Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Perak Kampus Tapah

Faculty of Applied Sciences

Diploma in Science

BIO301
Mini Project Written Report
Journal article review

Title:
IMPACT OF POLLUTANTS FROM THE COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL
FUELS IN MALAYSIA

Supervisor:
MADAM UMI KALSUM ABDUL KARIM

Class:
A4AS1205_3

No. Name of Students Student No.

1. Ahmad Izzuddin Bin Zahid 2019448004

2. Nur Ain Sofiya Binti Zulfaisal 2019213634

3. Nur Faqihah Hasanah Binti Meftahuddin 2019620756

4. Aina Nabila Binti Noor Izhan 2019427262

5. Wan Mohamad Syazwi Bin Mohamad Shukri 2019263696

6. Noorfahmy Bin Ahmad Suhaimi 2019648902

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ 3

2.0 KEYWORDS .............................................................................................................................. 4

3.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT .......................................................................................................... 4

4.0 OBJECTIVE ............................................................................................................................... 4

5.0 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 5

6.0 IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTANT FROM COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUEL IN MALAYSIA... 7

6.1 IMPACT TO ENVIROMENT ................................................................................................. 7

6.2 IMPACT TO HEALTH ........................................................................................................... 9

6.3 IMPACT TO ECONOMY ......................................................................................................... 11

7.0 THE USAGE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY TO REDUCE IMPACT OF FOSSIL FUEL .......... 13

7.1 SOLAR ENERGY ................................................................................................................. 13

7.2 BIOMASS ENERGY............................................................................................................. 16

7.3 HYDROPOWER ................................................................................................................... 18

8.0 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 20

9.0 RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ................................................................ 21

9.0 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 28

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1.0 ABSTRACT

Fossil fuel is one of major energy sources in Malaysia. The combustion of fossil fuel
is one of the ways to generate electricity in Malaysia. Fossil fuel brings a lot of benefits to
Malaysians especially in economy. However, the combustion of fossil fuel also brings a lot of
bad effects in Malaysia especially in our environment and one of the main impact due to
combustion of fossil fuel is air pollution. This article will describe that combustion of fossil
fuel will lead to air pollution which will give impact to our country. The objective of this
article is to investigate the impacts of air pollution and to suggest ways to reduce the usage of
fossil fuel by using renewable energy to avoid air pollution. This article will explain about the
impact of air pollution due to combustion of fossil fuel. Air pollution will give effect in
environment, human health, and economy sector in Malaysia besides, providing some cases
that happen in Malaysia. This article also will explain about the study of renewable energy to
reduce the usage of fossil fuel as our main energy resources. Finally, this article will explain
the recommendation for this issue. It is recommended to use air pollution prevention
technologies which are electrostatics precipitators and the usage of biomass and soil as our
sources of energy.

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2.0 KEYWORDS

Air Pollution, Fossil Fuels, Renewable Energy, Biomass, Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

3.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Combustion of fossil fuel will lead to air pollution which will give impact to our country. It
releases gas that will create air pollution. Air pollution will give impact for our environment,
human health, and economy sectors in Malaysia.

4.0 OBJECTIVE

1. To investigate the impacts of air pollution due to combustion of fossil fuel.

2. To suggest ways to reduce the usage of fossil fuel by using renewable energy to avoid air
pollution.

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5.0 INTRODUCTION

Energy is fundamental to how we live daily. It is necessary for countries to utilize it if

they were to engage in important activities: industrial, domestic, and agricultural activities.
There are many sources of energy such as hydropower, solar energy, wind energy,
geothermal energy, fossil fuel and others. Fossil fuel are non-renewable energy that formed
more than 300 million years ago. It is made from plant and animal that died million years ago.
Fossil fuel has three forms which are oil, natural gas, and coal.

Oil is thick, black liquid that called petroleum. Crude oil is useful as petrol for
transportation. The high price and low reserves for oil have promised to revise the role of oil
in the energy mix in Malaysia. Malaysia has national gas company that has an exclusive
ownership right to explore and discover crude oil and natural gas (M. M. Rahman, 2016) it
also allows them to manage oil. It can easy people to get petrol for their needs.

Natural gas is a simple chemical compound that made up of carbon and hydrogens
atom. In Malaysia, natural gas has become the main energy sources and contributor since
2000 (M. M. Rahman, 2016). Malaysia has reserves natural gas amounting to 2784.1 billion
standard cubic meters. According to the National Energy Balance 2013, it was estimated that
the total production of natural gas in Malaysia was 190.6 million standard cubic meter per
day as of 2013.

Coal are hard black rocks. Most coal is transported by trains to power plants where it's
burned to make steam. The steam turns turbines, which produce electricity. (unknown, n.d).
Coal has low price and most abundantly available fossil fuel (M. M. Rahman, 2016).
Malaysia has coal resource at three states, Sarawak, Sabah, and Selangor.

In Malaysia, electricity sector is mostly come from fossil fuel sources (S.M Shafie,
2011). The generation of electricity in Malaysia increases almost 154% from 1995 to 2009
(S.M Shafie, 2011). This is due to the opening new coal fired power station that can create
more energy. In 2009 almost 94.5% of electricity is generated by using fossil fuel such as
natural gas, coal, and oil. It seems that fossil fuel lead majority energy generation in Malaysia.
The combustion of fossil fuel can produce energy. It is predictable that Malaysia could only
sustain current production of natural gas for about 22 years from now (APEC 2006).
However, the combustion of fossil fuel can lead to environment impact such as air pollution.

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 Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical,
physical, or biological agent that changes the natural characteristic of the atmosphere (Jillian
Mackenzi, 2021). Air pollution have become a worldwide problem. Malaysia also facing the
same situations as the other countries in energy industries regarding the global environment
issue and the depleting of fossil fuel. (H.H Masjuki, 2011). Air pollution from energy
utilization comes from combustion coal, lignite, petroleum and natural gas. All these sources
will produce by product such as CO2, SO2 and NO. (H.H Masjuki, 2011).

In Malaysia, the CO2 emission equaled about 118 million tons in 2006. CO2 is one of
the greenhouse gas emission. According to the Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environment (2015) CO2 accounted for 73%, 76%, and 72 % of the total greenhouse gas
emissions in 2000, 2005, and 2011 respectively. Recent studies have also revealed that
carbon dioxide emissions will continue to increase if Malaysian economy grows (Azlina &
Mustapha 2012; Begum et al.2015; Saboori et al. 2012),

It can conclude, Malaysia is a country that rich with fossil fuel. Government have
fully utilized the fossil fuel in Malaysia for our benefits. It cannot be denied that fossil fuel
can bring impact to our environment, but fossil fuel is still necessary for us to produce energy.
It depends on how we manage it.

6
6.0 IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTANT FROM COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUEL IN
MALAYSIA

6.1 IMPACT TO ENVIROMENT

Air pollution, acid rain, smog, and other environmental impacts are all caused by the
use of fossil fuels. Burning fossil fuels increases the quantity of various compounds in the
atmosphere, such as sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides, resulting in increased acid rain. Acid
rain may damage many animals and plants by destroying their leaves, poisoning soil and
streams, and eventually killing them (Outdoor Air Pollution). On a more level of human
impact, air pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion may ultimately result in lung illness
and cancer (Air Pollution). Another impact is the production of smog. Smog is an issue in many
urban areas, contributing to decreased vision and "dirty skies."(Mackenzie, J and Turrentine, J.
2021).

Metals such as mercury and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene are
also released (but are not included here due to length restrictions) during the combustion or
evaporation of fossil fuels. PM2.5, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), ozone, and
their precursors are mostly released into the outside air; nonetheless, tiny particles and gases
are capable of penetrating from the outdoor air into the inside environment. Stoves and
furnaces, which are used for cooking and heating, are examples of indoor sources (Perera, F.
2017).

Carbon Monoxide (CO) is another effect to consider in this scenario. It is an odourless,

colourless, poisonous gas created from the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels
such as gasoline, natural gas, and oil, with automobile emissions being the primary
anthropogenic source of CO in Malaysia. Malaysia has the third highest rate of automobile
ownership in the world, at 93 percent, and 54 percent of families own more than one car.
When these facts are combined, it's unsurprising that Malaysia has times of severe CO
pollution. When smoke cloud is not present, automobile emissions account for over 70% of
total emissions in big cities such as Kuala Lumpur. Energy (electricity use), mobility
(vehicles), and waste (municipal solid waste that ends up in landfills) are the three major
sources of carbon pollution in Malaysia (Khoo, E. 2019).

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 Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel combustion in Malaysia, a middle-income
country, and biomass combustion in low-income countries are responsible for the majority of
global air pollution, accounting for 85 percent of airborne respirable particulate pollution and
nearly all sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions to the atmosphere (Perera, F. 2017).

Furthermore, vehicular emissions accounted for more than 70 percent of overall

emissions in urban areas, with the exception of ozone, showing two peaks in diurnal
oscillations of the aforesaid air pollutants during non-haze times. The 'rush-hour' peak in the
morning was mostly due to traffic emissions, whereas the late-evening peak was primarily
due to meteorological conditions, particularly air stability and wind speed. The major
contaminant was total suspended particulate matter, with readings frequently exceeding
Malaysian Recommended Air Quality Guidelines in a few areas. Other pollutants were found
to be within permissible limits in most cases. Since 1980, six significant haze outbreaks have
been officially documented in Malaysia: April 1983, August 1990, June 1991, October 1991,
August to October 1994, and July to October 1997. The haze of 1997 was the worst in the
country's history. Observations obtained over a short period of time with continuous
monitoring equipment clearly revealed that suspended particulate matter (PM10) was the
main source of haze and was transboundary in nature. Large forest fires in Sumatra and
Kalimantan were recognized as the likely principal origins of the broad heavy haze that
spread across Southeast Asia from Indonesia to Singapore, Malaysia, and Brunei during the
haze era, as visible on satellite images. Several studies have also decisively established that
biomass combustion is the main sources of particulate matter. In 1997, the scale and intensity
of haze pollution were unprecedented, affecting around 300 million people across the region.
Air and land transportation, tourism, building, shipping, and agro-based industries were all
negatively affected (Hian Wui, J. C., Pien, C.F., Soon Kai, S.K., & Sentian,J. 2018).

8
6.2 IMPACT TO HEALTH

Air pollution, both ambient (outdoor) and household (indoor), is a public health
emergency and the single greatest environmental risk to human health, according to the
Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health, reflecting a previous WHO conclusion that "air
pollution, both ambient (outdoor) and household (indoor), is a public health emergency and
the single greatest environmental risk to human health." The majority of the focus has been
on increased mortality in the general population, with adults accounting for the majority of
fatalities. However, pollution and other environmental hazards cause 1.7 million deaths
among children under the age of five each year, with air pollution contributing for 600,000 of
these deaths, the majority of which are caused by pneumonia. According to the Organization
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), as a result of rising levels of outdoor
air pollution, under-5 mortalities might be 50 percent higher – or even double – by 2050.
Outdoor air pollution is expected to surpass smoking as the leading cause of infant death by
2050. Millions more children, however, suffer from chronic illnesses, such as non-pneumonia
respiratory ailments that have an impact on physical and cognitive development (Perera, F.
2017).

Direct emissions of fine particulate matter (PM), black carbon, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), mercury, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and carbon
monoxide (CO) from fossil fuel combustion have all been linked to a variety of severe health
impacts. Sulphate and nitrate are produced as a by-product of their respective gases and
contribute to fine particulate matter that is directly discharged. Photochemical reactions
involving its precursors—volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2)—form ozone (O3) in the presence of sunlight. These reactions are
enhanced at higher temperatures. The most hazardous air pollutants are those that have an
aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 meters (PM 2.5). Some of these include PAHs, O3, and
carcinogens. These pollutants are known to cause cancer and respiratory problems among
people with respiratory conditions. They are also known to have neurotoxins (Perera, F.
2017).

9
 According to a research, air pollution from the combustion of fossil fuels causes about
4.5 million premature deaths each year around the world. Air pollution raises the risk of
chronic and acute diseases, resulting in millions of hospitalizations and billions of missed
workdays each year. Respiratory infections and diseases, lung cancer, and cardiovascular
disease are all increased by fine particles that enter deeply into the respiratory system (Farrow,
A, Miller, K, A and Myllyvirta, L. 2020).

Climate change is threatening the well-being of indigenous communities. It has also

led to the disappearance of traditional livelihoods. In Malaysia, some indigenous
communities are known to hunt and gather fish, as well as kill animals for their own
consumption. Climate change has also affected the biodiversity of the forests. As a result,
many local plants that were used for medicinal purposes are being lost to the environment.
Meanwhile, the bellies of Earth are still being used for fossil fuel. In December 2014,
extreme weather events caused floods in Malaysia. Many indigenous communities were
affected by the disaster, and many of them lost their homes. The effects of climate change
played a leading role in the disaster. Many of the indigenous communities affected by the
flood were cut off from the outside world due to their lack of basic resources (Zainal, F.
2016).

Black carbon, methane and tropospheric ozone, which are both short-lived climate
pollutants, are responsible for a large portion of global warming. They are also contributing
to air pollution. These pollutants are released as a result of the inefficient use and combustion
of fossil fuels for various industries and transportation. As a result, they contribute to air
pollution and cause various diseases and deaths (WHO. 2015).

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6.3 IMPACT TO ECONOMY

The study of how humans make decisions in the face of scarcity is known as
economics. Individual, family, corporate, and society decisions all fall within this category.
Scarcity is a fact of life, as you can see if you look around closely. Scarcity refers to when
human demands for products, services, and resources outnumber available resources. Labor,
tools, land, and raw materials are all required to generate the goods and services we desire,
yet they are in short supply. The ultimate limited resource is, of course, time; everyone, rich
or poor, has just 24 hours in a day to strive to get the commodities they desire. There is a
finite number of resources available at any given time (Openstax, 2013).

In the city core, the transportation sector is a major source of traffic pollution.
High levels of economic growth, rapid urbanization, rising disposable income, a wide range
of social and recreational activities, an increase in private vehicles, and the distribution of
disparate materials and resources have all contributed to an increase in demand for the
transportation sector, resulting in worsening urban air quality. At both the regional and
national levels, these rising transportation emissions contribute to domestic air pollution,
global climate change, human health issues, and ground-level ozone formation. For sure,
economy growth is so much important for the country to be a developed country.

It is found that air pollution from burning coal, oil and natural gas accounts for an
estimated 4.5 million deaths each year worldwide (Ryan Schleeter, 2020). In our main cities
like Klang Valley, which is one of the main economic zones in Malaysia, the population
percentage is quite high. It consists of Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya, and adjoining cities and
towns in the State of Selangor, such as Petaling Jaya, Shah Alam, Klang, Gombak, Hulu
Langat and Sepang, which had a population of around 3.98 million in the year of 2000
(Ahmad Makmom Abdullah*, Mohd Armi Abu Samah and Tham Yee Jun, 2012). Many
environmental challenges, particularly air pollution, have been exacerbated by the rapid
transformation of the Klang Valley into a large urban zone in the latter decade of the
twentieth century. The relationship between economy and the impact of air pollutant from
combustion of fossil fuel is clearly relating with health. Each year, almost 4 million new
instances of asthma in children are connected to nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a consequence of
fossil fuel burning in automobiles, power plants, and factories. Asthma affects around 16
million children worldwide as a result of NO2 emissions from fossil fuels (Ryan Schleeter,

11
2020). Approximately 1.8 billion days of work absence due to illness are ascribed to PM2.5
air pollution from fossil fuels each year, equal to approximately $101 billion in yearly
economic losses. The estimated deaths (2018) in Malaysia is 6600 (central) (Ryan Schleeter,
2020). From this report, we know that the disease that we suffered from the impact of air
pollutant from combustion of fossil fuel can give a greater impact to the economy. If a lot of
worker from main economic areas take a leave for a long time or frequent, the country will
experience recession.

The growing number of polluting automobiles contributes greatly to urban air

pollution, whether in developed or developing countries (Mohd Shafie, S.H. and Mahmud, M.
(2020)). The absolute cost of air pollution for society is heavily influenced by population size.
Factors such as the availability and cost of healthcare in the area, as well as the infant
mortality rate, are also crucial. Air pollution caused by fossil fuels has a substantial absolute
cost burden for countries with big populations, and the impact is amplified when high air
pollution levels connect with dense populations (Farrow, A., Miller, K.A. & Myllyvirta, L,
2020).

An estimated total cost impact attributed to fossil fuel-related air pollution by

Malaysia is USD 4500 million. (Farrow, A., Miller, K.A. & Myllyvirta, L, 2020) In Malaysia,
the estimated annual cost (% GDP) of fossil fuel-related air pollution is 1.3%. These
expenditures are the result of increased pollution levels, which make respiratory and non-
communicable diseases more prevalent. A monetary value for the years of life lost due to
premature death is also provided. A statistic known as 'years of life lost' can be used to
quantify the impact of premature death. The personal tragedy of a premature death also
brings an economic cost through lost contributions to society and economy. This means that
when premature deaths occur, especially in children and younger people, the economic cost
can be large. (Farrow, A., Miller, K.A. & Myllyvirta, L, 2020) The health effects and
financial costs of PM2.5 air pollution are the highest of the three pollutants. Increased work
absences are linked to PM2.5 emissions from fossil fuels. In Malaysia, the population in
urban area have higher chance than population of people in suburban area to suffer a health
problem. It will lead to a decrease of economy growth in near future in a long run.

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7.0 THE USAGE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY TO REDUCE IMPACT OF FOSSIL
FUEL

7.1 SOLAR ENERGY

The world’s population is 7.7 billion people and it continue to rise year after year.
Electric demand increase by 66% from 2000 to 2017 as a result of population expansion.
However, close to a quarter of the world ‘s population does not have a proper access to
electricity. Most countries around the world including Australia, China, United State, Rusia,
India, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, The Philippines and Malaysia are still heavily relying
on fossil fuel as the main source for electricity production. Four major fossil fuel source that
used is coal, natural gas, diesel and fuel-oil. The capacity data from the Energy Commission
Malaysia shows that 82.9% of Malaysia energy mix was from fossil fuel in 2017 and the
remaining 17.1% was generated from renewable energy source mainly the hydropower. In
Malaysia, the energy demand increases due to the vast development in industrial,
transportation and agriculture sectors. This situation leads to the concentrated greenhouse
gases emission because of electricity sector since it is recognized as the primary emitter of
the total global CO2 emission (Abdul Latif, Chiong, Rajoo, Takada, Chun, Tahara, Ikegami,
2021). Therefore, renewable energy such as solar can be used to reduce the impact of
pollution from the combustion of fossil fuel.

Solar energy refers to energy from the sun then converted into an electrical energy
and thermal energy. It’s a renewable source of energy. Using solar energy is favorable
especially in Malaysia that is situated at the equatorial region with an average solar radiant of
400-600MJ/m2 per month. The use of solar energy began in 2012 with an input of 12 ktoe
and has steadily increase by six-fold to 93 ktoe in 2017 (Abdul Latif, Chiong, Rajoo, Takada,
Chun, Tahara, Ikegami, 2021). However, the high cost of photovoltaic (PV) cells and solar
tariff rate cause the solar energy still at the infancy stage to establish large scale solar power
installation in Malaysia. Solar energy is very popular these days, it shows when countless
amount of people starts to install and use solar energy at their house, schools, university and
shop to fulfil their demand for electricity. Solar energy is the most promising backup energy
with many advantages than other resource (Safari, Mekhilef, Mustafa, Saidur, Omar and
Younis, 2011).

13
 Next, solar energy is a pollution-free energy because it doesn’t produce carbon
dioxide and others greenhouse gases that will contribute to global warming. A greenhouse
gas needs to be reduced because it will trap the heat in the atmosphere that normally need to
escape into the space. It will cause the temperature surface of the earth to increase that lead to
the rising of the sea level, shifting wildlife habitats and population, extreme weather events
and others. Beside eco-friendly, solar energy also low maintenance and high reliability with
life span expectation of 20-30 years (Safari, Mekhilef, Mustafa, Saidur, Omar and Younis,
2011)

Photovoltaic (PV) cell is used to convert solar energy. Sunlight is composed of

proton or particle of radiant solar energy. When sunlight fall to the photovoltaic (PV) cell,
some of photon will absorbed and some are reflected. Electron within the solar cell material
dislodge from their atom when sufficient amount of the photon energy is absorbed. The
electron then migrates to the front surface of the solar cell which is designed to be more
susceptible to the free electron. Electron who is carrying a negative charge will flow toward
the cell’s front surface when the large number of electrons is collected. Then, the resulting
charge imbalance between the front and back surface provides a voltage potential which
similar to negative and positive terminal of a battery. Electricity flow when the two surfaces
are connected through an external load.

In addition, Malaysia is positioned on the South China Sea. It has the high
temperature and humidity level. The temperature ranges between 22°C and 33°C and the
average daily temperature is 26.5°C. Malaysia receives about 400-600MJ/m2 of solar
radiation every month. Kota Kinabalu, Bayan Lepas and George Town is shows to receive
the highest level of solar radiation in Malaysia. Penang and Sabah, according to the head
Renewable Energy Unit, PTM, are the best two spots to generate electricity from sunlight
(Safari, Mekhilef, Mustafa, Saidur, Omar and Younis, 2011). This make the installation of
solar energy is efficient, profitable and ideal in Malaysia. The North-South Expressway,
telecommunication towers and even street lighting have all used solar energy. The
aforementioned Feed-in-Tariff (FiT) program further encourages solar energy usage by
providing a long-term contract and guaranteed pricing to the renewable energy producers,
who could be at home or business owners and private investor where they will be
compensated for the renewable energy they have produced. In addition, the initiation of 1400
MW Large-Scale Solar (LSS) project is predicted to further increase the solar energy share in

14
Malaysia energy mix in the following decade. Solar also become widely used in urban
(Abdul Latif, Chiong, Rajoo, Takada, Chun, Tahara, Ikegami, 2021).

In conclusion, solar energy is ideal to install in Malaysia due to its location at

equatorial region. There are many advantages of solar energy such as pollution-free,
renewable energy, low maintenance and high reliability with life span expectation of 20-30
years. There are also some disadvantages of solar energy which is initial set up cost is very
high and need the solar panel specialist to install and maintenance. The cost to replace the
damages solar panel with the new panel also high and it need personal room for the batteries,
to store the solar energy. The advantages overcome disadvantage when the solar energy is
proved to reduce the emission of greenhouse gas to the atmosphere. However, more study,
Research and Development (R&D) on solar energy need to be conduct, in order to improve
the weakness and gain interest of people simultaneously reduce the impact of pollution from
the combustion of fossil fuel.

15
7.2 BIOMASS ENERGY

Biomass is the mass of combustible elements of biological origin from any of the
sources like plants, bio wastes or process wastes (Mohamed Syahril, N.S, Md. Mizanur,R ,
Mazlan, A.W, 2016). Malaysia is blessed with abundant amount of biomass resources. That is
one of the reasons why biomass is one of the most promising option compare to other sources
of renewable energy. Biomass energy gives an impact on the usage of renewable energy so
that way it can reduce impact of fossil fuel. Renewable energy is defined as energy and power
produced from renewable resource. Next, renewable energy, whether obtained from a central
or local source, refers to energy created from a source that does not contribute to the
depletion of the earth's resources. Furthermore, biomass provides energy in the form of heat
or electricity, or in other forms such as liquid biofuel or combustible biogas, thanks to various
conversion methods (Mohamed Syahril, N.S, Md. Mizanur,R , Mazlan, A.W, 2016).
Transportation fuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel are also produced from biomass.
Malaysia has a large amount of woody biomass and wood waste resources that can be used to
generate electricity.

Based on the article, Malaysia have a total land area about 32.90 million ha and
about 61% of the area is still natural forest, while the rest 14.9% is use for agriculture
activities (S.M, Shafie, H.H Masjuki, TM Indra Mahlia, A.Andriyana,2011). There are five
major sectors that contribute to the biomass energy in Malaysia which are oil palm cultivation,
forestry, rubber cultivation, animal farming and urban wastes. Among these major sectors,
palm oil wastes including biogas are the largest source of biomass in our country.
Furthermore, biodiesel is the fuel generally derived from the vegetable oils or animal fats and
has proven outstanding potential to provide a substitution to petroleum-derived diesel for
compression ignition (CI) engine (Mohamed Syahril, N.S, Md. Mizanur,R , Mazlan, A.W,
2016). The reason biodiesel was solidified as renewable energy because in 2003, the
production of biodiesel reached a total of 1.8 billion litters said by Mohamed Syahril, N.S,
Md. Mizanur,R , Mazlan, A.W.

As Malaysia is the word second largest producer and exporter of crude palm oil,
then the expansion of the palm oil industry will generate a huge amount of biomass wastes
that could be used as a potential source of renewable energy. Malaysia's energy input has
been primarily reliant on fossil fuel resources in generating stations. According to the

16
Malaysian government, fossil fuels accounted for 82.9% of the country's energy mix in 2017.
The fossil fuel energy input is made up of 44.2% of coal, 38.0% of natural gas and 0.6% of
fuel oil/diesel according to the article by Abdul Latif, S.N.; Chiong, M.S.; Rajoo, S.; Takada,
A.; Chun, Y.-Y.; Tahara, K.; Ikegami, Y, 2021. Malaysia, as a developing country, has had
consistent increases in energy consumption as a result of rapid growth in the industrial,
transportation, and agriculture sectors. Focus on GHG emissions from the power sector,
which is acknowledged as the principal source of global CO2 emissions. The increased of
CO2 emission is linking with the transportation sector that showed a noticeable increment in
energy from 2007 to 2017. This is primarily due to the country's growing population and
rising per capita income.

From the Malaysian Energy Commission's capacity data, whereas the remaining
17.1% is produced using renewable energy sources (Abdul Latif, S.N.; Chiong, M.S.; Rajoo,
S.; Takada, A.; Chun, Y.-Y.; Tahara, K.; Ikegami, Y., 2021). Besides, Malaysia has also
started to explore biomass product for electricity generation at an industrial scale. It is
estimated that the country's overall biomass energy potential is comparable to 2% to 3% of
total power generation (S.M, Shafie, H.H Masjuki, TM Indra Mahlia, A.Andriyana,2011).

17
7.3 HYDROPOWER

Renewable energy has a lot of usage that can reduce the impact of fossil fuel. Due to
the depletion of fossil fuels, Malaysia will need to rely on more renewable energy sources to
ensure its long-term prosperity. Hydropower is one of the renewable energies besides solar
energy and biomass energy. Hydropower plants convert water-heads into electricity via water
turbine. Renewable energy resources available in Malaysia are biomass, solar, mini-
hydropower, municipal waste and biogas.

The country of Malaysia has a lot of water. The average annual rainfall is
approximately 3540 mm. It has the potential to power huge cities when harnessed for
hydroelectric energy. Hydroelectricity provides roughly 2.8% of Malaysia's total power needs
(2000 MW) and 6% of global energy supply (S.M, Shafie, H.H Masjuki, TM Indra Mahlia,
A.Andriyana, 2011). The country hydropower plants are control by Tenaga Nasional Berhad.
The Bakun hydroelectric plant, which has a capacity of 2400 MW and is located in Sarawak,
is currently Malaysia's largest hydropower project (S.M, Shafie, H.H Masjuki, TM Indra
Mahlia, A.Andriyana, 2011). These Bakun hydropower plants will provide electricity to
Malaysia's peninsula via undersea cables. The output from hydropower will replace fossil
generation as renewable energy also reduce CO2 emissions.

According to the article, hydropower is the only renewable energy resource that has
been applied commercially on a large scale in Malaysia (Mohamed Syahril, N.S, Md.
Mizanur,R , Mazlan, A.W, 2016). Furthermore, hydropower produces no greenhouse gases
and its resources have been restored. Currently, there are 16 major hydropower stations
located in Malaysia. Only 6 major hydropower stations have been built to generate electricity
that are located in Perak. Malaysia has a considerable amount of hydropower resources and
has potential to generate 29,000 MW of electricity. Until now only 2,091 MW out of the total
potential 29,000 MW was utilized (Mohamed Syahril, N.S, Md. Mizanur,R , Mazlan, A.W,
2016).

18
 Despite the fact that the construction of a dam for a hydroelectric plant is fraught with
major social, environmental, and political concerns, hydropower remains a popular power
generation choice. Hydropower produces a unique "techno-political" condition in which
nature becomes more commercially and financially efficient, allowing for new economic
growth opportunities. Thus, a comparison between the levelized cost of energy for a
renewable energy technology like hydropower and a fossil fuel technology hinges on the
difference in up-front capital costs between the two technologies relative to expected fuel
costs for the fossil fuel technology. However, for renewable technologies, the operating costs
in the remaining years are small, as there are no fuel inputs necessary, only maintenance
(Thomas Covert, 2016). In Malaysia, almost all agricultural commodities may be used to
create electricity. If all crops are used to their full potential, it can assist to minimise reliance
on fossil fuels.

19
8.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, most countries around the world including Malaysia are still heavily
relying on fossil fuel for electric productivity, heating, transportation and industry. There are
four major fossil fuel source that used today is coal, natural gas, diesel and fuel-oil. However,
combustion of fossil fuel release various gas to the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, arsenic and other greenhouse gas. From this mini project, we learn
that air pollution from combustion of fossil fuel give impact on environment, people health
and economy in Malaysia. Black carbon, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs), mercury,
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3) and
volatile organic chemical (VOCs) is produced from the burning of fossil fuel (Perera, 2017).
This greenhouse gas traps heat that would otherwise escape into space. It will cause global
warming, shifting wildlife habitats and populations, extreme weather events, and other
effects.Impact of health, the World Health Organization (WHO) noted that each year poor air
quality cause over seven million premature death globally (Chin, De Pretto, Ashfold, 2019).
The epidemiologic evidence suggests that combustion- source air pollution contributes to the
occurrence of lung cancer among the general population (Cohen and Arden Pope III, 1995).
Several studies have linked long-term effect of poor air quality exposure to lung
inflammation and cardiovascular disease, fatal heart disease, asthma, the carcinogenic effects
of lung cancer, neuropsychiatric complication, ventricular hypertrophy and alzheimer,
neurological disorder (Justin Sentian et al, 2019). Impact on economy, air pollution from
fossil fuel costs an estimated 1.8 billion lost working days per years through poor health. This
hit the economy and seriously damage people’s well-being. Combining health cost and work
absence, an economic cost equivalent to 3.3% of global gross domestic product, or US$ 8
billion per day is estimated to arise from fossil fuel-related air pollution. In other hand,
government making investments to replace fossil fuel with clean renewable energy stand to
benefit from long-term economic return (Farrow, A, Miller, K,A and Myllyvirta, L, 2020).
Last but not least, renewable energy sources like solar, biomass, and hydropower can cut
fossil fuel usage while reducing pollution. Solar energy is pollution-free, renewable energy,
low maintenance and high reliability. Car-free initiatives such walking, cycling, transit,
carpooling and green vehicle have demonstrated that radical changes to our transport system
have the potential to boost physical activity, reduce emission of harmful air pollutant and
greenhouse gas and improve health (Farrow, A, Miller, K,A and Myllyvirta, L, 2020) .

20
9.0 RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Air pollution is defined as foreign substance in the air that is either man-made or
naturally present, and it is concentrated where humans are mainly concentrated. Pollution is
harmful to one's health, and its prevention imposes a financial burden on citizens. Further
automobile pollution reductions, as well as transportation policies and programmes, will be
more difficult to achieve, but the challenge has been set. It is up to the citizens to decide
whether air quality should be attainable to all—and at what cost. In recent years, air pollution
has become a severe danger to the environment and social well-being. With the support of
policy change and technological innovation, governments, authorities, and industry have been
at the forefront of combating air pollution (Kumar & Katoria, 2013). The focus on the impact
of air pollutant from combustion of fossil fuel and the usage of renewable energy to reduce
impact of fossil fuel have been issued on the article review. The goal of this recommendation
is to have a better understanding of the technological domain's innovation activity in the area
of air pollution prevention. Future researchers are given recommendation for future adopted
technology for air pollution that can help to improve the the air quality which include
electrostatic precipitator (ESP), Biomass and Oil , Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI)
and policies.

Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) have been modernised during the last several
decades, with numerous innovative approaches used to improve their cleaning performance
for pollutants in the sub-micrometer size range. To improve the collection efficiency of
eliminating particulate matter (PM) in the diesel engine, an electrical force has been used.
Measurement systems are being discussed based on the results of particle characteristics and
health impact research. ESPs only provide electrostatic force to the particle, according to the
concept (Agung Sudrajad & Ahmad Fitri Yusof, 2015). As a result, the gases do not enter the
ESP directly, resulting in a relatively low pressure drop. Thus, it may be less expensive than
alternative filtering methods such as cyclonic and mechanical filtration. In ESP, several
factors such as particle size, dielectric constant, and residence time will be taken into
consideration in order to collect the charge from the particles. Diffusion and field charging
are two different types of charging methods.

21
 Many factors influence the efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) in practise,
including the charging mechanism, particle size, gas flow, temperature, dust resistivity, and
so on (Gulyurtlu, Pinto, Abelha, Lopes, & Crujeira, 2013). With air pollution control
regulations getting more strict, it's more important than ever to keep a close eye on and
precisely regulate the critical parameters of an ESP control system. An ESP's in Figure 1.0
efficient operation usually entails reducing power usage while increasing dust collection. To
achieve this wide criterion, a variety of control mechanisms might be used.

Figure 1: Electrostatic Precipitator Illustration

ESPs, which are widely employed in coal-fired power plants and industrial
applications, have recently become the most prevalent particle emissions control device.
(Iadarola, Bareschino, & Pepe, 2018). The flow of gases will pass through a porous material,
such as fibre or porous foam, in the mechanical filtering concept, and the bending of the gas
streamlines will be based on the separation concept. A pressure decrease occurs when the gas
flow hits the filter surface. (Agung Sudrajad & Ahmad Fitri Yusof, 2015). Furthermore, ESPs
only provide the particle with electrostatic force. Thus, the gases do not enter the ESP
directly, resulting in a lower pressure drop. Therefore, it may be less expensive than
alternative filtering methods such as cyclonic and mechanical filtration. As a result, ESP can
achieve 99 percent removal efficiency with a lower pressure drop for a certain type of
particulates (Khan & Gillies, 2019).

Typically, a wire was used as the discharging electrode, while a plate or tube was
utilised as the collecting electrode. When air passes through the air stream of ESP, a high-
voltage electric field is created by a wire and electrode which can be seen from Figure
1.When a gas is ionised, it produces negative and positive components. As a result, negative
22
ions will travel across the electric field, causing an electric current to flow between the
electrodes (Shah, n.d.). Some of the ions will diffuse to the particles' surfaces, charging them.
Electrostatic force will cause charged particles to move to the collecting plate. As a result, the
particles will concentrate on the electrodes that capture them. Finally, the suspended particle
from the collecting electrode must be removed during the ESP process (Khan & Gillies,
2019).

Figure 2: Air Stream of Particulates

Dry ESPs (the most often utilised) and wet ESPs are the two types of ESPs. The
process by which the collector plates are cleaned is the fundamental distinction between the
two categories (“Monitoring by Control Technique - Electrostatic Precipitators | US EPA,”
2016). The collecting plates in dry ESPs are cleaned by delivering mechanical impulses or
vibration to the plates, which knocks loose the particulate matter accumulated on the plates or
referred as rapping (“Controlling air pollution,” 2013). Meanwhile, the collecting plates in
wet ESPs are cleaned by rinsing them with water. Wet ESPs are widely employed in gas
streams containing sticky particles that have low resistance.

For the ESP performance, the amount of charged provided to a particle has an impact
on an ESP's capability to remove suspended particles (Hosansky, D., 2021). Particle charging
is a function of the ionic current generated by the electrodes, which is controlled by the
voltage of the ESP. There are two types of voltage endpoints that may be used to define the
ESP operating range. The first is onset voltage, which is the lowest voltage difference across
the electrode at which air molecules are ionised and ionic current is produced. The second is
the sparkover voltage, which is the highest voltage at which ESP provides a constant current
output (Agung Sudrajad & Ahmad Fitri Yusof, 2015). Thus, ESP can only be used between
two endpoints. The voltage-current relationship is a trend that shows a progressive rise in
23
current with increasing voltage. As a result, the fundamentals of ESP, such as onset voltage,
spark over voltage, and the voltage-current relationship, are essential to the design of the ESP
component.

Moreover, particle resistivity can have an impact on ESP performance. The attribute
of particle resistivity effects particle deposition and removal from collection plates (Shah,
n.d.). The ideal condition is for particles to conduct away some of their charge once they
reach the plate, allowing more particles to deposit without being inhibited, while still
retaining enough charge to hold them to the plate lightly. Moderate resistivity is the term for
this characteristic (“Monitoring by Control Technique - Electrostatic Precipitators | US EPA,”
2016). If the particles have a high resistance, it takes a long time for them to conduct their
charge away, leaving a negative charge on the plates that inhibits more particles from
depositing. If the particles have a low resistivity, they lose their charge quickly as they
approach the plate and take up the plate's charge, causing them to be pushed back into the gas
stream, where they are then negatively recharged. Unlike barrier filters, which can get
clogged and inefficient, electrostatic precipitators create continuous airflow (air solutions,
2018).

Fossil-fuel combustion is the major source of global air pollution and CO2 (Perera,
2017). Over the last century, human and industrial development has resulted in a massive rise
in fossil fuel use also CO2 emissions, resulting in a dramatic increase in atmospheric CO2
concentration (Oelkers & Cole, 2008). “Carbon dioxide comes from combusting fossil fuels,
and methane comes from natural and industrial sources, including large amounts that are
released during oil and gas drilling,” and “We emit far larger amounts of carbon dioxide, but
methane is significantly more potent, so it’s also very destructive,” (MacKenzie, 2018).
Therefore, alternatives to industrial solutions could include storing CO2 in forests and soils.
Forest biomass acts as both a sink and a source of CO2 in the atmosphere. Vegetation absorbs
carbon through photosynthesis. Despite the fact that some is emitted again during respiration,
there is net CO2 storage. When biomass decays or is burned, the carbon stored in it is
released back into the atmosphere. Forests can be managed to increase their stored carbon,
thus reducing atmospheric CO2 concentrations (Oelkers & Cole, 2008).

24
 The use of forests for CO2 storage will require that forests be managed to grow
continuously and that the carbon harvested from forests not be returned to the atmosphere.
Management strategies aimed at preserving, restoring, and increasing carbon storage in forest
soil. For example, fertiliser use, increased agricultural density, and reduced slash-and-burn
practises, preservation of wetlands, peatlands, and old-growth forest, and forestation of
degraded and no degraded sites. One method of storing carbon fixed by, and then harvested
from, forests is to add it to soils in the form of biochar, which has the potential to greatly
improve soil fertility. It means that carbon is added to soils naturally, by the cycling and
burial of organic material from plants, animals and microbes, and agriculturally, by spreading
manure. Organic carbon is rapidly released to the atmosphere again, though erosion and
oxidation. Adding carbon as biochar, which is charcoal formed by burning biomass in an
oxygen-depleted atmosphere, is one technique to increase the residence period of carbon in
soils (Oelkers & Cole, 2008). Some heat is created, but the low oxygen concentration inhibits
burning, reducing the quantity of CO2 emitted and protecting the remaining carbon from
further oxidation by bacteria.

Figure 3: Biochar Soils

The carbon-rich Terra Preta de Indio black soils of the Amazon region provide
evidence for biochar's long-term stability in soils. (Glaser, 2007) found that biochar, which
was applied to these soils around 500 years ago, is responsible for at least some of the carbon
in the Terra Preta. The charcoal promotes soil fertility by providing an adsorptive surface for
plant nutrient absorption. The Terra Preta soil is more productive than surrounding Amazon
soils, and charcoal is offered as a soil amendment. This implies that, if managed correctly,
biochar addition to soil could sequester significant amounts of CO2 in a manner that is stable
for hundreds of years.
25
 Furthermore, the regional initiative to reduce air pollution and CO2 emissions in the
north-eastern states (US) known as the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI) placed a
regional limit on the amount of CO2 that power plants can emit and instituted a cap-and-trade
policy (Perera, 2017). RGGI establishes CO2 emission limits for new and existing fossil-fuel-
fired electric generating units (EGUs) with a minimum capacity of 25 MW in the programme
area (Perera, Cooley, Berberian, Mills, & Kinney, 2020). EGUs subject to regulation must get
allowances for each short tonne of CO2 emitted. Allowances are auctioned quarterly and may
be sold or traded between EGUs. Revenues from the auction have been reinvested to expedite
the adoption of renewable energy, increase energy efficiency, and fund other public benefit
projects (Perera, Cooley, Berberian, Mills, & Kinney, 2020). While the RGGI is primarily
focused on greenhouse gas emissions reduction, it also targets other pollutants such as PM2.5,
nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sulphur dioxide(SO2). NOx and SO2 react in the atmosphere to
form PM2:5, which has a well-documented relationship with multiple adverse health
outcomes, including respiratory and cardiovascular effects, premature mortality, and, more
recently, adverse birth outcomes, respiratory illness, and neurodevelopmental problems in
children (Perera, 2017).

The World Health Organization (WHO) describes a number of policies in transport,

urban planning, power generation and industry that are known to be effective in reducing
emissions of fossil fuel-related air toxics and CO2 such as clean technologies that can reduce
industrial smokestack emissions by improving the management of urban and agricultural
waste, including the capture of methane gas emitted from waste sites as an alternative to
incineration for use as biogas (WHO, 2021). (MacKenzie, 2018). Besides that, make good
choices about transportation by shifting to clean modes of power generation by prioritizing
rapid urban transit, walking and cycling networks in cities as well as rail inter-urban freight
and passenger travel. In addition, shifting from heavy-duty diesel vehicles to low-emission
vehicles and fuels or fuels with reduced sulfur content (WHO, 2021). According to
(MacKenzie, 2018), “The less gasoline we burn, the better we’re doing to reduce air pollution
and harmful effects of climate change,”.

26
 Lastly, increased use of low-emissions fuels and renewable combustion-free power
sources such as solar, wind or hydropower, cogeneration of heat and power where function in
generating electricity and useful heat at the same time also distributed energy generation. For
example, mini-grids and rooftop solar-power generation. Therefore, by switching over to
renewable energy sources, maximizing fuel efficiency in our vehicles, and replacing more
and more of our gasoline-powered cars and trucks with electric versions potential to limit the
air pollution at its source while also curbing the global warming that heightens so many of its
worst health impacts.

When the full impact of fossil-fuel pollution and our carbon-based economy is
considered, it becomes clear that unless immediate action is taken, our children and
grandchildren will inherit an increasingly unsustainable and unfair world in which they, their
families, and communities will be unable to survive, adapt, grow, and transform as needed.
The rising health and economic costs of pollution and climate change caused by fossil-fuel
combustion have already sparked mitigation activities that can serve as models for other
communities, as well as regional, state, and global entities. Therefore, these recommendations
may provide hope for the future.

27
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