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Anuj Jain
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RL) ELECTRICAL DRIVES Motion control is required in large number of industrial and domestic applications like transportatio systems, rolling mills, paper mac xtile chine tools, fans, pumps, robots, washing machines etc. Systems employed for motion control are called drives. and may employ any of the pfime movers such as, diesel or pettol engines, gas or steam turbines, steam engines, hydraulic mO{Sand electric motors, for supplying mechanical energy for motion control. Drives employing | electric motors are known as electrical drives Block diagram of an electrical drive is shown in Fig 1.1. Load is usually a machinery designed to accomplish a given task, e.g. fans, pumps, robots, washing machines, machine tools, trains and drills. U: requirements can be in terms of speed and torque demands. A motor having is chosen. Po} Source Power modulator [+ Motor |——# Load 1 —= 1 | 1 Control __| Sensing . unit unit Input command Fig. 1.1 Block diagram of an electrical drive {Modulates flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that motor imparjed speed-torque characteristics required by the Toa uring transient operations, such as starting, braking and speed reversal, it restricts source and Motor currents within permissible valu essive current drawn from source may overload it or may cause a voltage dip. : Electrical Drives—An introduction 3 8, They are powered by clectrical energy which has a number of advantages over other forms of energy. It can be generated and transported to the desired point economically and efficiently. Conversion of electrical to mechanical energy and vice versa, and electrical energy from one from to another can also be done efficiently and economically. Because of the above advantages, the mechanical energy already available from a non electrical prime mover is sometimes first converted into elect energy by a generator and back to mechanical energy by an electric motor. Electrical link thus provided between the non- electrical prime mover and the load imparts to the drive flexible control characteristics. Consequenty, the load requirements are fully met. For example, in diesel-electric locomotive and ship. the mechanical energy produced by diesel engine is converted into electrical energy by an electrical generator and is utilised to drive electric motors which drive locomotive and ship. The operations of generator and motors can be controlled to shape speed-torque curves and other parameters to meet traction or propulsion requirements in the best possible manner. 13 PARTS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES Electrical drive has the following major parts:[load, motor, power modulator, control unit and $ourE] There are large number of loads and each load has its own specific requirements. Some common aspects to loads are discussed in Sec. 2.5 and specific requirements of some common loads in later chapters. Here we examine four parts of electrical drives: viz. motors, power modulators, sources and control u 1.3.1 Electrical Motors Motors commonly used in electrical drives are: dg motors—shunt, series, compound and permanent magnet; Induction motors—squirrel-cage, wound rotor and linear; Synchronous motors—wound field and permanent magnet; Brushless de motors; Stepper motors; and Switched reluctance motors. In the past, induction and synchronous motors were employed mainly in constant speed drives. Variable speed drives consisting these machines were either too expensive or had very poor efficiency. Consequently, variable speed drive applications were dominated by de motors. ac motors are now employed in variable speed drives also due to development of semiconductor converters employing thyristors, power transistors, IGBTs and GTOs. Boe to presence of commutator and brushes de motors have a number of disadvantages as compared to ac motors (induction and synchronous motors): higher cost, weight, volume and inertia for the same rating, need for frequent maintenance, unsuitable for explosive and contaminated environments and restrictions on maximum voltage, speed and power ratings. Squirrel-cage induction motor, which costs nearly one-third of a de motor of the same rating, is extremely rugged, requires practically no maintenance and can be built for higher speeds. torques and Power ratings. Wound-rotor motors are more expensive than squiffel-cage motors. Their maintenance neo although more than squirrel-cage motors, are much less compared to de motors. They are mo avaible neh ee eee eee field and permanent magnet synchronous motors eee ae Eco ad power factor than induction motors. Wound field motors cate indi noni Power rating than induction motors. However compared squte- y vgher cost and size for the same rating and require more 4 Fundamentals of Blectrwal Drives maintenance. The permanent magnet synchronous motors have all the advantages of squirrel. cage induction motors except that they are available in lower power ratings. Because of numerous advantages af ac motors described above, ac drives have succeeded in replacing de drives in a number of variable speed applications Brushless de motor 1s somewhat similar fo a permanent magnet synchronous motor, but has Jower cost and requires simpler and cheaper converter, It is being considered for low power high speed drives and for servo applications, as an alternative to de servo motor which has been very popular so far. The de servo motor motor has all the disadvantages of commutator and brushes, listed above. At low power levels, the coulomb friction between the brushes and commutator is, objectionable, as it adversely’ affects the steady state accuracy of the driv ae Recently {stepper THOT ) phase ac tage do Oe se a [eommutated = ollage de ©) ixed volt a Ged aatage a Fredolaseae YW * Alternator a | Diode | Vatiable _)\ oy Variable rectifier | voltage dec voltage de —— ac motor a I dc generator yet ® @ Fixed = Y voltage | Magnetic Diode | Variable Fixedvolase FAmpigyne | —Satsele lor amplifier rectifier | Voltage de 3-Phase ac voltage dey 3ephase ac @ a Fig. 1.2 _ac-de converters or rectifiers output voltage can be varied steplessly by controlling the duty ratio of semiconductor devices of the chopper by low power electrical signals from a control unit. The converter of Fig. 1.2(f) is a Controlled rectifier employing self-commutaied device such as power transistors, IGBTs and GOs, It can be a single or two quadrant converter depending on the circuit. When connected in antiparallel, converters of Figs. 2(b) and (f) can provide four quadrant operation (variable voltage and current of either polarity). In ac to de converter of Fig. 1.2(g), the output voltage can be controlled by controlling field current of the generator from a control unit (amplifier) of higher power level than the control units of converters of Figs. 1.2(b), (c), (e) and (f). This can operate in all four quadrants. Because of the two rotating machines, it has a number of disadvantages bulky, heavy, noisy, less efficient, slow response, expensive and requires special foundation Disadvantages associated with commutator and brushes of the de generator (Fig. 1.2(g)) are removed in converter of Fig. 1.2(h). However, this converter can operate in a single quadrant only. Some very old equipments may also employ ac to de converter of Figs. 1.2(i) and () employing magnetic amplifier and amplidyne respectively. Magnetic amplifiers and amplidynes are controlled from low power de signals. —_—__ 6 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives 2. ac Voltage Controllers or ac Regulators: ac voltage controllers (Fig. 1.3) are employed to oe a oS met the same jou from a source of fixed a a volage. Voltage contol of Fig. | 3(a) gives a fixed (smaller) ac voltage supply. The autotransformers cana le of giving variable output voltage are not employed due to sliding contacts. Variable ac voltage with few discrete steps is obtained from the controller of Fig. 1.3(b). The control is exercised by a mechanical force. The output voltage and source current are sinusoidal. Converter of Fig. 1.3(c) employs a thyristorised voltage controller. Stepless control of the output voltage can be obtained by controlling firing angle of converter thyristors by low power signals from a control unit. Output voltage and source current have harmonics and power factor is poor at low output voltages, ew old drives may employ magnetic amplifier to get variable voltage ac from fixed voltage ac. Because of high cost, weight and volume, and poor efficiency they have been replaced by thyristor voltage controllers in almost all applications. _ Fixed voltage [~ autotransformer |_Lower (fixed) Vor 3-phase ac | of fixed tums ratio | - ac voltage @ Fixed voltage [Transformer Variable 1 or 3-phase ac with taps voltage ac (b) Fixed voltage ["Thyristor voltage |_ Variable 1 or 3-phase ac |__controllers voltage ac © Fixed voltage Magnetic Variable 1 or 3-phase ac amplifier voltage ac © Fig. 1.3 ac voltage controllers 3. Choppers or de-de Converters (Fig, 1.4): They are used to get variable voltage de from a fixed Yoltage de and are designed using semiconductor devices such as power transistors, IGBTs, GTOs, power MOSFETs and thyristors. Output voltage can be varied steplessly by controlin the duty ratio of the device by Tow power signals from a control unit, a Fixed aa Semiconductor Variable ‘voltage de chopper * voltage de Fig. 14 de to de converter 4. Inverters: Inverters are employed to get a variable frequency ag supply from a de supply. Stepped-wave inverters of Fig. T-5(a) can be designed to behave as voltage source or current source. Accordingly they are known as voltage source or current source inverters. For the control oF a¢ mofor, voltage/current should also be controlled along with frequency. Variation in output Electrical Drives—An introduction 7 can be vem ® Seale by ane the input de voltage. This is achieved either by be hixed voltage de source e for ae trom an ac-dc converier from ‘Tone trae = me = - inverse OF He inverter may be fed To J gs. 1.216). (e) oF (F). Output volt frequen. and vara je voltage ac is directly obtained from fixed voltage de when the emer controlled by pee sth modulation (PWM) (Fig. 1.5(b)). The PWM control also reduces a eT Inverters are built using semiconductor devices such as thyristors, power transistors, Ts, GTOs and power MOSFETs. They are controlled by. firi 2 pulses otvained from a ow power control unit. In the past variable frequency supply used to be obtained from a frequency changer employing a rotating machine. Such sche! ch sche v nce ee eae such schemes have become outdated Stepped wave Variable Fixed friable frequency voltage de Dl fixed voltage/ inverter current 2 oa | (a) Stepped wave inverters oe PWM Variable frequency +1 semiconductor. |_—— variable voltage voltage de invener current 3c (b) Pulse width modulated inverter) Fig 15 Inverters 5. Cyeloconverter: Cycloconverter (Fig. 1.6) converts fixed volta id frequency ac to variable “voltage and variable frequency ac. They are built using thyristors and are controlled by firing signals derived from a low power control unit. Output frequency is restricted to 40% of supply frequency in order to keep harmonics in the ourput voltage ‘and source current within acceptable limits. Fixed frequency Variable frequency and Cycloconverter sod fixed voltage ac variable voltage ac Fig. 16 (p) Variable Impedances . Nrariable resi used for the control of low cost de and ac drives and are also f drives. Variable Tesistors may have two (Tull and Zero) or more needed for dynamic braking of drives steps and can be controlled manually or automatically with the help of contactors. Stepless be obtained using a semiconductor switch in parallel with fixed variation of resistance can b Tesistance; variation of duty ratio of the switch gives a stepless variation in effective value of the ons liquid rheostates, known as slip regulators, are employed resistance. In high power appli to get stepless variation of resistance. Tnductors, usually in two steps (full and zero), are employed for limiting the starting current ® 8 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives of ac motors. Old drives may also employ saturable reactors for the comtrch of smddractinn, mene In saturable reactors, Feactance is controlled steplessly by contredlong de current of tow commons winding. (c) Switching Circuits Switching operations are required to achieve any one of the follermweng: (1 chang: connections to change its quadrant of operation, (i) for changong mexex curves param discrete steps for automatic starting and braking control, (sii) for operating mene according to a predetermined sequence, (1¥) to provide interlocking to pre™ (¥) to disconnect motor when abnormal operating conditions occur. Switching operations in motor's power circuit are carried out by high power relays known as contactors. Recently attempts have been made to wie thyrstce ewmctecs switches have disadvantages that they cannot provide perfect isolation between the w motor circuit. Consequently, contactors continue to be widely used. Sw on load's particular position is implemented using lirnst switches In the past sequencing and interlocking operations used to be implementa ussng bow electromagnetic relays. Solid state relays have replaced them almesst in all implementation of complicated sequencing and interlocking operations. controllers (PLCs) are employed. om charging 133 Sources {In India 1-phase and 3-phase 50 Hz ac supplies are readily available in most locations. Very low ~\ power drives are generally fed from I-phase source. Rest of the drives are powered source; except in the case of traction drives where even 2t very high power levels is used because of economy. Most drives are powered from ac source either direct 3 a converter link. When fed directly from 50 Hz ac supply, maximum speeds of midecoos anc synchronous motors are limited to 3000 rpm. For higher speeds. conversion to higher fsquencs supply becomes mandatory. Low and medium power motors (tens of kilowatts) are generals § from 400 V supply; for high ratings, motors may be rated at 3.3 kV. 6.6 KV. 11 KV and tester In case of aircraft and space applications, 400 Hz ac supply 1s generally used to achocve > power to weight ratio for motors. In main line traction a high voltage supply is preferred because of economy. In India 2S 50 Hz supply is employed. In underground traction major expenditure is cost of the manne! whic should be minimised by keeping its cross-section just enough for the train. Consequenty clearance between live conductor and the earth has also to be minimum. In view of this. one traction systems employ a low voltage (500 to 750 V) de supply. In Western India | Bombey Igatpuri) 1500 V de is used for main line and the suburban traction therefore, future installations will not use it. Some drives are powered from a battery, e.g. fork lift trucks and milk vans. size, battery voltage may have typical valacs of 6 V, 12 V, 24.V. 48 V and 110 ears example of drives fed from a low voltage de supply is solar powered drives used in soace = water pumping applications. These drives, though presently very expensive have a greet > for rural water pumping and low power transport applications es Although choice of a motor does depend on the type of supply but there are is unecomocacal, and 22 ee = Electrical Drives—An introduction 9 factors which are even more ii 2 only two cases are discussed here When Semiconductor converters are used, the control unit will consists of which employ linear and digital integrated circuits and transistors, and a microprocessor when sophisticated control is required. When control of switching circuits is required for any of the Purpose described in Sec. 1.3.2(c), function of control unit will be to provide sequencing and interlocking. As already stated, solid state relays are used and when control is complex programmable logic controllers (PLCs) can be used. ly “CHOICE OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES firing circuits, ‘Choice of an electrical drive depends on a number of factors. Some of the important factors are: (Steady state operation requirements: Nature of speed torque characteristics, speed regulation, speed range, efficiency, duty cycle, quadrants of operation, speed fluctuations if any, ratings. i) Transient operation requirements: Values of acceleration and deceleration, starting, braking and reversing performance. Litt) Requirements related to the source: Type of source, and its capacity, magnitude of voltage, voltage fluctuations, power factor, harmonics and their effect on other loads, ability to accept regenerated power. (iy) Capital and running cost, maintenance needs, life. (v) Space and weight restrictions if any. (yi) Environment and location. (Vii) Reliability. 1.5 STATUS OF de AND ac DRIVES Inthe past induction and synchronous motor drives were mainly used in fixed speed applications. Variable speed applications were dominated by de motor drives. Emergence of thyristors in 1957 ead to the development of variable speed induction motor drives in late sixties which were efficient and could match the performance of de drives. Consequently, because of the advantages of squirrel-cage induction motors over de motors (Sec. 1.3.1), it was predicted that induction motor drives will replace de drives in variable speed applications. However, following hurdles forbided for the prediction to come true: (i) Although squirrel-cage induction motor was cheaper than de motor, the converter and nntrol circuit of an induction motor drive was very expensive compared to those for a de drive. Therefore, total cost of an induction motor drive was significantly higher than that of a de drive. (ii) While the technology of de drives was well established, that of ac was new. (iii) ac drives were not as reliable as de. | 10 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives (iv) Developments in linear and digital ICs, and VLSIs were helpful in improving the performance and reliability of ac drives. But then these developments also led to similar improvements in de drives. Improvement in thyristor capabilities, availability of power transistors in early seventies and that of GTOs and IGBTs in late seventies and late eighties respectively; reduction in cost of thyristors, power transistors and GTOs; developments of VLSIs and microprocessors; and improvement in control techniques of converters have resulted into reduction in cost, simple controllers, and improvement in performance and reliability for ac drives. Although even now majority of variable speed applications employ de drives, the ac drives are preferred over de Grives in a number of applications with the result, ac drive applications are growing. Induction motor drives find applications in low to high power applications and synchronous motor drives are employed in very high powé? {megawatts and medium power drives. The permanent magnet- Synchronous motor and brushless de motor drives are being considered for replacing de servo ‘motors for fractional hp range. As the trend exists, applications of ac drives will continue to ‘grow. However, de drives will also continue to be used for quite some time. PROBLEMS 1.1 What are the advantages of electrical drives? 1.2 State essential parts of electrical drives. What are the functions of a power modulator? 13 Write a brief note on the motors employed in variable speed drives. 1.4 State and explain the functions of various converters. 1.5 Write a brief note on the sources employed in electrical drives. 1.6 What are the main factors which decide the choice of electrical drive for a given application? 1.7 What is the current status of de and ac drives? 2 Dynamics of Electrical Drives This chapter presents the dynamic relations applicable to all types of electrical drives. 2.1. FUNDAMENTAL TORQUE EQUATIONS A motor generally drives a load (machine) through some transmission system. While motor always rotates, the load may rotate or may undé#g0 a translational motion. Load speed may be «different from that of” motor, and if the load has many parts, their speeds may be different and while some may rotate, others may go through a translational motion. It is, however, convenient to represent the motor load system by an equivalent rotational system. shown in Fig. 2-1 Motor Loi gd) Fig. 241 Equivalent motor-load system Various notations used are: : J = Polar moment of inertia of motor-load system referred to the motor shaft, kg-m”, nstantaneous angular velocity of moter shaft, rad/see. Instantaneous value of developed moter torque, N-m. Instantaneous value of load (resisting) torque, referred to motor shaft, N-m. Load torque includes friction and windage torque of motor tm of Fig. 2.1 can be described by the following fundamental torque equation Motor-load syste! 4 = dm 49, -7, qe (lems dt + Ona (2.1) vv Equation (2.1) is applicable to variable inertia drives such as mine_ winders, reel drives, indurtral robots. For drives with constant inertia, (di/i) = 0. Therefore - doe ¥ T=T4) Fe (2.2) Equation (2.2) shows that torque developed by motor is counter balanced by a load torque T, and a dynamic torque J(d@,/d). Torque component Kd@y/dt) is called the dynamic torque. because it is present only during the transient operations. —— 12. Fundamentals of Electrical Drives 7 Drive accelérates or decelerates depending on whether T is greater or less than-T, During \\ acceleration, motor should supply not only the Toad torque but an additional torque component -404,/di) Werder t0 overcome the drive inertia, In drives with large inertia, such as electric ‘raifiemotor torque must exceed the load torque by a large amount in order to get adequate J Scveleration. In drives requiring fast transient response, motor torque should be psinnined st the highest valiie and motor-load system should be designed with a lowest possible inertia Energy associated with dynamic torque J(ddp/df) is stored in the form of kinetic energy given by (Je},/2). During deceleration, dynamic torque J(d,/dt) has a negative sign. Therefore, it assists the motor developed torque T and maintains drive motion by extracting energy from ~ Stored Kinetic enesgy.—— —— 2.2 SPEEB TORQUE CONVENTIONS AND MULTIQUADRANT OPERATION For consideration of multiquadrant operation of drives, itis useful to establish suitable conventions about the signs of torque and speed. Motor speed is considered positive when rotating in the forward direction. For drives which Operate only in one direction, forward speed will be their ‘normal speed. In loads involving up-and-down motions, the speed of motor which causes upward motiot ig Considered forward motion. For reversible we forward speed is chosen arbitrarily. ‘Then the rotation in opposite direction gives reverse speed which is assigned the negative sign. Positive motor torque is defined a8 the torque which produces acceleration or the positive raie of change of speed in forward direction. According to Eq. (2.2), positive load torque is opposite in positive motor torque. Motor torque is considered negative if it produces deceleration. [A motor operates in two modes—motoring and braking. In motoring, it converts electrical | energy to mechanical e ..which supports its motion. In braking, it works as a generator converting mechanical energy to electrical energy, and thus, opposes the motion. Motor can ) provide motoring and braking operations for both forward and reverse directions. Figure 2.2 shows the torque and speed coordinates for both forward (positive) and reverse (negative) motions. Power developed by a motor is given by 4 i y the product of speed and torque. In , (2.4) From Eqs. (2.3) and (2.4) Jetotarh Y (2.5) -_ Power at the loads and motor must be the same. If {ransmission efficiency of the gears be 7). then \ Demamucs of Electrica! Brave: 18 where Ty is the toca] eqervalent neque fered m mew shee From Eqs. (23) and (2.69 If in addition to load cerectly coupled to the matey with inertia Jp there are m other loads with Jy and gear weth rates of a: e, then J=Jy+aih.+ a2. +a5Je 2s) If m loads with torques Ti. Tz--- - Tig a7¢ coupled through gears with teeth ratios a), 23. G_ and transmission efficiencies 7). Ts. - -- - Tx im addition to one directly coupled. then +...4 92 9) A 2@ T=Te+ If loads are driven through a belt drive instead of gears. then. neglecting slippage. the equivalent inertia and torque can be obtained from Eqs. (2.8) and (2.9) by considering @,.a>.... dp each * to be the ratios of diameters of wheels driven by motor to the diameters of wheels mounted on Lithe load shaft. £32 Leads with Translational Motion Let us consider a motor driving two loads, one coupled directly to its shaft and other through Dynamics of Hlectrival Dries V5 4 (| mit Om Gear (a) Loads with rotational mation —— 4 —_+4 _ — af Lf Raa lea = Moor (ea motion ranwnision | od (b) Loads with translational and rotational motion Fig. 24 Motor load system with loads with rotational and linear motions Tam Tig = Tonto 26) ey where T. is the total equivalent torque referred to motor shaft. From Eqs. (2.3) and (2.6) aT en te (27) et If in addition to load directly coupled to the motor with inertia Jp there are m other loads with moment of inettias Jy, Jz, + Jm and gear teeth ratios of a, dz... dy then Ve dot aph + ail, +... 40h Sy (28) If m loads with torques Ty. Tis --- » Tea afe coupled through gears with teeth ratios a), a3, a. and transmission efficiencies 7). Nl. -- - + Tw in addition to one directly coupled, then eae Ti 1; i Ti=To+ My Bay, Palin 29) mm" ™ Tn | If loads are driven through’a belt drive instead of gears, then, neglecting slippage, the equivalent inertia and torque can be obtained from Eqs. (2.8) and (2.9) by considering ay, a... dq each * wo be the ratios of diameters of wheels driven by motor to the diameters of wheels mounted on Lthe load shaft. £32 Leads with Translational Motion Let us consider a motor driving two loads, one coupled directly to its shaft and other through 16 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives 16 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives ¢ motion (Fig. 2.4(b)). Let moment gy load torque directly coupled to my, nal motion be My (kB). 0; (rise, transmission system converting rotational motion to ee inertia of the motor and load directly coupled to it be a be Tio. and the mass. velocity and force of load with translatior and F, (Newtons), respectively. a : Ifthe transmission Tones are neglected, then kinetic energy due to equivalent inertia J mus, be the same as kinetic energy of various moving parts. Thus Joz = 4502+ 3 Mur a 2 2 or saty+m( 24) 2.19) Similarly, power at the motor and load should be the same, thus if efficiency of transmission be ™ 7 Fur = Tha Oat Tim = Tio Om + Fy K(» or T=to+ (2) (1 If, in addition to one load directly coupled to the motor shaft, there are m other loads with translational motion with velocities Uj, Ua, .. Up and masses Mj, Mz, .. . Mry Fespectively, then 2 2 2 5 . a oe Ym Ll", | seneu(2) om Zh) +... ate( 22) yore P22) A Fi(v) Fe ( Fa (Ym) ‘ =Tot— (mt) +2 (22) 4.4 Ao (Pm) quer ie ga, ~ 47 tor (Ht ia oe) * te (ae) f ety Cc Exampe 2.1 A motor drives two loads. One has rotational motion. It is coupled to the motor through a reduction gear with a = 0.1 and efficiency of 90%. The load has a moment of inertia of 10 kg- 1m? and a torque of 10 N-m, Other load has translational motion and consists of 1000 kg weight to be lifted up at an uniform speed of 1.5 m/s. Coupling between this load and the motor has an efficiency of 85%. Motor has an inertia of 0.2 kg-m? and runs at a constant speed of 1420 rpm. Determine equivalent inertia referred to the motor shaft and power developed by the motor. Solution From Eqs. (2.8) and (2.12), the total moment of inertia referred to the motor shaft uy : Fate sain omi( Ze) () Here Jo = 0.2 kg-m?, ay = 0.1, J, = 10 kg-m’, v = 1.5 m/s and yy, = (1420 x 7/30 = 148.7 rad/sec Dynamics of Electrical Drives 17 Substituting in Eq. (1) gives : Ls J=0.2+ 0.1)? x 10+ 1000( sa57) From Eqs. (2.9) and (2.13) _ ath ™ Here my = 0.9, a) = 0.1, Ty = 10 N-m, {= 0.85, F; = 1000 x 9.81 N, v, = 1.5 mis and Wm = 148.7 rad/sec. ‘Substituting in Eq. (2) gives 7, = GA X10 , 1000 x 9.81 (_1.5 ‘ 09 0.85 148.7 QQ) 117.53 N-m 2.3.3 Measurement of Moment of Inertia Moment of inertia can be calculated if dimensions and weights of various parts of the load and motor are known. It can also be measured experimentally by retardation test. In retardation test, the drive is run at a speed slightly higher than rated speed and then the “© supply to it is cut off. Drive continues to run due to kinetic energy stored in it and decelerates “due to rotational mechanical losses. Variation of speed with time is recorded. At any speed @m, power P consumed in supplying rotational losses is given by {P= Rate of change of kinetic energy- . 2 _d i 2)_ dm L -4 (p08 = Joy SE (2.14) From retardation test d@p/dt at rated speed is obtained. Now drive is reconnected to the supply and run at rated speed and rotational mechanical power input to the drive is measured. This is approximately equal to P. Now J can be calculated from Eq. (2.14). Main problem in this method is that rotational mechanical losses cannot be measured accurately because core losses and rotational mechanical losses cannot be separated. In view of this, retardation test on a de separately excited motor or a synchronous motor is carried out with field on. Now core loss is included in the rotational loss, which is now obtained as a difference of armature power input and armature copper loss. In case of a wound rotor induction motor, retardation test can be carried out by keeping the stator supply and opening the rotor winding connection Jcan be determined more accurately by obtaining speed time curve from the retardation test as above and also rotational losses vs speed plot as shown in Fig, 2.5. Using these two plots, rotational losses vs time plot can be obtained, e.g. for time f), @m is found from the retardation plot. Then for this speed rotational loss P; is obtained from the plot of rotational loss vs speed and plotted against 1. Area A enclosed between the rotational loss vs 1 plot and the time axis (shaded area), is the kinetic energy dissipated during retardation test. If initial speed of the drive during retardation test was po then $J0% A (2.15) ves _ ctvical Dri 18 Fundamentals of Electrical Paty P vst curve 4 1 Op Fig. 25 Graphical method of determination of equivalent moment of inertia 24 COMPONENTS OF LOAD TORQUES oad torque J can be further divided into following components: (i) Friction torque Tg: Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in various gars of the load. 7p is equivalent value of various friction torques referred to the motor shai (it) Windage torque, Ty: When a motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the motion This is known as windage torque. Litt) Torque required to do the useful mechanical work, T,: Nature of this torque depends on J particular application. It may be constant and independent of speed: it may be some function * speed; it may depend on the position or path followed by load; it may be time invariant or time. “waning may vary cyclically and its nature may also change with the load’s mode of operation Nariation of friction torque with speed is shown in Fig. 2.6(a) Its value at standstil is much higher than its value slightly above zero speed, Friction at zero speed is called stiction or static torque can be resolved into three components (see Fig. 2. Ce h ah cement, . 2.6(b)). tT, which varies linearly with speed is called viscouf'fpction and is peas oe my. Caron Te = aR in is given by: [i =Bo,) (2.16) ie On coefficient, nother component T., which ig j is eo nyoent I ih independent Of speed, is known as Coulomb friction. Third standstill itis not taken into aceoune ree Pama ft standstill. Since 7, is present only & Windage torque 7, which is Proportion 7. = Cop Qi) where B is the viscous fricti UE 0 i ) Vig, 2h Friction tongue wad its mgyements From the above discussion, fur finite speeds, T= T+ Boy +7 + Cw, (246), —_— - In many applications (T, + Cok) is very omall compared 1 Bip, and neglizible compared tT), in order to simplify the analysis, term (7, + Cov), ) iv approximately accounted by updating the value of viscous friction cucfficient. B. With this approximation, from Eq, (22) dy 5 HITE T+ Bw 249 Mf there is 2 torsional elasticity in shaft coupling the load to the motor, an additional component Of \oad torque, knérwn as coupling worque, wil) be present. Coupling torque (T,) is gsven by a Tako. (20) where O, is the torsion angle of coupling (radians) and K, the sonational stiffness of the shaft (N- sodrad). 7 In rent applications, shaft can be assured to be perfectly stiff and coupling torque T, can be neplected. is presence in appreciable magnitude has adverse effects on motor. There is potential energy anociaied with coupling torque and kinetic energy with the dynamic torque. Exchange of energy between these two energy storages tends to produce oscillations which are damped by viseenss friction torque Bi,, When B is ssnall, oscillations occur producing noise. Further, shaft may af break when the drive is started. NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUES ‘ns stated in Sec. 2ACii), the nature of load torque depends on particular application. A low speed twigs 1s an example of a load where the torque is constant and independent of the speed (Fig 2.5). At low speeds, windage torque 1 nezligible. Therefore, net torque is mainly Jue to gravity which is constant and independent of speed. There are drives where coulomb friction 20. Fundamer dominates over other tor baper mill drive. Ly 7 Fans. com tracti a aeroplane the wndage dominates. consequent INR y Squared Fig, 2.7(a)). Windage 1s the appacinen offe bok by any other Toad torque can be experted when the MONS 1S HPSS TT. ag show centrifugal pumps and ship-propelloes: SINE te save appre Ta high speed hos, viscous fncno and WINES AS SN eg - eaten + to gravity, thus giving the speed -torgue Cue ie i Fig. 2.7(c)- Because of i beavy aerrvcvon toed when moving ona leveled ground 18 SPORT AL section. The stction eee the stiction is large. Near zero speed. net torque IS main Faction dominate. Because however disappears at a finite speed and then windage and viscous Cy Gf Targe stction and need for accelerating 2 heavy MASS the aeamep ea ‘atrain is much larger than what is required to run 1 at full speed. Teen Fig. 270). The (a fanetion of speed, [tis approximately hyperbolic in nature & Sho 5 developed power is nearly constant at all speeds. on ont ong | ot LL Lf eeenearer ae ie 1 tu fluid. 8. by SET 0 T. 2 { Trasion load (@) Constant power loads roaptothe | ANG oe dere pion’ Fie 27 Steaty sate oad gems SSN Foyt ‘eure 2.7(c) shows the traction load torque to be function of only speed. because we have Lie a een ‘ground. In actual practice the train has to negotiate upward and downward slopes. Consequently, a torque due to gravity. which varies with position is also present. Furthermore. when a train takes a turn the frictional force on wheels changes substantially. Thus. traction is ‘an gyample where the load torque also depends on position or path followed. farious load torques can be broadly classified into two categories—active and passive. Load torques which have the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium condition are called ac’ load torques. Such load torques usially retain their sign when the direction of the drive rot is changed. Torque(s) due to gravitational force. tension, compression and torsion, undergone by an elastic body, come under this category. Load torques which always Oppose the motion and change their sign on the reversal of motion are called passive load torques. Such torques aie due to friction, windage, cutting etc. n CALCULATION OF TIME AND ENERGY-LOSS IN TRANSIENT OPERATIONS Staring, braking, speed change and speed reversal are transient operations. Time taken and Dynamics of Electrical Drives 24 vs . aN fae 95.49 — 0.143 0 = 666.7 rpm and N; = 0.95 x ~ 666.7 = ~ 633.4 rpm* Integrating Eq. (1) yields ¢ = 25.58 S. where N, wv STEADY STATE STABILITY Equilibrium speed of a motor-load system is obtained when motor torque equals the load torque. Drive will operate in steady-state at this speed, provided it is the speed of stable equilibrium. ) Concept of steady-state stability has been developed to readily evaluate the stability of an equilibrium point from the steady-state speed-torque curves of the motor and load, thus avoiding solution of differential equations valid for transient operation of the drive In most drives, the electrical time constant of the motor is negligible compared to its mechanical ‘onstant_Therefore, during transient operation, motor can be assumed to be in electrical ibrium implying that steady-state speed-torque curves are also applicable to the transient operation. As an example let us examine the steady-state stability of equilibrium point A in Fig. 2.9(a). The equilibrium point will be termed as stable when the operation will be restored to it after a small departure from it due to a disturbance in the motor or load. Let the disturbance causes a reduction of A@, in speed. At new speed, motor torque is greater than the load torque, consequently, motor will accelerate and operation will be restored to A. Similarly, an increase of A@p in speed caused by a disturbance will make load torque greater than the motor torque, resulting into deceleration and restoration of operation to point AgHence the drive is steady-state stable at ~ point A. Let us now examine equilibrium point B which is obtained when the same motor drives another load. A decrease in speed causes the load torque to become greater than the motor torque, drive decelerates and operating point moves away from B. Similarly, when working at B an increase in speed will make motor torque greater than the load torque, which will move the operating point away from B. Thus, B is an unstable point of equilibrium. Readers may similarly examine the stability of points C and D given in Figs. 2.9(c) and (d). Ti $om Tt On z mt Ont 7 7 aft Sj ie Aa, bL=5 n 7 B Q o - Torque Torque " 0 Torque 0 Torque Fig. 2.9 Points A and C are stable and B and D are unstable (__ Above discussion suggests that an equilibrium point will be stable when an increase in speed 3 uses load-torque to exceed the mofor torque, ie. when at equilibriuri point following condition 8 Satisfied: “Taking Nz 95 Ne rather than 0.95 (N, — 4) for speed reversal gives more accurate estimation off J 24 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives | a, at \ ~ | dn” dm \ 1 ed » 22% L a ive approach. Let a small perturan, lity (2.24) can be derived by an alternat : a rae ‘ “AT and AT; perturbations in T and T; respectively. Then from Eq. (3 eed (T+ a7) = (T+ AN) +I 8 dy, , AAW or T+ AT = 1) + AT, +I GP +d fe Subtracting (2.2) from (2.25) and rearranging terms gives On a ae = AT- AT, (225 For small perturbations, the speed torque curves of the motor and load can be assumed to be straight lines. Thus ar ar=(72) 40, (2.27) a; AT; = (#) 40g (2.28) where (dTidaja) and (AT /déq) are respectively slopes of the steady-state speed-torque curves of ‘motor and load at operating point under consideration. Substituting Eqs. (2.27) and (2.28) into (2.26) and rearranging the terms yields GO, ,( aT aT _ . az +(@ To, }4%m =0 22) This is a first order linear differential equation. If initial deviation in speed at t = 0 be (Ao,,)0 then the solution of Eq. (2.29) will be Wn, = (Ap )o exp {-4 (fe - 4 (2.30) 7 cpering Point willbe stable when Ao, approaches zero ast approaches infinity. For tis to pen the exponent in Eq, (2.30) must be negative, This Yields the inequality of Eq. (2.24) | 28 LOAD EQUALISATION In some drive appl example, in Dresing machines go - ortuates Widely within short intervals of time. For operation, otherwise the torque isn, ‘Be torque of short duration is required during pressing mills and reciprocating pumps. In nan 2er0. Other examples are electric hammer, steel rolling £10 be ais: if motoris required to supply peak torque demanded ae by load, first motor rating has to be high, Secondly, motor will draw a pulsed current from the . When amplitude of pul supply. When amplitude of pulsed current forms an @ppreciable proportion of supply line capaci) 28 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives 2 aa where NW is the speed in rpm Tee eee ms Leaded. the net load torque T; = 100, N-m and when itis unloaded, net load torque $0. Xm. Obtain the equilibrium speeds for operation in all the four quadrants. 13/sxer tes tod, 9 be rata ati ant aslo] oton Monet Ot reece a 12 kgm Motor rons 22 speed of 1000 rpm. Following are the details about the four oe Lead “Type of motion Speed Inertia/Mass Torque/Force 1 Rotational (200 rpm Tkg-m? 10 N-m 1 Roxational 200 rpm Skg-m? 6N-m a Translational 10 M/S 10 kg 20N v Translational 10 Mis 20kg 30N Catealane toe eopevalest inertia of the system referred to the motor shaft and power rating of the motor, rma cing sate /s, wecgea fh SD) kgs being lifted up at a uniform speed of 1.5 M/S by a winch driven by a motor running F ga sgeet A \OO rye. The moments of inertia pf the motor and winch are 0.5 and 0.3 kg-m* respectively. Calcslaae the mesn tongue and the equivalent moment of inertia referred to the motor shaft. In the - fence of wig. moe devcags x arga of 10 No when oming s 1000 se Rintoaerry shown a Fig FS, motor dive the winch dram trough reduction ea ih 2 $F mesene Son soem wich als 15 Nm ad t motor shal 10 Nn: Mowe sor Calestate the equivalent moment of inert ve cer eeee ae ia of the drive referred to motor shaft and motor & _ Dynamics of Electrical Drives 29 ores | 02m O=t i Winch drum tor oe Joy = 1 kgem? Jo easte m? Gear box - " Ja = 0.15 kg-m? ‘at the motor eon speed Fig. P2.5 (RAIA motor i equied to drive he take-up rol on a pla sip line. The mantel on which he sp \wound is 15 em in diameter and the strip builds upto all 25 em in diameter Strp tension is nantained pe stant af 1000 N. The strip moves at a uniform speed of 25 M/S. The motor is coupled to a mandrel ya reduétion gear with a = 0.5. The gears have an approximate efficiency of 87% at all speeds. Determine the speed and power rating of the motor required for this application. 27/4 horizontal conveyer belt moving at a uniform speed of 1.2 M/S transports material atthe rate of 100 tonnes/hr. Belt is 200 M long and driven by a motor at 1200 rpm. (a) Determine the load inertia referred to the motor shaft. (b) Calculate the torque that motor should develop to accelerate the belt from standstill to full speed in 26 poe Set, Moment of inertia of the motor is 1 kgm. : -2% How do you define passive and active load torques? What are the differences between the two? _29° Can a motor-load system with a passive load torque have an equilibrium speed in quadrant II? What will be your answer if the load is active? 240 A motor-load system has following details: Quadrants I and Il, T= 400-0.4N, N-m; where Nis the speed in rpm. Motor is coupled to an active load torque T; = + 200, N-m. Calculate the motor speeds for motoring and braking operations in the forward direction. When operating in quadrants III and 1V, T = — 400 - 0.4N, N-m. Calculate the equilibrum speed in quadrant II. 244 Caleulate the starting time of a drive with following parameters: = 15 +0.5 Wy and T)= 5 +06 Wy '= 15 + 0.05N, N-m and T; = 5 + 0.06N, N-m, where J = 10 kg-m’, BE 'A drive has following parameters: J = 10 kg-m?, Nis the speed in rpm. Initially the drive is working in steady-state. Now the drive is braked by electrical braking. Torque of the ‘motor in braking is given by T = ~ 10 — 0.04N, N-m. Calculate time taken by the drive to stop. ‘A drive has following parameters: J = 1 kg-m*, T = 15 - 0.01N, N-m and Passive load torque 7; = 0.005W, N-m; where IV is the speed in rpm. Initially the drive is operating in steady-state. Now it is to be reversed. For this motor characteristic is ‘altered such that T = ~ 15 - 0.01N, N-m for positive as well as negative values of N. Calculate the reversal time. 2.14. An electric motor has following speed-torque relations: Speed, rpm 1500 1448 1338 13071280 12221090 Torque, N-m 0 125 33.0 36 378 36 276 Speed, rpm 1000 725 490 0 Torque, N-m 24 15 11.6 91 Calculate the starting time. J = 0.1 N-m. 2.15 Explain what do you understand by the steady-state stability? What is the main assumption? 2.16 Explain that the steady-state stability of a drive depends on relative characteristics of the motor and load ‘and not just on motor (or load) characteristic. Drives Bieri! Dries ———— 30 Fundamental of wo CHAPELS iy oi or and 10 310 Pure 2 17 sows plas of speed ¥5 0 / points A,B. Cand D tote Tet ne P27 Fig. P218. Ds 1 operations ae shown in 2 bs 218 Speedtorqe curves of motos under bs mom of characteristics marked AB, BC. DE aa which will give stable operation with Speed Torque Speed q D —— tee oat : o" ; i ‘Torque eee Fig. P218 ASA drive has following equations for motor and load torques: +2q,) and T; = 30m Obtain the equilibrium points and determine their steady-state stability. 2397Obiain the equilirium points and determin their steady-state stability when motor and loud tus Saxe: T= T: = 20, and T)=-3J0q, 221 What are the reasons for using load equalisation in an electrical drive? 222 6 pole, SO Ht, phase wound rotor indvetion motor has a flywheel coupled to its shaft. The toi ‘moment of inertia of motor-load-flywheel is 1000 kg-m?. Load torque 1s 1000 N-m of 10 sec duration followed by ano load petiod whichis long enough f 2p of 38 aoe of 50 Ren a ene the veo reach its no loud speed. Mot () Maximum torgue developed by the mot i) Speed atthe end of deceleration period supply a load 10 load period long Lorgue of 600 N-m for 10 sec followed by ¢% is SoMa Wht seid one ‘lywhee to regain its full speed. It is desired to Timit the motor torque 600 rpm andithas asin oe oF eta Of the yun no load speed of the moto" be a straight line in the ptt of 400 Nem. Assume the motor peed. Jparacteristi 2.24 A3phas,100KW, 6pue, Seon e ret: Motor hasan neta of he peaartee 5s pole, 960 rpm wound rotor ind ale h that a torque of 3000 N-m of 10 se ction motor ds wi varies sud meri thn ahonedby aug pa a 2.25 2.26 Dynamics of Electrical Drives 3} for the motor to attain steady-state speed. Calculate moment of inertia of the flywheel, should not exceed twice the rated value. Moment of inertia of the motor is 10 kg-m? speed-torque curve in the region of interest. if motor torque Motor has a linear Solve Problem 2.24, when the motor has speed torque characteristic such that from no load to twice the rated torque the speed-torque curve is a straight line parallel to torque a» ‘and at twice the rated torque the characteristic is parallel to the speed axis. Minimum motor speed is to be restricted to OO" of the synchronous speed. Load diagram of a shearing machine shows a periodic fluctuation of torque with 10,000 N-m required for 10 sec and 1000 N-m for 20 sec. The combined inertia of motor and flywheel referred to the motor shaft is 1000 kg-m?. Calculate maximum and minimum values of torque and speed. The motor speed torque characteristic is a straight line given by the equation 7 = 20,000 - 20N, N-m, where N is the speed in rpm. * de Motor Drives 4 dnves are widely used in applications recuring adjustable speed, good speed re ulation and frequent stating. braking and reversing, Some imporiant applications are rolling mills, paper “attemine winders, hoISt-TRICHn tools, traction, printing presses, textile mills, excavators end cranes. Fractional horsepower de motors are widely used as seryo ‘motors for positioning and ce valdvough, since lat sixtees, it is being predicted that ac drives will replace dc drives, however, even today the variable speed applications are dominated by de drives because of Jaws cost reliability and simple control. ~~ =—_——_— 5,1 de MOTORS AND THEIR PERFORMANCE The commonly used de motors are shown in Fig, 5.1. In a separately excited motor, the field and ~ armature voltages can be controlled independent of each other. In a shunt motor, field and ‘armature are connected to a common source. In case of a series motor, field current is same as ‘armature current, and therefore, field flux is a function of armature current. In a cumulatively AL Fi F (ar en nt ' *, + i v ia | an Ay Fy alr, (a) Separately excited (b) Shunt (o) Series (@) Cumulatively compound Fig. $1 Commonly used de motors ¢=Rgwr de Motor Drives 61 C compound motor, the magneto-motive force of the series field is a function of armature current and is in the same direction as mmf of the shunt field. The steady state equivalent circuit of armature of ade machine is shown in Fig. 5,2. Resistance R, is the resistance of the armature circuit. For separately excited and shunt motors, it is equal to the resistance of armature winding and for series and compound motors it is the sum of armature and field winding resistances. Basic equations applicable to all de motors are Fig.5.2 Steady state equivalent circuit of the armature E=K@0p, (3.1) V=E+Rily (5.2) T=KOl, (5.3) where @ is the flux per pole, Webers; /, the armature current, resistance of the armature circuit, ohms; @,, the speed of “by the motor, N-m; and K, the motdr constant. From Eq. (5.1) to (5.3) A; V the armature voltage V; R, the ‘armature, rad/sec; T the torque developed, a 64) a LO "Eo" Rap? 6.3) 5.1.1 Shunt and Separately Excited Motors In case of shunt and separate! assumed to be constant. Let ly excited motors, with a constant field current, the flux can be K.® = K (constant) (5.6) Then from Eqs. (5.1), (5.3) and (5.4) to (5.6) T=Kl, (3.7) E= Koy (5.8) 69 K (5.10) The speed-torque and torque-current char ‘acteristics of a separately excited motor for rated — {erminal voltage and full field are shown in " Fig. 5.3. The speed-torque curve ig a straight line. , he no load speed yo is determined by the values of armature voltage and field excitation. decreases as torque i A ~ aS creases and Speed regulation de; uit resistance ¥ (510), The sual deaeases.andkpeed regulation depends on the armature P in speed from no load to full load, in case of a medium size motor, - 62 Fumdamennals of Electrical Drives fa) Speed-torque curves _{b) Torque-current curves Fig. 53 Performance curves of de motors as of the onder of 5%. Separately excited motors are employed in applications requiring good peed regulation and adjustable speed.) 5.12 Series Motor In series motors, the flux is a function of armature current. In unsaturated region of magnetization characteristic. @ can be assumed to be proportional to /,- Thus, ©= Ki, (5.11) Substituting in Eqs. (5.3). (5.4) and (5.5) gives T=K.K;l; (3.12) (5.13) (5.14) where armature circuit resistance R, is now the sum of armature and field winding resistances. ‘The speed-torque and torque-current characteristics of a series motor at rated terminal voltage snd full field are shown in Fig. 5.3. Series motors are suitable for applications requiring high starting torque and heavy torque overloads. Since torque is proportional to the armature current - squated, for the same increase in torque. increase in motor current is less compared to that in 2 separately excited motor where torque is proportional to armature current. Thus, during heavy torque overloads and starting, power overload on the source and thermal overloading of the motor are kept limited to reasonable values. According to Eq. (5.14), as speed varies inversely as the square root of torque. machine runs at a large speed at light load. Generally, mechanical | strength of a de motor permit it to operate upto about twice rated speed. Hence. the series motor | should not be used im those drives where there is a possibility of the load torque being dropped to the extent that the Speegumamugmpeedsetee rated << de Menor Drives 6 pros SA Al ‘4 200 V.(10.5 At 2000 rpm shunt motor has the armature and field resistances of 0.5 and 406) @ respectively. It drives a load whose torque is constant at rated motor torque. Calewlate motor speed if the source voltage drops to 175 V. Solution if flux at 200 V, is @, then flux at 175 V \ tore senso) Since the load torque is constant 1i2b2 = tard =f 10.9 _ or ha = Gy la = Gg = HAA 1 — LR, = 200 ~ 10.0 0.5 = 195 V y — IaaRy = 195 — 11.4 x 0.5 = 169.3 V Since or EXampLe 5.2 /4 220 V de series motor runs at 1000 rpm (clockwise) and takes an armature current of 100 4 when driving a load with a constant torque. Resistances of the armature and field windings are 0.05 Q each. Find the magnitude and direction of motor speed and armature current if the motor terminal voltage is reversed and the number of turns in field winding is reduced to 80%. Assume linear magnetic circuit. Solution When the number of turns is reduced to 80% then the value of flux for the same armature) current will also be reduced to 80%. ~ = Ty = Keita = Kel b Tz = KeGala2 = Ki 0.812, 7 fe a 3. Since T=T A SS KiB, = Ki 0.812 64 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives _ or 100 Os Armature current has a negative sign because the supply voltage has been reversed. E, = 220 - 100(0.05 + 0.05) = 210 V Ey = ~ [220 ~ 111.8(0.05 + 0,04)} = - 209.94 V ( 1000 _ Og = HI7.7 1pm This apart from equalising load on the supply, permits the use of a smaller size motor. Pressing machine is a typical example of this type of application, The characteristics of Fig. 5.3, which are obtained at rated terminal voltage and full field are Known as natural speed-torque characteristics, Rated (or full oad) speed is known as the base speed. 5.1.4 Universal motor s motor produces between zero and MS peak value, its fluctuations are smoo, ia and the motor runs at a uniform speed. A simple de series motor d oon esas OCS Not Operate Well on ac. Hysteresis and eddy current losses that ri and y cs efficiency and increase thermal | Th ti {ux produces Targe induced currents in then re shot cituted br bree ae Coils that are short circuited by brushes during ‘commutation, This ca ng at the commutator. Motor power factor is very uses excessive spark: Poor due to large indy lance of field and 42 STARTING Maximum current that a de motor can safely carry during starting is limited by the maximum current that can be commutated without sparking. For normally designed machines, twice the rated current can be allowed to flow and for specially designed machines it can be 3.5 times. At standstill, back emf is zero and the only resistance opposing flow of current is the armature circuit resistance, which is quite small for all types of dc motors. If a de motor is started with full > Supply voltage across its terminals, a very high current will flow, which may damage the motor > due to heavy sparking at commutator and heating of the winding. Therefore, it is necessary 10 limit the current to a safe value during starting. 68 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives When motor speed is controlled by armature voltage control (Secs. 5.6 to 5.20), the controller which controls the speed can also be used for limiting motor current during starting to a safe value. In absence of such a controller, a variable resistance controller is used for starting as shown in Fig. 5.5(a). As motor accelerates and back emf rises, one section of the resistor is cur ‘out at a time, either manually or automatically with the help of contactors, such that the current is kept within specified maximum and minimum values (Fig. 5.5(b)). 0} a IS) Armature NM NL, Fig. 5.5 Starting of a de shunt motor 5.3, BRAKING ‘The need for electric braking was explained in Sec. 3.1. In braking, the motor works as a _/generator developing a negative torque which opposes the motion. It is of three types: Regenerative braking; Dynamic or rheostatic braking; and Plugging or reverse voltage braking. 5.3.1 Regenerative Braking In regenerative braking, generated energy is supplied to the source. For this to happen (Fig. 5.2), following condition should be satisfied: Op E> Vand negative fy (5.15) i Field flux cannot be increased substantially Natal | Ones beyond rated because of saturation. Therefore, according to Eqs. (5.1) and (5.15), for a source of fixed voltage of rated value fegenerative §=§=§ ——P+-———____|______. braking is possible only for speeds higher than rated and with a variable voltage source it is Braking Motoring also possible below rated speeds. The speed-. = § ——7-——_--____. torque characteristics can be calculated from Eqs. (5.1) to (5.5) and are shown in Fig. 5.6 for Increasing V a separately excited motor. In series motor as , speed increases, armature current, and therefore, ili ae ‘flux decreases. Consequently, condition of Eq. (5.15) cannot be achieved. Thus regenerative Fig. 5.6 Regenerative braking characteristics of @ braking is not possible. separately excited motor oa “ de Motor Drives 6 Jn actual supply system when the machine regenerates its terminal voltage rises. C ‘onsequently the regenerated power flows into the loads connected to the supply and the source is relieved som supplying this much amount of power. The regenerative braking 1s therefore possible only when there are loads connected to the liné-and they are in need of power more are equal to the regenerated power. When the capacity of the loads is less than the regenerated power, al the regenerated power will not be absorbed by the loads. The remaining power will be supplied to Capacitors (including stray capacitances) in line and the line voltage will rise to dangerous values leading to insulation breakdown. Hence, regenerative braking should only be _ sed when there are enough Toads to absorb the regenerated power. Alternatively an arrangement wtmade to divert the excess power to a resistance bank where it is dissipated as heat. Such a braking is known as composite braking because it is a combination of regenerative braking and dynamic braking. When the source is a battery, the regenerated energy can be stored in the battery. 53 220 V. 200 A. 800 rpm de separately excited motor has an armature resistance of 0.06 2. The motor armature is fed from a variable voltage source with/an internal resistance of 0.04 Q. Calculate internal voltage of the variable voltage source whea’the motor is operating in regenerative braking at 80% of the rated motor torque and 600 rpm/ Solution Since torque is proportional to the armature current, motor armature current when regenerating Tq2 = 0.8 x 200 = 160A ee, Ey = 220 - 200 x 0.06 = 208 Y/ y= FE Ey = x 208 = 156, Internal voltage of the variable voltage source = 156- 160(0.06 + 0.04) = 53.2 Dynamic Braking In dynamic braking, motor armature is disconnected from the source and connected across 4 fesistance Rg. The genertated energy is dissipated in Ry and Ry. For motoring connec- tions of Figs. 5.1(a) and (c), the braking connections are shown in Fig. 5.7(a) and (b). Since series machine works as a self-excited generator, the field connection is reversed so that field assists the residual magnetism. Figures 5.8(a).and (b) show speed-torque curves and transition from motoring to braking. These characteristics are obtained from Eqs. (5-10) and (5.14) for V=0. When fast braking is desired, Rp consists of a few séctions. As the speed falls, sections _afe cut‘out to maintain a high average torque, as shown in Fig. 5.8(c) for a separately excited motor. During braking, separately excited motor can be converted as a seft-excited generator. This Permits braking even when supply fails. 10 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives (@) Separately excited motor (©) Series motor Fig. $7. Dynamic braking of de motors Motoring Ray > Ro > Ray >0 — With few sec. tions of Ry =H Stepless vari, tion of Rp Braking 0 (2) Separately excited motor (Series motor (6) Separately excited motor with Variable armature resistance Fig, 58. Dynamic braking speed-torque curves rie 5.4 Ahe series motor of Example 5.2 is operated under dynamic braking at twice the rated torque and 800 rpm. Calculate the value of braking current and resistor. Assume linear Magnetic circuit, Solution Since T= Kil Ty= Kyl Taa= la VTIT, = 1002 = 14144 E, = KeluiNys By = Kel Na yp 1dl4 , 800 HX EL= TG % Tog (220- 100 x 0.1) = 237.55 V Now 237.55 = 141.4 (Ry +0.1) or Ry = 1.580 Exams 5.5 A shunt motor has the armature resistance of 0.04 © and the field winding resistance of I 2. Motor is coupled to an overhauling load with a torque of 400 Nm. Following magnets" curve was measured at 600 rpm: __ de Motor Drives 71 ovement A 28 5 79 910 99 19 7 Ds 25 Back emf, V cage) 50 73.5 90 102.5 110 116 121 125 129 Motor is braked by self-excited dynamic braking with a braking resistance of IQ. At what speed motor will hold the load? Solution Motor equivalent circuit when working under self-excited dynamic braking is shown in Fig. ESS. Ie =| SR les os (E.1) 4 in : Rei vee koet E te ee O_ ~ 600x 210 ~ oz f E2) T= Kl, (3) Fig. E55 From magnetisation characteristics and Eqs. (E.1)-(E.3) following relationships are obtained: SSS ea I 25° 2.5 20 17.5 Ko 2.053 1.99 1.926 1.846/ T 564.6 492.4 423.7 355.4 From K,@ and T vs I; plots, for a braking torque of 400 N-m, I= 19.13 A and K,o = 1.898. Now for I= 19.13 A. 1, = Lllp= 11 x 19.13 = 210.43 E=V+ 1 Ry= WR + LR, = 19.13 x 10 + 210.43 x 0.04 = 199.72 V = Ey 60 _ 199.72 , 30 _ Speed in rpm = 35 x $2 = “Paog: x AP = 1005 rpm EXAMPLE 5.6 Calculate the value of Ry when motor of Example 5.5 is required to hold overhauling load at 1200 rpm. Solution For a given 1, E speed. Hence the magnetization characteristic at 1200 rpm will be: NG 5S y's AO 12s is 17500 Ds 5 EiVi 50 100; 147) 180, 0S 200, 932° aap 20258 Power deveoped Py= TX (p= 400 x 1200% 2m = 160007 watts Also 72. Fundamentals of Electrical Drives ver hace PRE Oem Ee Also V= Rly = 10h, &s From Ea (Ea), and E vs [relation at 1200 rpm (as given above). V vs I; relation is obtained as I, 25 25 20 v 250.2 241.96 7337 €s “The value V must simultaneously satisfy this relationship and Eq. (E-5). The intersection ct V vs J, curves based on Eq. (E.5) and relation (E.6) gives OV and [;=25A_ for which E = 258 V Gaia E-V _ 258-250 _ 999 4 Now ia Exawrur 5.7 “The magnetisation characteristic of a dc series motor when running at S00 rpm is given by Current, A gieetntia0 serai40 30 oO 70 80 emf, V 25310381 437 485 519350 Total resistance of the armature and field windings is 0.5 ohm. When connected for dynamic braking against an overhauling load of 500 N-m, motor speed is to be maintained at 600 rpm What resistance must be connected across the motor terminals? Solution From these relations and the data of the magnetization characteristics: i 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Kb 1 5.92 7207 8.347 9.264 9.913 10.508 T 82.1 177.63 291 417.3 555.8 693.9 840.4 These Ke@ and T vs I, relations are ploted in Fig. E.5.7. For ato 568 K.@ = 8.9. For a speed of 600 rpm que of $00 N-m, J, = 5 LA Fig E57 E=K,00,=89% DP x2n=5592V 559.2 Now 2G 79996 and Ry =9.996-05 =9. 533 Plugging For plugging, the supply voltage of a separately excited motor is reversed so that it assists the back emf in forcing armature current in reverse direction (Fig. 5.9). A resistance Rs is also connected in series with armature to limit the current. For plugging of a series motor armature fi (5.10) and (5.14) by replacing Vby - Vand are shown in Fig. 5.10. A particular case of plugging for motor rotation in reverse direction arises, when a motor connected for forward motoring. is driven by an active load in the reverse direction. Here again back emf and applied voltage act in the same direction. However. the direction of torque remains positive (Fig. 5.11). This type of situation arises in crane and hoist applications and the braking is then called counter-torque braking. a A (a) Separately excited (b) Senes Fig. 5.9 Plugging operation of dc motors AF, Ss SoA des Gee 74 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives (@) Separately excited (b) Series Fig. 5.10 Plugging spked-torque curves ty Oy Motoring Motoring ° r ° z Plugging Plugging (a) Separately excited () Series Fig. 5.11 Counter-torque braking Plugging gives fast braking due to high average torque, even with one section of brakire resistance Rp, Since torque is not zero at zero speed, when used for stopping a load, the supp) ‘ust be disconnected when close to zero speed. Centrifugal switches are employed to discones the supply. Plugging is highly inefficient because in addition to the generated power, the pow" supplied by the source is also wasted in resistances. Phone 5.8 > ‘A 220 V, 970 rpm, 100 A de separately excited motor has an armature resistance of 0.05 2. Its braked by plugging from an initial speed of 1000 rpm. Calculate (@) resistance to be placed in armature circuit to limit braking current to twice the full ls! value | (b) braking torque, arid (©) torque when the speed has fallen to zero. | Solution At 970 rpm £ = 220 - 0.05 x 100 = 215 v he Motor Drives 1 WOO yg cay Ar 1000 ep Ba ANY x 218 = 22105 V 4p Bor plugging operation Ua Fal Pas Pr) ng Rw LEY wp aAhS +220 . 99 Rye Ree ni 22a Ry & 221 0.08 © 1.16 ohms we BX, | 221.08 x 200. gy ny) T= Dot fob x 3/60 AA Nem Wo) At zene speed B= 0 av ti galt asTs ly 210.7 Nem 34 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS > starting, braking, reversing, speed changing and load changing are the transient operations ‘hich commonly occur in an industrial driveg)Dne is interested in knowing how current, torque and speed of the driving motor change with fime when uncler these transient operations: One is also interested in knowing energy losses, particularly those responsible for heating of the motor, and time taken for the completion of the transient process. This information is needed by the designer for selecting suitable rating of the motor, nature and type of its control equipment and its operation schedule, and types of protective devices and their settings. Dynamic equivalent circuits of de motors are shown in Fig, 5.12. Source voltage v motor armature current i, and back emf e are denoted by lower case letters to emphasize that these are instantaneous values of time varying quantities. B and J are respectively the coefficient of viscous friction in Nmv/rad/sec and polar moment of inertia in kg-m? of the motor load system. referred to the motor shaft. QU Load BT.) (a) Separately excited de motor (b) Seties motor Fig. 5.12 Dynamic equivalent circuits of de motors Voltage equation of the armature circuit under transient is given by = Rit Ly a + KO (5.16) From the dynamics of motor load system 4 & motor is tobe selected for driving a load having a large torque of short duration followed by a no-load period. A flywheel of suitable inertia is already mounted on the load shaft. Sungate nos suitable de motor for this application and explain your choice. Explain why a de series motor is more suited to deal with torque over loads than other de motors. A.A & separately excited motor is running at $00 rpm driving a load whose torque is constant. Motor reduced to 50% and field current is reduced to 80%. ++ What will be the answers to Problem 5.3, if load torque were proportional to speed squared? 55 4220. 800 rpm. 804 separately excited motor has an armature resistance of 0.12 Q. Motor is driving under rated conditions, a load whose torque is same at all speeds. Calculate motor speed if the source voltage drops to 200 V. SA dc shunt motor is running at 500 rpm, driving a load whose torque is same at all speeds. Armature current is 90 A. The armature resistance drop can be neglected and field circuit can be assumed to be linear. If source voltage is reduced to 80% calculate motor speed and armature current. ‘A 220 V. 960 rpm and 80 A de series motor is driving a load which has the same torque at all speeds. Resistances of armature and field are each 0.052 Calculate magnitude and direction of motor speed and Current if motor terminal voltage is changed from 220 to -200 V and the number G tums in field winding is reduced to 80%. Will motor speed reverse? Assume linear magnetic circuit. A 230V. 750 rpm, 25 A de series eee rated conditions a load, whase torque is peovacion ‘© speed squared. The combined resistance of armature and field is 1 9. Caleulate the movor ‘voltage and current for a speed of 400 rpm. State the assumption made for solving prob! 134 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives Braking Operation 59 5.10. BS 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 State and explain the important features of various braking methods of de motors. A 230 V, 870 rpm, 100 A separately excited de motor has an armature resistance of 0.05 &. It is coupled to an overhauling load with a torque of 400 N-m. Determine the speed at which motor can hold the load by regenerative braking. ‘A 230 V. 960 rpm and 200 A de separately excited motor has an armature resistance of 0.02 2 It is driving an overhauling load whose torque may vary from zero to rated motor torque. Field flux can be changed and field saturates at 1.2 times the rated flux. Calculate speed range in which motor can hold the load by regenerative braking without exceeding twice the rated motor current. Motor of Problem 5.11 is now required to hold the rated load torque by dynamic braking at 1200 rpm without emf exceeding 230 V. Calculate the value of external resistance to be connected across armature, A 220 V, 100 A, de series motor has armature and field resistances of 0.04 and 0.06 & respectively. Running on test on no load as a separately excited generator at 1000 rpm it gave following results: Field current, A 25 50 15 100125 150175 Terminal voltage, V 66.5 124 158.5 181 198.5 2i 2215 Machine is connected for dynamic braking with a braking resistances of 1.5 . Calculate motor current and torque for a speed of 800 rpm. Calculate the speed when de series motor of Example 5.13 is holding an overhauling load torque of 250 N-m with a bracking resistance of 1 2. Draw the speed torque characteristic for dynamic braking operation of dc series motor. Why torque becomes zero at finite speed? de shunt motor of Example 5.5 is braked by self-excited dynamic braking. Calculate braking torque for a speed of 1200 rpm and braking resistance Ry = 0.5 Q. thas an armature resistance of 0.2 @ and field winding resistance of 120 Q. Following A de shunt motor magnetization characteristic was measured at 1000 rpm: Field current, A 0.2 03 04 05 0.75 1 15 =o } 80 120 150-170 200 20 245,263 Back emf, V load of 50 N-m by self-excited dynamic braking with a braking Motor is holding an overhauling I resistance of 10 . Calculate the mot Calculate value of Rp, when motor o} tor speed. Problem 5.17 is required to hold overhauling load at 900 rpm.

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