are called as


Boolean variables.
➢ Expression composed of Boolean variables and the
connectives ,  and  is called a Boolean expression.

Eg 22: Find a Boolean expression for the following circuit.

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AAMS3653 Discrete Mathematics

Eg 23: Find a Boolean expression for the circuit below.

Eg 24: Construct a circuit for the Boolean expressions below:


(PQ)Q

Eg 25: Find a circuit that correspond to the given input/ output


table.

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AAMS3653 Discrete Mathematics

Normal Forms
➢ It is useful to have standard forms for expressions,
because this makes the identification and comparison of
two expressions easier.

➢ The standard forms for logical expression is called


Normal Forms.

There are two types :


a) Disjunctive Normal Forms
• A logical expression, which is written as a
disjunction in which all terms are conjunctive of
literals.

Eg 26: 1) (P  Q)  (P  Q)
2) P  (Q  R)
3) P  R

Eg 27: Is the expression (P  Q)  R in disjunctive normal


form? Why?

b) Conjunctive Normal Forms


• A logical expression, which is written as a
conjunction in which all terms are disjunctions of
lateral.

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AAMS3653 Discrete Mathematics

Eg 28: 1) P  (Q  R)
2) P  F
3) Is P  (R  (P  Q)) in conjunctive normal form?
Why?

Obtain Disjunctive/ Conjunctive Normal Forms through


algebraic manipulation
Three steps are require:
1) Remove all → and .
Eg) P→Q  P  Q
PQ  (P  Q)  (Q  P)

2) If the expression in question contains any negated


compound sub expressions, either remove the negation
by using the double negation law or De Morgan’s laws
to reduce the scope of the negation.

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AAMS3653 Discrete Mathematics

3) Once an expression with no negated compound sub


expression is found, use the distributive laws to reduce
the scope to  and .
P  (Q  R) 
P  (Q  R) 
(P  Q)  R 
(P  Q)  R 

Eg29: Convert the expression ( (P  Q)  R) in to


normal form.

Eg 30: Obtain disjunctive and conjunctive normal form of P 


(P→Q).

Principle Disjunctive Normal Forms


➢ The disjunctive normal form and the conjunctive normal
form of a given expression are not unique, such that there
may be several normal forms which are equivalent to
each other.. For eg, P  (Q  R) is already in disjunctive
normal form. We may also express it in another
disjunctive normal form as :

P  (Q  R) 

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AAMS3653 Discrete Mathematics

➢ Comparison of expression would be easier if they can be


converted into some standard form that does not have
any variations, preferable that is unique for each
expression.

➢ We define a min term or Boolean conjunction of several


simple statement variables P, Q, R… as product of P,Q,
R… or their negations, formed in such a way that each
variable appears exactly one either as itself or its
negation.

Eg 31: For 2 variables P and Q, the min terms are:

Eg 32: For 3 variables P, Q and R, the min terms are:

➢ Any expression that can be obtained by commuting the


factors in the expressions above is not included in the
list, as it would be equivalent to one of the min terms
above.

➢ The truth table of these min terms are given below :

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AAMS3653 Discrete Mathematics

From the truth table,


1) Each min term has the truth value T for exactly one
combination of the truth values of P and Q.
2) No two min terms are equivalent.

Eg 33: Construct the truth tables for P→Q, P  Q and


(P  Q) and obtain the PDNF of these expressions.

Principle Conjunctive Normal Form


➢ For a given number of variables, a max term consists of
disjunctions in which each variable or its negation, but
not both, appears only once. The max terms are the duals
of min terms.
➢ Each of the max term has the truth value F for exactly
one combination of the truth values of the variables.
Different max terms have the truth value F for different
combinations of the truth values of the variables.
➢ For a given expression, an equivalent expression
consisting of conjunctions of the max terms only is
called its principle conjunctive normal form (PCNF) or
the product-of-sums canonical form.
➢ In a PCNF, the max terms included correspond to the F
values in the truth table of that expression. It is written
down by including the variable if its truth value is F and
its negation if the value is T.

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AAMS3653 Discrete Mathematics

➢ Every logical expression which is not a tautology has an


equivalent PCNF, which is unique except for the
rearrangement of the factors in the max terms as well as
in their disjunctions.

PCNF max terms :

P, Q :

P, Q, R :

Eg 34: Find the PCNF of the expression in last example.

❖ If the PDNF (or PCNF) of a given expression. A is


known, then the PDNF (or PCNF) of A will consists
of the disjunction (or conjunction) of the remaining
min terms (or max terms) which do not appear in the
PDNF (or PCNF) of A.

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AAMS3653 Discrete Mathematics

❖ From A  A, we can obtain the PCNF (or PDNF) of


A by repeated applications of De Morgan’s laws to the
PDNF (or PCNF) or A.

Eg 35: Let A represent (P→R)  (QP). Obtain the


PCNF and PDNF of A and A.

Eg 36: Repeat the above example without using truth table.


A  (P→R)  (QP)

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