(Prelim)

1. Philosophical foundations of P.E.

2. The Philosophy of Physical Education and Sport from Ancient
Times to the Enlightenment

LESSON 1
Philosophical Foundations of Physical Education

Introduction
Physical literacy is defined as the “motivation, confidence, physical
competence, knowledge and understanding to value and take
responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life” (IPLA,
2017). The definition can be considered the tip of a metaphorical iceberg
with the main submerged part of the iceberg being the philosophical
foundations. These foundations are central to the concept of physical
literacy and informs how the concept has come to be and how it is
brought to life in practice.

Indian meaning of philosophy is ‘to see behind the scene while Western
world seeks its meaning in the ‘love for knowledge.’ But, in general,
Philosophy derives the knowledge which satisfies the human curiosity.
Philosophy of education is that knowledge which describes the definition
and decides the definition and decides the aims, objectives and criterion
of education.

The philosophical foundations include the concepts of monism;

existentialism and phenomenology. Each of these concepts are expanded
as follows.

Monism
Monism describes reality as a whole (without independent parts. Monism
rejects Cartesian dualism which separates body from mind and person
from surroundings. Although monism recognizes the existence of the
different dimensions of the human condition, these different dimensions
cannot be understood as separate from each other. For instance, thinking,
feeling, moving, and talking are interwoven and can all be considered
embodied .

Existentialism
Existentialism asserts that individuals create themselves as they live and
interact with the world around them . The richer and the more varied
these interactions, the more fully the human being realizes their potential
(Merleau-Ponty, 1968). This view is closely related to a monist view of
the human condition as being inseparable from the world. This means that
actions can never be understood (and learned/taught) without a reference
to the context in which they are performed. As such, interacting with the
world is a continually changing phenomena, as no two contexts are ever
the same .

Phenomenology
Phenomenology is closely aligned to existentialism and proposes that
every individual experiences’ the world from a unique perspective, as
every individual has had their own unique experiences that colour their
perception. Phenomenologists argue that there is no objective perception,
as perception is always in the eye of the beholder. In line with this
thinking, interactions with the world will also be unique to the individual.
Phenomenologists highlight that the embodied dimension should be
understood as a perceptuomotor facility enabling the individual to gather
information as well as initiate actions. This gathering of information from
previous interactions, therefore, are informed by past experiences, present
surroundings/contexts, and future possibilities. Thus, interactions and,
moreover, the nature of those interactions, whether positive, negative,
meaningful, or meaningless, will leave an imprint on an individual and
colour the individual’s view of the world from his/her own unique
perspective .

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Idealism
Idealism is that school of philosophy which believes in the reality of
ideas only the objects, which we experience, do not have their existence
in real sense. They are mere manifestations of ideas. Idealism as a
philosophy stands in contrast with all those systems of thought that centre
in nature (naturalism) or in man (humanism). According to idealism “to
be” means to be experienced by a person.Idealism holds that the order of
the world is due to the manifestation in space and time of an eternal and
spiritual reality. As to knowledge, idealism holds that knowledge is man
thinking the thoughts and purposes of this eternal and spiritual reality as
they are embodied in our world of fact.

As to ethics, idealism holds that the goodness of man’s individual and

social life is the conformity of the human will with the moral
administration of the universe.
Idealism accepts only one reality i.e., ideas, therefore it has concern with
only mind spirit, and the self. It asserts that mind or spirit as each man
experiences it in him is fundamentally real and that the totality of the
universe is somehow mind or spirit in its essence.

According to idealists the world is in spiritual order that is capable of

interpretation. The ultimate reality is self. Evil is not a real existent value.
The individual self has all the freedom necessary to self determination.

Thus, when idealism is applied to physical education it instructs teacher

to be a role model for the students. Physical education not only looks
after the physical factor but also consists of those experiences which
fulfill the needs of the individual’s nature and bring him the sense of
satisfaction or well-being. The name of Plato is well known as a true
idealist in the world.

Naturalism
Naturalism is greatly accepted by hedonists and utilitarianisms.
According to them, pleasure is the highest good. ‘Maximum pleasure for
maximum people’ is a famous axiom of hedonism. According to
naturalism, reality consists of materials, forces, laws or processes in
motion in space.

Ultimate reality is force or energy. Private experiences are quite unreal

and secondary. The most acceptable life is that which keeps close to the
simple and peaceful ways of nature. Orderliness and dependency are the
two famous tools of these schools.

Naturalism has confidence in the orderliness of nature and believes that

nature can be depended upon. Native naturalism attempts to designate
someone substance as the matter of existence. Nuclear physics has
destroyed this concept of the least common denominator in matter of the
universe.Energies suggest that energy is the one substance out of which
the earth is made.

Positivism is the complete dependence upon science as the only avenue

of knowledge. Thus, naturalism asserts that pleasure is the highest good
and the basis of moral judgments.

The aesthetic experience is not an experience of all-embracing truth.

There is no spiritual or supernatural import. Social values are synthetic
values resulting from agreements made by-individuals.
When naturalism is applied to physical education, the holistic
development of an individual, i.e., the physical, mental, social, emotional
and moral skills, comes in focus which helps students in building
personal qualities.

Realism
Realism is the theory that holds that the existence of objects is real. For
this reason it is also sometimes called objectivism.

Both realism and objectivism are metaphysical theories concerned with

the existence of things. In epistemology realism holds that in the process
of knowledge things are independent of the existence and influence of the
knower. Hence the main tenet of this theory in the epistemological field is
that the object and its qualities are independent of and uninfluenced by
the knower and the process of knowledge.

LEARNING

Activity/ exercise 1

Direction : Answer the questions well. Avoid ersures and make your
penmanship readable.

1. What is physical literacy.

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2. Discuss the philosophical foundations of physical education.

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LESSON 2

The Philosophy of Physical Education and Sport from Ancient Times

to the Enlightenment
As an academic discipline, the philosophy of sport has been in existence
for a relatively short period. Although the philosophy of sport as an
academic endeavour is relatively young, the philosophical view of sport
itself is not new. Although sport was a major activity according to the
Greeks and Romans, it lost its importance during the Middle Ages. After
the Renaissance, education came to be seen as a necessity. With its
incorporation and utilization in the educational curriculum, physical
education obviously became more common in the curricula of the
Renaissance and Reformation than it had been in the Middle Ages.
Opinions about the sport of ancient times have influenced those of the
modern era. The aim of this study is to examine the evolution of physical
training from the renaissance to enlightenment, which is important
because this period has laid the foundations of modern physical training
and sport perception.
In this study, the literature is reviewed from ancient times to the
enlightenment, and the revolutions and developments that have occurred
are emphasized. Key words: ancient time, renaissance, physical
education, sport
Introduction Movement was seen as an obligatory life activity among
humans during primitive ages who viewed movement as lively activity .
The need to be constantly prepared for the certainty of life’s struggle gave
humans a rare physical fitness, which involved nerve and muscle.
.
At this point, sport emerged out of the exercises and competitions that
athletes used to prepare their bodies and minds for war, and this played a
major role in development of the role of sport in development of sport
cultures . Although the ancient Greeks strove to ensure that Olympian
athletes were able to perform at their peak, equal importance was placed
on critically examining the nature, purpose and value of sport and
physical activity in Greek life . In the ancient world, the greatest success
an athlete could achieve was to win the Olympiad crown.
The Olympic Games were held every four years for a thousand years
from 776 B.C until 393 A.D. in honour of Zeus. The traditional date of
the founding of the Olympic Games is 776 B.C., but its unofficial
beginning dates back farther. In the basic games, although the rewards
were symbolic, the champions' own cities held ostentatious display
marches during the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. and provided
accommodation, food facilities and theatre seats as well as generous cash
rewards . In ancient Greece, the Hera Games were organized for women
and took place every four years ; only young girls, not married women,
were allowed to participate in these competitions .

In Ancient time (500-300 B.C.), winners were seen as special people in

the period when feasts were made for the purpose of worshiping gods. All
sport-centred activities were launched to end the religious civil wars that
were taking place . The Athens school system was based on physical
training and mainly involved music and various sporting activities; these
were aimed at developing the physical, mental and moral attributes of the
citizens of the city-state. Thus, a physical training system, gymnastics,
emerged for the first time . During the Hellenic Age (336-30 B.C.), when
a healthy perception of life developed, education (in which physical
training played an important role) gained importance.

Sports were considered “physical training for health”, and agonal

(competitive) gymnastics were also highly regarded. Whereas
competitive gymnastics remained the preserve of athletes, competitions in
holy games also returned to round up the list of competitions . Unlike
other Greek civilizations, Spartan woman were trained and educated
physically . For Romans, some body movements served the purpose as
preparation for war and the military. Roman youth received physical
training as war exercises. Activities suitable for Romans’ war ambitions
were used to create their ideal human type: a strong, hugely muscled
foursquare man (Homo quadratos) .
The Olympic Games were banned by Emperor Theodosius I in 393-4
A.D. Another dimension of the sporting lives of Romans was their
penchant for spectator-orientated activities, epitomized as chariot racing
at the circuses and gladiatorial battles in the amphitheater . The education
system was also characterized as “scholastic”, like the thought system of
the Middle Ages, which lasted approximately from 476 A.D. until the
1500s. During this age when faith replaced reason, the only educator was
the church . As the radical social changes of chivalry emerged later,
during the High Middle Age (1000-1300 A.D.), the military functions of
chivalry rejected caring about the body, and hostility against the body
developed .
During the Middle Ages, women were excluded, and physical activities
were carried out in the name of recreation, not sport. The ancient
educational system was imitated during the Renaissance, and in the 15th
and 16th centuries, school physical training began again. Hieronymus
Mercurialis, an Italian humanist, wrote “De Arte Gymnastica” by
gathering information related to Greek gymnastic culture from old Greek
and Roman sources just as in 16th century, when scholars had
differentiated Ancient Greek gymnastics into forms pertaining to health,
paramilitary training and athletic/competition; in this work, gymnastic
practices were again categorized according to various periods and thought
systems
. Reform pedagogues of the age of enlightenment, philanthropists such as
Basedow, Salzmann, GutsMuths etc. laid the scientific foundations of
modern physical training during the 18th century and heavily influenced
the intellectuals of the next century deeply . The aim of this study is to
examine the “Evolution of Physical Training from the Renaissance to the
Enlightenment”, which is important because the foundations of current
physical training and sport perceptions are based on this concept. An
Overview from the Ancient Age to the Renaissance
The Greek educational ideal which emerged during the 8th – 6 th
centuries B.C. aimed at developing general fitness via “gymnastics” and
the “music” of the body; that is, the development of body and spirit in a
harmonic body and, in this way, providing a beautiful body, mental
development and spiritual and moral hygiene. These are expressed by the
word Kalokagathia, meaning both beautiful and good, based on the words
“Kalos” and “Agathos”. Thus, the use of physical training and sport as
the most suitable means as discussed first in Ancient Greece . To achieve
the ideal of kalokagathia, three conditions were required: nobility, correct
behaviour and careful teaching .
Physical beauty (kalos) did not refer just to external appearance; it also
referred to mental health. Humans who had these qualifications were
considered ideal humans (kalokagathos) (Bohus, . The idea of the
Kalokagathia ideal, which was developed during theearly classical age,
had seen archaic-aristocratic high value “arete”s thinned and deepened .
The vital point of aristocratic culture was physical training; in a sense, it
was sport. The children were prepared for various sport competitions
under the supervision of a paidotribes (a physical education teacher) and
learned horse riding, discus and javelin throwing, long jumping, wrestling
and boxing. The aim of the sport was to develop and strengthen the body,
and hence, the character .
In Ancient Greece, boys attended wrestling schools because it was
believed that playing sports beautified the human spirit as well as the
body . The palaestra was a special building within ancient gymnasiums
where wrestling and physical training were practiced . The education
practiced in this era covered gymnastic training and music education, and
its aim was to develop a heroic mentality, but only for royalty. With this
goal in mind, education aimed to discipline the body, raising an agile
warrior by developing a cheerful and brave spirit . The feasts which were
held to worship the gods in Ancient Greece began for the purpose of
ending civil wars. All sport-centred activities were of religious character.
As the ancient Olympic Games were of religious origin, they were
conducted in Olympia. Over time, running distances increased, new and
different games were added to the schedule, soldiers began to use armour
in warfare, art and philosophy were understood better and great interest
was shown in the Olympic Games; therefore, the program was enriched
and changed, and the competitions were increased from one to five days .
However, the active or passive attendance of married women was banned
at the ancient Olympic Games for religious reasons .
The Olympic Games had an important function as one of the elements
aimed at uniting the ancient Greeks culturally, but this ended when the
games were banned by Emperor Theodosius 1st in 393-4 A.D. . Sparta,
which is located in the present-day Mora peninsula, was an agricultural
state that had been formed by the immigration of Dors from the 8th
century B.C. Spartan education provided an extremely paternalistic
education, which sought the complete submergence of the individual in
the citizen and provided him with the attributes of courage, complete
obedience and physical perfection .
In Sparta, where the foundations of social order constituted iron
discipline, military proficiency, strictness and absolute obedience, the
peaceful stages of life had the character of a “preparation for the war
school” .
The essential thing that made Hellenic culture important was its gaining
new dimensions with distinctive creative power regarding cultural factors
that this culture had adopted from the ancient east, and its revealing of the
concept of the “perfect human” . Children stayed with their family until
they were seven years old; from this age, they were assigned to the state-
operated training institutes where they were trained strictly in war and
state tasks. Strengthening the body and preparing for war took a foremost
place in accordance with the military character of the state. Girls were
also given a strict military training . The same training given to the boys
was also given to the girls. The most prominent example of this is the
girls and boys doing gymnastics together . Although physical training and
music education were included, reading, writing and arithmetic were
barely included in Spartan education . Unlike Sparta, the classical period
of Athenian democracy (Athens had advanced trade and industry)
included the Persian Wars and Peloponnese Wars, and Calisthenics
democratic reforms and the ending of sea domination in domestic policy.
As this democracy covered “the independent layer”, it took the form of an
“aristocratic democracy” . Learning was given great importance in the
Athenian democracy. The sons of independent citizens received
education in grammar and at home or private school. Music education
and gymnastic training were carried out in “Gymnasiums” and
“Palestrae”, which were built and controlled by the state; running areas
were called “Dramos”, and chariot race areas were termed
“Hippodromes” . Children older than 12 years started receiving sports
training and music education in Athens, where the military training was
barely included. Athenians insisted on the aesthetical and emotional
aspects of education. Therefore, the best art works of the ancient world
were created in this country .
As in the 5th century B.C., Greek education was unable to appropriately
respond to new developments; Sophists emphasized the development of
traditional education in terms of language and rhetoric in an attempt to
overcome the crisis. Sophists provided education in the morals, law, and
the natural sciences in addition to the trivium, grammar, rhetoric,
dialectic) . Greeks considered physical training prudent and important
because it developed the body and organized games conducive to the
gathering of large crowds; in these games, all regions of Greece were
represented . Rome constitutes the second most important civilization of
the Ancient age. In Rome, the family played the strongest role in
education, and the state did not have much say or importance. While
exercise constituted the means of education in Ancient Rome, the purpose
of this education was “to raise a good citizen”, such that each person had
a skilled, righteous and steady character. Physical training was provided
in addition to courses such as mythology, history, geography,
jurisprudence, arithmetic, geometry and philosophy; this training was
provided in Grammar schools, where basic teaching covered the “Seven
free arts” .
Due to the Scholastic structure of the Middle Ages, values respecting the
human were forgotten. However, the “Renaissance” movement, which
started in Europe and whose ideas inform the modern world, developed
many theories related to education and physical training and attempted to
apply this in various ways; the development of these ideas was continued
in “The Age of Enlightenment”.

The Renaissance General Aspects of the Renaissance The word

renaissance means “rebirth”; in this period, artists and philosophers tried
to discover and learn the standards of Ancient Rome and Athens . In the
main, the Renaissance represented a protest of individualism against
authority in the intellectual and social aspects of life . Renaissance
reminded “Beauty’’ lovers of the development of a new art and
imagination. From the perspective of a scientist, the Renaissance
represented innovation in ancient sciences, and from the perspective of a
jurist, it was a light shining over the shambles of old traditions. Human
beings found their individuality again during this era, in which they tried
to understand the basics of nature and developed a sense of justice and
logic. However, the real meaning of “renaissance” was to be decent and
kind to nature . The Renaissance was shaped in Italy beginning from the
1350s as a modern idea contradicting the Middle Ages. The creation of a
movement for returning to the old age with the formidable memories of
Rome naturally seemed plausible . New ideas that flourished in the world
of Middle Age art and developed via various factors did not just arise by
accident; incidents and thoughts that developed in a social context
supported it strongly

. Having reached its climax approximately in the 1500s, the Italian

Renaissance constituted the peak of the Renaissance; Leonardo da Vinci
observed the outside world, people and objects captiously via his art and
Niccolo Machiavelli’s drastically analyzed nature and use of politics
through his personal experiences and a survey of classical writers . The
Concept of Education and Approaches to Physical Training during the
Renaissance The humanist education model, which was concordant with
the epitomes of the Renaissance, was a miscellaneous, creative idea. Its
goal was to create an all-round advanced human being, “homo
universale”. At the same time, such an educational epitome necessarily
gained an aristocratic character. This educational epitome no longer
provided education to students at school

In 14th century, the “humanist life epitome” was claimed. The humanism
movement was gradually developing and spreading; however, in this
phase, humanism-based formation or practice was not in question.
 In the history of humanity, the humanism period has been acknowledged
as a ‘transitional period’. Modern civilization and education is based on
this period. Philosophers, such as Erasmus, Rabelais, Montaigne and
Luther, flourished during this period. Universities began to multiply, and
utilitarianism was created. Scholastic thought was shaken from its
foundations at the beginning of this period via the influence of Roger
Bacon, who lived during the 13th Century. Original forms of works
constituting the culture of Ancient Athens and Rome were found, read,
and recreated concordantly; moreover, the ideas of latitudinarian, old
educators such as Quintilianus were practiced. In teaching methods,
formulae enabling pupils to improve their skills and abilities were
adopted. Students started to learn outdoors, in touch with nature. Strict
disciplinary methods gave way to rather tolerant methods. The
importance and value of professional education were acknowledged .
Positive sciences, such as history, geography and natural history were not
given a place in the classroom for a long time, but Latin preserved its
place until recent times . With Desiderius von Erasmus, who was alive
during the height of European humanism, humanism adopted its first
scientific principle: “Return to sources!’’; for this reason, the works of
ancient writers were published. Erasmus’ educational epitome consists of
a humanist-scientific formulation; however, it does not externalise the
moral-religious lifestyle. Having worked to expand humanity into higher
levels, Erasmus summarizes the conditions for this quest as follows: good
teachers, a useful curriculum, good pedagogical methods, and paying
attention to personal differences among pupils. With these ideas, Erasmus
represents the height of German humanist pedagogy

On the other hand, Martin Luther considered universities as institutions

where “all kinds of iniquity took place, there was little faith to sacred
values, and the profane master Aristotle was taught imprudently” and he
demanded that schools and especially universities be inspected. Luther
thought that schools and universities should teach religiously inclined
youth in a manner heavily dependent on the Christian religion . Alongside
these ideas, Luther made statements about the benefits of chivalric games
and training, and of wrestling and jumping to health, which, in his
opinion, could make the body more fit. The French philosopher Michel
de Montaigne, known for his “Essays”, was a lover of literature who
avoided any kind of extreme and was determined, careful and balanced.
In his opinion, the aim of education was to transfer “ethical and scientific
knowledge via experiments’’ to pupils. De Montaigne believed that a
person’s skills and abilities in education, which can be called natural
powers, are more important than or even superior to logic and society .
 The Humanist movement has played a very significant role in
educational issues. This movement flourished in order to resurrect the art
and culture of ancient Athens and Rome with their formidable aspects,
thereby enabling body and soul to improve concordantly with the
education of humans . Humanism was not a philosophical system but a
cultural and educational program . The necessity of physical training
along with education of soul and mind has been emphasized; for this
reason, physical practices and games have been suggested for young
people. It is possible to see how the humanists formed the foundations of
the Renaissance, beginning from the 14th century to the 18th century and
working from Italy to Spain, Germany, France and England. Almost all of
the humanists stated the significance of physical training in their written
works on education. One of the humanists, Vittorino da Feltre may have
viewed it as the most pleasant goal of his life to raise a group of teenagers
and fed and educated poor but talented children at his home Feltre
practiced a classical education in his school called “Joyful Residence”. In
accord with Ancient Greek education concepts, he claimed that benefits
were provided by the education of body and soul through daily exercises
such as swimming, riding and swordplay, and generating love towards
nature via hiking; he also emphasized the importance of games and
tournaments. Enea Silvio de Piccolomini is also worthy of attention;
alongside his religious character, he thought that physical training should
be emphasized and that beauty and power should be improved in this way
. de Piccolomini attracted attention to the importance of education as a
basis for body and soul while stressing the importance of avoiding things
that cause laxity, games and resting).

Juan Ludwig Vives, a systematic philosopher who had multiple

influences, in one of his most significant works “De Tradendis
Disciplinis”, which was published in 1531, advised such practices as
competitive ball playing, hiking, jogging, wrestling and braggartism,
beginning from the age of 15 . The German humanist Joachim
Camerarius, who managed the academic gymnasium in the city of
Nürnberg, is also very important in relation to this subject. Having
practicing systematic physical training at the school in which he worked,
Camerarius wrote his work, “Dialogus de Cymnasis”, which refers to the
pedagogical and ethical values of Greek gymnastics. In this work, he
stressed such practices as climbing, jogging, wrestling, swordplay,
jumping, stone throwing and games that were practiced by specially
selected children according to their ages and physical abilities, all under
the supervision of experienced teachers The Italian Hieronymus
Mercurialis’ De Arte Gymnastica, first published in Latin in Venice in
1569, contained very little on the Olympic Games. Indeed, the author was
hostile to the idea of competitive athletics.

The Frenchman Petrus Faber’s Agonisticon (1592), in its 360 pages of

Latin text, brought together in one place many ancient texts concerning
the Olympics but was disorganised, repetitive and often unclear . The first
part of the De Arte Gymnastica included the definition of Ancient Greek
gymnastics and an explanation of actual terminology whereas the second
part contained precautions about the potential harms of exercises
practiced in the absence of a doctor. Moreover, he separated gymnastics
practised for health reasons from military gymnastics . The Transition to
the Age of Enlightenment: Reformation, Counter-reformation and the
Age of Method The Age of Reformation: The most significant feature of
European cultural life during this age was the dominant role played by
religious issues, unlike the Renaissance in Italy . This age symbolizes the
uprising of less civilized societies against logic-dominated Italy . Bearing
a different character from Renaissance and Humanism, the Reformation
did not stress improvements in modern art or science, but rather
improvements in politics and the Church; consonant with this, its
education epitome emphasized being religious and dependent on the
Church. Nevertheless, both Humanism and the Reformation struggled
against Middle Ages scholasticism, and both appreciated the value of
human beings . The Counter-reformation Movement: In this period,
which includes the movement of the Catholic church to retake privileges
that it had lost due to the Reformation, the “Jesuit Sect’’ was founded to
preach, confess and collect “perverted minds’’ once again under the roof
of the Catholic church via teaching activities . The Age of Method: Also
known as the Age of Practice, this period saw efforts to save people from
prejudice, and principles for religion, ethics, law and state were sought to
provide systematic knowledge in a logic-based construction.

Aesthetic educational approaches, which were ignored by religion and the

Church because of the attitudes prevailing during the Reformation and
Counterreformation, were given fresh emphasis. Bacon, Locke, Ratke,
Komensky, Descartes and Comenius are among the famous philosophers
who lived during this period

The Age of Enlightenment General Features and Educational Concepts of

the Enlightenment The Enlightenment Period had made itself clear
approximately between 1680 and 1770 or even 1780. Science developed
into separate disciplines, literature became an independent subject, and it
was demanded that history also become independent During this period,
educators transformed the concept of education from preparing students
for the afterlife into preparing them for the world around them, so that
they could be free and enlightened. Moreover, educators of the period
were usually optimistic and stressed the importance of study and work. At
school, students were educated in such a way as to engrain a love of
nature and human beings.The philosophical foundations include the
concepts of monism; existentialism and phenomenology. Each of these
concepts are expanded as follows.

Based on these ideas, learning was undertaken by exp. William

Shakespeare mentioned the concept of “Fair Play” and the ideas of
“maintain equality of opportunity” and “show the cavalier style of
thinking” at the end of the 16th century; by the 18th century, these ideas
were included in sport . Systematic changes in the foundations of the
principles of fair play that occurred in the 19th century were directly
related to the socio-cultural structure of Victorian England . The Concept
of Physical Training during the Enlightenment and Its Pioneers Ideas and
epitomes produced prior to this period were ultimately practiced in this
period. Respected educators of the period stressed the significance of
physical training, which appealed only to the aristocracy during the
Renaissance; simulating the education system of the Ancient Age,
educators started to address everyone from all classes and their views
spread concordantly in this period. John Locke: The Enlightenment
reached maturity during the mid-to late eighteenth century. John Locke
lead player in this new intellectual movement , was most likely the most
popular political philosopher during the first part of the 18th century, who
stressed the necessity of education . Locke’s “Essay on Human Intellect”
is acknowledged as his most prominent and popular work . His work,
“Notions of Education” stressed the importance of child health, advised
children to learn swimming and to maintain their fitness.

Moreover, Locke noted that such activities as dance, swordplay and

riding were essential for a gentleman and that education should be
infused with game play . Jean Jacques Rousseau: in his work, Emile, the
philosopher from Geneva discussed educational matters in regard to the
principles of nature . In this work, which he wrote in Rousseau argued
that individuals should learn from nature, human beings or objects , and
expressed his notions concerning the education of children and
teenagers . Rousseau held that children should be allowed to develop and
learn according to their natural inclinations, but in Emile, this goal was
achieved by a tutor who cunningly manipulated his pupil’s responses .
The aforesaid education was termed “Natural education’’ of the public or
“education which will create natural human beings’’ . Emile exercised
early in the morning because he needed strength, and because a strong
body was the basic requirement for a healthy soul. Running with bare
feet, high jumping, and climbing walls and trees, Emile mastered such
skills as jogging, swimming, stone throwing, archery and ball games.
Rousseau demanded that every school would have a gymnasium or an
area for training . Philanthropists and Philanthropinums Before Pestalozzi
organized his schools, there was a very important and influential
movement in Germany to carry out some of the practical reforms in
teaching methods that had been suggested in Rousseau’s Emile.

Those reforms were successfully released in certain experimental schools,

one of which (Salzmann’s) continued in operation for over a century .
Philanthropists who contributed to the development of educational
science have as their ideal the provision of enlightened education for
citizens, and the world and life were considered in their perspective of
serving a certain, beneficial practice.

The movement started from uniting “general features’’ rather than

characterizing features that separated people. Education should
emphasize the practical enlightenment of human beings. Supporters of
this movement called themselves “Philanthropists” (lovers of man) who
in their opinion, not only should theoretical information be given in
lessons, but students should also visit ateliers and have the chance to
travel and go on tours. These supporters emphasized the regulation of
classes in such a way as to provide students with “pleasure and joy’’
ideas of and contributed considerably to the improvement of “game play’’
and “sports’’ in education, accordingly . Johann Bernhard Basedow and
the Dessau Philanthropinum: Basedow, who was born in Hamburg
in1724, thought that decency and the security of the state was
proportionate to the happiness of the public and that the safest way to
achieve this was through education .

Basedow aimed at the education of the human being as a whole. He

emphasized practical knowledge over intellectual training and athletics,
and attacked the rigid distinction between “work” and “play” by insisting
on frequent breaks; he also suggested teaching languages not by rote
memorization but as a kind of game. Students were to be educated to
become independent citizens who could take care of themselves in their
future lives.
Acknowledged as the pioneer of the “Philanthropy” movement, in accord
with the example provided by Ancient Greece, the “Dessau Pentathlon”,
which was regulated by Basedow, consisted of a quintet of exercises:
jogging, jumping, climbing, balance and carrying exercises; this was
completed complemented by ball-playing games, and ring and shot
rolling. Emphasizing such studies as carpentry and gardening, this school
founded modern gymnastics . Christian Gotthilf Salzmann and
Schnepfenthal Philanthropinum: Salzmann’s school, which was founded
in 1784 at Schnepfenthal farm, developed over a short time and continues
to exist today .

Constructed away from the city and presenting a family ambiance, this
school became immediately popular because students were given equal
rights; this school adopted the programs of the Dessau school and
provided expanded gymnastics programs . At this school, physical
education, nature study, school gardening, and geographical and other
excursions, etc. were organized more effectively than in any other school
since that time . Johann Christian Friedrich GutsMuths: Having been born
in Quedlinburg, GutsMuths (1759-1839) attended Salzmann’s school and
continued his education there. After advancing his experience in
gymnastics, he completely took over the entire class and improved
gymnastics by turning it into a system . He based the theory of
gymnastics on physiological factors and pointed to the benefits of
gymnastics for body and soul from a national and aesthetic perspective.
Stating that the aim of gymnastics was to provide a balanced relation
between soul, mind and body, GutsMuths had very important ideas about
games .

The Concept of Gymnastics and the Individuals who Contributed towards

it during the 19th Century Gymnastics was put on a scientific basis by
GutsMuths and Vieth in Germany and gained a methodical approach
based on Pestalozzi’s efforts in Switzerland. Jahn, who presented
gymnastics to the public by separating it from the parochial of
educational institutions, has been acknowledged as the father of
gymnastics (Turnvater). Amaros, however, who acted in accord with the
basics espoused by Pestalozzi, was influenced by Jahn and
overemphasized militaristic gymnastics, separating gymnastics practices
into various disciplines . Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi: Pestalozzi defined
education as “the natural, progressive, harmonious development of all the
powers and faculties of the human being”

Bringing a new concept to gymnastics education, Pestalozzi discusses

“Natural Gymnastics’’, following an order tha concordant with child
development. Believing that skilful, experienced, brash and successful
youth could only develop on the game field, not in schools, Pestalozzi
tried the “Stepping Principle” which is a method of systematically
practicing known and trusted movements . Gerhard Ulrich Anton Vieth:
One of the people who helped to provide gymnastics with a scientific
aspect, Vieth discussed the effects of exercise on the body and soul .
Friedrich Ludwig Jahn: Known as the pioneer of gymnastics in Germany,
Jahn benefited dramatically from the opinions of Basedow and
GutsMuths .

Jahn developed the use of apparatus in gymnastics, such as parallel bars,

the chinning bar, horse and rings. Jahn’s goal was to develop generations
of students who had body strength, who could give their lives for their
country, swim well, use a sword, jump, jog and wrestle. In Jahn’s
opinion, gymnastics could only be performed outdoors in the presence of
the community; therefore, even the smallest settlements should have an
area set aside for gymnastics . Pehr Henrik Ling: An early form of
gymnastics was invented by Per Henrik Ling, the father of Swedish
gymnastics, and this was later developed by his son, Hjalmar Ling. Part
of the Ling system, termed pedagogical gymnastics, consisted of “daily
gymnastic training exercises”, which showed how gymnastics should be
taught and performed . Ling observed the social and economic structure
of his country and generated a new system based on science and
physiology. Its aim was to give harmony and concord to the body, and the
system was not intended to have any effect other than its curative effect .

Accordingly, Ling’s system is quite different from common gymnastics

and requires no apparatus at all; the effect of these exercises is so
important upon the mind and body that it may be worth noting their
advantages to counteract prejudices that have hitherto opposed the
general introduction of this system into schools, colleges, universities and
military establishments .

In this system, participants begin with easy exercises before advancing to

more challenging ones; the exercises are practiced very slowly in order to
enable the muscles to stretch to their utmost. In his work, ‘’Basics of
Gymnastics’’, Ling discussed the human organism, pedagogy, the
military, and the functions of gymnastics (including teachers and tools) .
Modern “Reformist Education Movements”

Germany constitutes the hometown of reformist education movements

during 1900-1933. Modern “reformist education movements” always
aimed at changing current education radically based on their world
vision, aims, content and methods . The term “Reformist education
movements” is covered by concepts such as “Educational reform
movements”, “Reform movements in education” or “School reform
movements” in the pedagogical literature.

The meaning covered is as follows: changes in the basis of social policy

and philosophy of culture that put forward new demands in education for
different purposes; various reform manifestations that are willing to
directly change education in various fields of social and cultural life;

teaching didactic-directed reform applications aimed at changing schools

through reforming their internal and external structure since the end of
the 19th century .

The “Child-initiated” movement left its mark at the beginning and during
the first period (1900- 1914) of modern educational reform movements.
According to this movement, children are not small adults but are
different in both mental and physical development and are individuals. A
consistent principle of the child-initiated movement is “abandon to grow”
. “Rural Education Dormitories”, which emerged with an enormous
power in the last quarter of 19th century, were intended as community
housing in accordance with youth structure and for the development of a
lifestyle that suited the young.

Therefore, education with the meaning of providing character was

brought to the forefront while gaining knowledge was relegated to
secondary importance . Conclusion The requirement for a movement that
began with necessary life activities gave way to an individually qualified
race to reach “the best and the most virtuous” with the Greeks. The
Olympic Games, which were played to earn moral success and honour,
were among the most important organizations of its time. Just as a school
system based on physical education emerged in the Ancient Age, and just
as a health-oriented physical education mentality became dominant in the
Hellenistic Age, during which agonal gymnastics took a backseat, it was
possible to discuss body movements performed for the purposes of
preparation for war and military service during the Roman Era. Just as
physical education pertained to chivalry in the Middle Ages, during
which body care and physical education were rejected, so too the idea of
physical education was renewed in the 15th and 16th centuries with the
Renaissance, meaning “rebirth”.

Highly important philosophers lived and worked during the humanist

period, which is accepted as a “transitional period” in the history of
mankind. All of these philosophers proposed the requirement of body
building for developing the soul and the ideal man based on a completely
humanistic education; for this reason, they recommended body exercises
and outdoor games for the young. Ideas and ideals that had been
generated prior to the Enlightenment were practiced in this era. Physical
education was intended for everyone and began to proliferate, and this
appealed to aristocrats only during the Renaissance period, which
emulated ancient times.

Philosophers belonging to that period discussed the importance of

physical education and gaining that character. While opportunities existed
for children to visit workplaces and travel was allowed in courses that
stood out as being simply based on theory, the leaders tried to make the
courses “joyful and amusing” for children by “philanthrops”;
“Philanthropinums” were the cradle of gymnastics, and the Schnepfenthal
Philanthropinum, which was founded at Schnepfenthal farm, has
continued in existence to this day . Gymnastics, based upon a scientific
foundation provided by GutsMuths and Vieth in Germany, gained a
methodological basis through the work of Pestalozzi in Switzerland. Jahn
Iken Amaros classified gymnastic movements into various sections after
having taken gymnastics from the narrow framework of educational
institutions into the public domain .

The “Child-initiated” movement, which accepted children as being

different from adults in terms of their mental and physical development
and considering the child as an individual, has left its mark on the
beginning of modern education reform movements. “Rural Education
Dormitories” placed education to the forefront in the sense of building
character . In conclusion, Antiquity shed light on the following periods
and has been a guiding light that was clearly understood from educator’s
and scientist’s attempts in the next period.
As the works of educators’ emphasized physical education during the
Enlightenment period, so body development gained more and more
importance. The Humanists who understood the importance of the antic
era of gymnasium and emphasized the place of physical education as well
as scientific knowledge in general education set up convenient training
centers.

LEARNING:

Activity /Exercise 2

Direction; Answer the questions well.Avoid erasures ad make your

penmanship readable.

1. Trace and make a summary of the evolution of the philosophy of

physical education and sports from the ancient times to the
enlightenment.

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