IoT Based Smart Waste Management For Environmental Sustainability

IoT-Based Smart
Waste Management
for Environmental
Sustainability
Smart and Intelligent Computing in Engineering
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IoT-Based Smart
Waste Management
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Edited by
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and Mohammed Zidan
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Names: Acharya, Biswa Ranjan, editor. | Dey, Satarupa, editor. | Zidan,

Mohammad, editor.
Title: IoT-based smart waste management for environmental sustainability /
edited by Biswaranjan Acharya, Satarupa Dey, and Mohammed Zidan.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2022. | Series:
Smart and intelligent computing in engineering | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifers: LCCN 2021056623 (print) | LCCN 2021056624 (ebook) | ISBN
9781032013916 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032025971 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003184096
(ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Integrated solid waste management--Automation. | Refuse and
refuse disposal--Automation. | Internet of things.
Classifcation: LCC TD794.2.I67 2022 (print) | LCC TD794.2 (ebook) | DDC
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ISBN: 978-1-032-01391-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-02597-1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-18409-6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184096
Typeset in Palatino
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................... vii
Editors......................................................................................................................ix
Contributors............................................................................................................xi
1 E-Waste Management ....................................................................................1

Babita Panda, Gyanendra Kumar Panda, and Arjyadhara Pradhan
2 Waste Prevention: Its Impact and Analysis............................................. 19

Arjyadhara Pradhan, Sarita Samal, Babita Panda,
and Biswaranjan Acharya
3 Smart Waste Bin Using AI, Big Data Analytics and IoT ...................... 37
Nivedita Das, Jyotiprakash Panigrahi, Chandrima Roy,
4 Artifcial Intelligence and Reducing Food Waste during Harvest

and Post-Harvest Processes ........................................................................63
Ibrahim A. Abouelsaad, Islam I. Teiba, Emad H. El-Bilawy,
and Islam El-Sharkawy
5 IoT-Enabled Services for Sustainable Municipal Solid Waste

Management in India ..................................................................................83
Hrishikesh Chandra Gautam, Vinay Yadav, and Vipin Singh
6 IoT-Enabled Smart Dustbin........................................................................ 99

Sankalp Nayak, Alok Narayan, and Jitendra Kumar Rout
7 IoT-Based Smart Waste Management for Smart Cities....................... 121

Nitika Rani
8 Serverless IoT Architecture for Smart Waste Management

Systems ......................................................................................................... 139
Rahul Singh, Bholanath Roy, and Vipin Singh
v
vi Contents
9 IoT in Hospital Solid Waste Generation and Management ............... 155

Uma Rahangdale, Amar Shinde, Gazala Yasmin Ashraf,
and Vipin Singh
10 A Fast Garbage Classifcation Model Based on Deep Learning ....... 171

Rampavan Medipelly and Earnest Paul Ijjina
Index ..................................................................................................................... 183
Preface
Environmental sustainability is a vital topic that emphasizes the protec-

tion of environmental reserves/resources and their conservation for future
generations. Environmental sustainability is a sensitive matter that guides
all aspects of life. The development of a community with environmental
consciousness for the management of resources, renewable energy, and
protection of air and water quality highlights the concept of sustainable
development. The focus should be made on development to meet the needs
of people without compromising or harshening life for future generations.
However, it is challenging to maintain the environment with growing urban-
ization. Therefore, the practice of the concept of sustainable development is
the way forward for a fairer world without damage to the environment. In
relation to all aspects of our lives, it needs ideas and initiatives to promote
certain vital projects for a sustainable environment, including the recycling
of valuable resources.
Smart systems and technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT) are
concepts in which surrounding objects are connected through wired and
wireless networks without user intervention. In the feld of IoT, the objects
communicate and exchange information to provide advanced intelligent ser-
vices for users. Owing to the recent advances in mobile devices equipped
with various sensors and communication modules, together with commu-
nication network technologies such as Wi-Fi and LTE, the IoT has created
considerable academic interest.
Sustainable management and mitigation of waste products have remained
a challenge to most industries and society. Waste management service pro-
viders and cities can beneft from IoT-powered smart waste management
solutions. Using this technology, waste management agencies can increase
their operational effciency, cut costs, and enhance customer satisfaction.
With the decrease in the implementation cost of wireless technologies, there
are plenty of technologies available that make smart waste management
solutions possible.
This book aims to consolidate and summarize the cutting-edge smart
technologies that deal with different aspects of generation, management,
mitigation, and recycling of waste products for a sustainable environment
using the latest computational technologies like IoT, edge, and artifcial intel-
ligence. It will enhance the knowledge of these systems for academics and/
or the professional community working in the interfaces of environmental
science and computer science.
This book consists of ten chapters contributed by different groups of
researchers working on different aspects of IoT and sustainable waste man-
agement. Chapters 1 and 2 deal with different aspects of waste generation
vii
viii Preface
and management of e-waste. As there is no concrete policy or initiatives

implemented for the management of e-waste, it is mainly dumped in an
unorganized way. Use of IoT in e-waste management can provide an appro-
priate alternative to the management of e-waste. In Chapter 3, other aspects
such as the Smart Waste Bin Management system, its monitoring, and track-
ing the collection of waste along with timely transportation to recycling
units and maintenance of the storage spaceare discussed in detail. Chapter
4 mainly deals with the management of food and agricultural waste and the
use of artifcial intelligence systems which assist in reducing waste during
harvest and postharvest processes. Chapter 5 mainly deals with the munici-
pal solid waste (MSW) which is a vital aspect of sustainable waste manage-
ment in different cities of India as the case study. IoT applications such as
radio-frequency identifcation (RFID), cameras, and cloud computing (data
assimilation and communication) in MSW management have been used for
effective collection, segregation, and transportation and provide better solu-
tions for recycling/composting and contributing toward economic growth.
Waste generation from the health care sector is also something which needs
proper management and control, as it generates a signifcant amount of
infectious and/or toxic waste, classifed as hazardous waste. Chapter 6 rep-
resents another IoT-based innovative smart dustbin which automatically col-
lects waste from appropriate places and also disposes to appropriate places
using ultrasonic sensor, GMS and GPS module. Chapter 7 describes concep-
tual of wastes and types with effective solid waste management in general.
It also uses different sensors and RFID for effective management. Chapter 8
represents serverless IoT architecture for smart waste management through
cloud computing. Chapter 9 mainly deals with hospital solid waste genera-
tion and management. IoT plays a vital role in appropriately handling this
waste, with the use of connected sensor devices and a planned IoT-based
environment. It helps in identifcation based on images and gathering data
on their own, and also removes possible human errors. The last chapter pres-
ents a deep learning-based garbage classifcation system that can be run in
the IoT environment. Chapter 10 focuses auto classifcation of garbage using
deep learning technique.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the efforts of all the contributors for
their continuous effort in bringing the book to fruition. The continued assis-
tance of the Editorial Department of CRC Press is also highly appreciated.
The MathWorks, Inc.

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Editors
Biswaranjan Acharya is an academic currently associated with Kalinga

Institute of Industrial Technology Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar,
India, and is pursuing a doctorate in Computer Application at Veer Surendra
Sai University of Technology (VSSUT), Burla, India. He has earnedan MCA
from IGNOU, New Delhi, India, and M.Tech in Computer Science and
Engineering from Biju Patnaik University of Technology (BPUT), Rourkela,
India. He is also associated with various educational and research societies
such as IEEE, IACSIT, CSI, IAENG, and ISC. He has worked in industry as a
software engineer and in academia at Ravenshaw University, Cuttack, India.
He is currently doing research in felds such as data analytics, computer
vision, machine learning, and IoT. He owns eight patents and has published
several research articles in internationally reputed journals.
Satarupa Dey is assistant professor in the Department of Botany, University

of Calcutta, Kolkata, India. She completed her doctorate in 2012 in biore-
mediation of toxic metals. She was a research fellow in the Department of
Biotechnology, Government of India, and later worked as a visiting scien-
tist at the Agricultural and Ecological Research Unit of the Indian Statistical
Institute, Kolkata, India. She is the recipient of the Woman Scientist (WOSA)
fellowship of the Department of Science and Technology, Government of
India. She has published in several journals of national and international
repute.
Mohammed Zidan earned his Ph.D. degree from Sohag University, Egypt, in
2019. He works as a postdoctoral fellow at the Center for Photonics and Smart
Materials (CPSM), Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He
is a research consultant at Engineering College, Abu Dhabi University, UAE.
He has published several papers and has two patents in machine learning
and IoT. His current research interests include machine learning, IoT, quan-
tum machine learning, quantum computing, and quantum IoT.
ix
Contributors
Ibrahim A. Abouelsaad Alok Narayan

Faculty of Desert Agriculture KIIT Deemed to be University
King Salman International Bhubaneswar, India
University
South Sinai, Egypt Sankalp Nayak
KIIT Deemed to be University
Gazala Yasmin Ashraf Bhubaneswar, India
Amity University
Raipur, India Nitika Rani
Institute of Environmental Studies
Nivedita Das Kurukshetra University
KIIT University Kurukshetra, India
Bhubaneshwar, India
Babita Panda
Emad H. El-Bilawy Kalinga Institute of Industrial
Faculty of Desert Agriculture Technology
King Salman International Bhubaneswar, India
University
South Sinai, Egypt Gyanendra Kumar Panda
Tata Consultancy Services
Islam El-Sharkawy Bhubaneshwar, India
Florida A&M University (FAMU)
Center for Viticulture & Small Fruit Jyotiprakash Panigrahi
Research KIIT University hubaneshwar,
United States India
Hrishikesh Chandra Gautam Arjyadhara Pradhan

Department of Civil Engineering School of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kalinga Institute of Industrial
Madras Technology
Chennai, India Bhubaneshwar, India
Earnest Paul Ijjina

Uma Rahangdale
Department of CSE
Amity University
NIT Raipur, India
Warangal, India
Rampavan Medipelly Jitendra Kumar Rout

NIT NIT
Warangal, India Raipur, India
xi
xii Contributors
Bholanath Roy Rahul Singh

Computer Science and Engineering Computer Science and Engineering
Department Department
Maulana Azad National Institute of Maulana Azad National Institute of
Technology Technology
Bhopal, India Bhopal, India
Chandrima Roy Vipin Singh

KIIT University Environmental Science and
Bhubaneshwar, India Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay
Sarita Samal Mumbai, India
School of Electrical Engineering
Kalinga Institute of Industrial Islam I. Teiba
Technology Department of Botany
Bhubaneshwar, India Faculty of Agriculture
Tanta University
Amar Shinde Tanta, Egypt
Department of Civil Engineering
Manipal Institute of Technology Vinay Yadav
Manipal Academy of Higher Indian Institute of Management
Education Visakhapatnam
Manipal, India Visakhapatnam, India
1
E-Waste Management
Babita Panda, Gyanendra Kumar Panda, and Arjyadhara Pradhan
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................2
1.2 What Is E-Waste?..........................................................................................3
1.3 Problems of E-Waste.................................................................................... 4
1.4 Generation of E-Waste.................................................................................4
1.5 Identifcation of E-Waste Issues .................................................................4
1.6 Environmental Impact of E-Waste.............................................................5
1.7 Proper Disposal of E-Waste........................................................................6
1.8 E-Waste Management..................................................................................7
1.8.1 Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) and E-Waste..............8
1.8.2 Public Schemes for E-Waste Management ................................... 9
1.8.2.1 Main Highlights of the E-Waste Rules...........................9
1.8.2.2 Duties of Different Shareholders ....................................9
1.8.3 Problems and Threats for Policy Execution ............................... 10
1.8.3.1 Less Knowledge on E-Waste Formation Rates............ 10
1.8.3.2 Informal Organizations’ E-Waste Management
Practices............................................................................ 11
1.8.3.3 Poor Regulation and Enforcement ............................... 11
1.8.4 Designing of a Powerful E-Waste Management System .......... 11
1.8.4.1 Informal Sector................................................................ 12
1.8.4.2 Policy Reformation under EPR...................................... 12
1.8.4.3 Execution of Regulations ............................................... 13
1.8.4.4 E-Waste Imports .............................................................. 13
1.8.4.5 Public Awareness ............................................................ 13
1.9 Treatment of E-Waste ................................................................................ 14
1.10 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 14
References............................................................................................................... 15
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184096-1 1
2 IoT-Based Smart Waste Management for Environmental Sustainability
1.1 Introduction
At the moment, the industries which make the most proft or are in most
demand are electronic industries. In a short span of time, new and advanced
technology with up-to-date designs being easier to operate have developed,
and consumers have become attracted towards this technology and want to
have these advanced operations [1]. In this time of advanced technology, the
pace of innovation is quite fast. Advanced and upgraded versions of devices
are launched into the market in quick spans of time and offer more, better
and advanced functionality than previous versions. Within a few months or
a year, masses of people who have the same smart phone model from a brand
move to an advanced version of the same model, as shown in Figure 1.1. Due
to this rising demand, competition between suppliers for a wider range of
models is also increasing [2].
Based on the above trend analysis towards premature obsolescence, it’s
possible to increased packing density. Other trends which appear in other
felds of the electronics sector are transmission speed and improved proces-
sors. Product marketing is a well-known example, or we can say factor, that
highly motivates consumer intention to upgrade [3–5].
Current fashion is another factor. In the feld of smart devices, this is becom-
ing apparent. Nobody anymore wants to be seen carrying a bulky phone
with an arial antenna. A few people thought that new models are released
too frequently when the old one is not out of date by very much. This results
in premature obsolescence and increasing more e-waste. Another factor is
Number of phone used (in Million)

1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Number of phone used (in Million)
FIGURE 1.1
Uses of different cell-phone models from 2012 to 2022.
E-Waste Management 3
the cost of repairing. For instance, it is much easier nowadays for a consumer
to buy a new smart phone when the battery life is nearly dead than to invest
in a new battery. With so many battery types available in the market for a
particular mobile device, consumers do not want to take the risk of buying
the wrong type and end up having another problem of completely damag-
ing their currently only troublesome device. Consumer eagerness for new
advanced products forces a decrease in the lifespan of existing products, and
as a result it increases electrical and electronic waste. An ever-growing por-
tion of the solid waste from cities is due to the increase of e-waste at an accel-
erated rate [6–8]. Electronic items after use are shipped over oceans, which
creates a complicated waste matter consisting of several harmful metals and
chemical substances. Consumption of electronic products in India is very
high due to the large population.
1.2 What Is E-Waste?

Waste products from electricals and electronics that have been discarded
or where the lifespan of the item has ended are known as electronic waste
(e-waste). This includes devices that are operated by either electricity or bat-
teries, and includes devices that are thrown away to landfll or given to a
reseller organization. Table 1.1 depicts the distribution of e-waste items in
different categories [9].
E-waste contains toxins which produce greenhouse gases (GHGs) at the
time of their disposal and which impact human health and effect pollution
due to low levels of processing. The more the e-waste in landfll, the more
these poisonous materials mix into groundwater. A major risk is involved to
workers’ health and their communities due to the recycling and disposal of
e-waste [10–12].
TABLE 1.1
Distribution of E-Waste Items
Home Communication Entertainment Electronic Offce and Medical
Appliances and IT Devices Devices Items Equipment
• Microwaves • Cell phones • Bluetooth • Treadmills • Copiers/printers
• Home • Smart phones Music • Various • Autoclave
entertainment • Computer systems electronics • Shredding
devices accessories • Televisions equipment machines
• Electric • Xbox consoles • Fax machines
cookers • X-ray equipment
• Heaters • Power supplies
• Fans • UPS systems
• Power distribution
systems (PDUs)
1.3 Problems of E-Waste

In a generation of rapid technological advancement, e-waste keeps expand-
ing while smart electronic goods are being invented and introduced to the
markets. Electronic devices (smart home devices) can now almost do every-
thing within a short span of time. New models are introduced to the markets
even while the current models are working fne [13–15]. The latest versions
always provide additional new features that make them superior to the pre-
vious ones. New innovators in the feld of technology continue to create
more smart and advanced electric or electronic devices, designed to make
life easier and more convenient in all aspects. Still, consumers seem all too
susceptible to quickly upgrading the devices they already have [16–18]. It
doesn’t matter how satisfed they have been with their devices until now.
1.4 Generation of E-Waste

Mostly the waste is classifed in the below categories:
• Household appliances
• IT and communication devices
• Electronic toys
• Electrical utilities
• Health care devices
• Smart devices
Electronics goods which are thrown away by consumers rather than being
recycled or reused are known as e-waste [19–20].
1.5 Identification of E-Waste Issues

Several acts are in place for protecting human health and the natural envi-
ronment from the potential hazards of waste disposal. Laws are there to
ensure e-waste management in an environmentally sound manner. An inter-
national treaty is in place for reducing hazardous waste movement between
nations and to prevent hazardous waste transfer from developed to less-
developed countries [21–23]. Through this, the e-waste recycling industry
has grown signifcantly. The recycling industry has been working hard to
keep e-waste out of landfll and from being burned in incinerators. The only
goal of the recycling industry is to take the reusable parts from unused elec-
tronic devices and recycle them for the beneft of other manufacturers. As
the mass of electronic waste has increased, so has the recycling industry.
Recycling industries today create hundreds of thousands of jobs across the
world by recycling electronics products which are no longer in use. Recently,
the electronic waste recycling system has been implemented [24–26].
1.6 Environmental Impact of E-Waste

It was estimated that the global production of e-waste in 2020–2021 was more
than 50 million tons. In India, like in other developing countries, e-waste
management is dominated by the informal sectors which are not monitored
by any form of government, according to a survey which estimates that more
than 90% of e-waste is being processed in this sector [27–30]. India is one
of the top fve e-waste producing countries in the world, with an estimated
annual production of two million tons. There is a risk involved to health
from direct contact with toxic materials that come from e-waste, according to
the World Health Organization (WHO).
Risks can be in the form of:
• Intake of the toxic fumes

• Gathering of chemicals in soil, water, and food
E-waste risks are not only bound to people but land and sea animals as well.
The risks are exceptionally high for developing countries because some
developed countries send their e-waste to those developing countries [31–
33]. Both the people that work with e-waste and the people that live around it
can suffer from the same detrimental effects. The atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere, and biosphere are adversely impacted because of e-waste. For
the manufacturing of electronics, mines for extracting metals are used, some
of which are now totally depleted. Because of this, there is now a shortage of
metals. Entire ecosystems are now in danger because of mining operations
that explode mines in areas such as forests, thereby destroying the habitat of
plants and animals living there [34].
One of the major impacts to the environment from e-waste is global warm-
ing. A study indicated that about 2% of CO2 produced and discharged in the
atmosphere comes from IT industries. CO2 is generated from IT devices at the
time of their mining, manufacture, usage, and their disposal as e-waste that
is dumped into landfll [35]. The production and discharge of CO2 from IT
industries is called cyber warming. Old landfll sites with these uncontrolled
dumps may turn into a toxic bomb due to the production and discharge of
TABLE 1.2
Toxic Materials Present in E-Waste and Their Effects
Material Occurrence Effect
Lead Batteries, crystal, glass The toxic material present in lead
affects kidney, the reproductive
system, as well as mental growth of
children
Chromium Data tapes Damage of liver, kidney; can cause
bronchitis
Mercury Fluorescent lamps and batteries Affects the central nervous system,
kidney and digestive systems
Cadmium Batteries, computer accessories, and Cadmium causes itai-itai diseases
cathode ray tubes (CRTs)
Lithium Batteries May become explosive when wet
Nickel Batteries and cathode ray tubes (CRTs) May cause allergic reactions
Barium Semiconductors, diodes, PV cells May explode when wet
Rare earth CRT screen in fuorescent lamps Irritates skin and eyes
elements
Arsenic Semiconductors, diodes, LEDs, solar Causes long-term problems to health
cells
excess CO2. Another gas which produces and discharges from these landfll
sites and affects global warming is methane gas. Due to global warming, ice
melts into water and increases the water level in oceans, thus causing the
ocean levels to rise, leading to fooding [36–38]. A study says that a reduction
in Arctic ice causes the removal of the permanently frozen layer on or under
the earth’s surface, meaning the ocean’s absorption of CO2 is further reduced,
which leads to further warming. Due to the disturbance in ocean ice layers,
entire life cycles will change and impact the environment. If we do not take
action regarding this, then all ecosystems will be destroyed. Table 1.2 cat-
egorizes the different toxic materials present in different forms of e-waste as
well as their effects.
We need to put proper recycling processes for this e-waste in place to pro-
tect ourselves and future generations. In considering these calamities, dereg-
ulation acts have been introduced by several progressive countries over the
past few decades.
1.7 Proper Disposal of E-Waste

Because consumers will not stop buying new devices, it is important to
strengthen the message to recycle old electronic models and not to sim-
ply throw them out. There are major risks involved to the environment
if electronics devices are thrown into landfll. E-waste recycling provides

many benefts to our environment [39]. A good solution would be to hand
over those unused electronic devices to legitimate frms that have expe-
rience of performing environmentally friendly recycling of electronic
products. By reusing, refurbishing, and recycling e-waste, we can save
our environment from the damage caused by it. Green technologies are
in trend now, and companies are being created in this sector to keep our
environment clean and pollution free. Lastly, whether products are made
using green technology or not, there is a need to opt for proper scientifc
recycling methods because even these green products can cause environ-
mental problems [40].
1.8 E-Waste Management

In order to manage e-waste, many developed and developing countries have
created some regulations and taken some initiatives. This will be discussed
in this section and given in Figure 1.2.
• Extended producer responsibility (EPR) and e-waste

• Public schemes for e-waste management
• Problems and threats for policy execution
• Designing of a powerful e-waste management system
FIGURE 1.2
The different strategies of e-waste management.
1.8.1 Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) and E-Waste

For regulating e-waste everywhere, the EPR concept is popularly used and
points out producers’ accountability for the end-of-life execution of stocks
[41–43]. According to the EPR concept, the producer has to bear the costs
related to the end-of-life recycling of their brands. The Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) focuses on two exten-
sive intentions of the EPR scheme. The primary intention is to transfer the
responsibility of administration of e-waste from local governments to manu-
facturers. The other intention is to force manufacturers to consider the envi-
ronmental impact at the time of disposal of their product. The EPR does
this by providing incentives to producers if they consider the environmental
issues while designing their product [44–46]. In this way, producers are moti-
vated to use materials in their products that are more recyclable or less toxic
so that they get monetary incentives for designing their products under this
EPR concept.
Under the EPR scheme, manufacturers can be made accountable in four
specifc ways as shown in Figure 1.3.
• Economic responsibility: for proper disposal of their product, the

manufacturer is compensated in terms of tax against the costs of
e-waste processing [47]
• Physical responsibility: collecting the products back from customers
at the end of the product’s life. The stock take-back fulfllment may
impose the collection of rate targets
• Information responsibility: this includes making data associated
with the brands available, along with such essential information as
manufacturer specifcations
FIGURE 1.3
Four specifc ways of implementation of the EPR scheme.
• Liability regulation: this indicates the fnancial accountability for

environmental pollution and its recovery
1.8.2 Public Schemes for E-Waste Management

In 2011, India’s frst e-waste policies come into reality, known as e-waste
rules. These rules were set up in 2011 and used the EPR approach for the
management and treatment of e-waste. With this approach, producers are
required to set up collection centers, coming under physical responsibility
and instructions to the consumers about product use, and depositing the
product at collection centers, coming comes under information responsibil-
ity [48–50]. However, these rules created a need for formal dismantling and
recycling centers, which did not effectively improve the situation. Those reg-
ulations were not properly framed as there were no take back targets for the
manufactures. That led to a reformation of these rules in 2016 and then again
in 2018, which enforces producers to take back the certain percentage of their
products taken in the last year.
1.8.2.1 Main Highlights of the E-Waste Rules
• As per the new rules reformed in 2018, the assembly, repository,

shipping, recovery, and disposition of e-waste shall be done accord-
ing to the guidelines. According to the board of the Environment
Safety Act, the manufacturer, producer, importer, transporter, and
recycler shall be liable to pay compensation if they fail to follow the
guidelines [51–53].
• As per the current modifcations of the rules, the Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB) may organize unplanned inspections of mate-
rials located in the retail unit to audit and confrm the decrease of
poisonous materials. The government should bear all costs for sam-
pling and testing, something which was not there in the earlier rule:
in earlier cases, the costs were carried by the producers [54].
1.8.2.2 Duties of Different Shareholders

• Manufacturer responsibility
• During the manufacturing of any product, there is the possibil-
ity of generation of e-waste. It is the duty of the manufacturers to
assemble this e-waste and process it for disposal
• The storing and shipping of e-waste should not cause any dam-
age to the environment: this is also the responsibility of the
manufacturers
• The duty of State Pollution Control Board is to audit and check
all the records which should be maintained by the manufactures
about the generation and recycling of e-waste [55]
• Producer responsibility
• For enforcing extended producer responsibility, the producer of
electrical and electronic equipment shall be responsible for the
given structure, namely, assemblage and processing of e-waste
produced from the expired products as well as old waste obtained
from the date on which the rules came into force. The system
used for processing of e-waste from expired products consists of
collecting them from their collection centers and sending them
to certifed disposal units as per the rule.
• For certain materials like fuorescent lamps or other lamps
which contain mercury, simple recycling is not possible. In those
cases, a pre-treatment is required to exhaust the mercury and
decrease the quantity of waste to be recycled. Proper channeliza-
tion is required from service center to the treatment, Storage and
Disposal Facility centre.
This brings about the installation of many advanced recycling and disman-
tling sections, properly designated with certifed jurisdiction. These refor-
mations of the rules have initiated take-back targets for producers, whereby
manufacturers need to take back a specifc share of their items depleted in
the past year. The take-back shares will increase from 10% in the year 2017–
2018 to 70% from 2023.
Because of the reformation of the rules, in past years there have been sev-
eral changes in the Indian e-waste sector, for example:
• The producers taking a part of the burden

• Development of the certifed waste treatment sector
• Formation of producer responsibility organizations (PROs)
• Building environmentally friendly product
• Retrieving multiple kinds of e-waste
Despite all these developments, management of e-waste is a still great chal-

lenge because most e-waste is processed informally in India. The role of the
informal sector is predominant not only in the collection of e-waste but also
in recovery and recycling. The large population of India, mainly marginal-
ized parts of society, depends on this sector. Unknowingly, they are using an
unreliable method that is harmful to their health, and in turn it is a threat to
the environment and health of society at large.
1.8.3 Problems and Threats for Policy Execution

1.8.3.1 Less Knowledge on E-Waste Formation Rates
The e-waste regulations policy made in 2012 gave all accountability to the
state pollution control boards (SPCBs) for installation of new recycling and
dismantling units. After many years, the SPCBs have not issued invento-
ries as yet. There have been no proper statistics developed until now for the
estimation of quantities of e-waste generation. The sales information about
their brands, which is a critical calculation in the assessment of the amount
of e-waste, is usually accessible at an aggregation of the national level, mak-
ing it diffcult to know the supply at the state levels. Along with that, there
is an illegal supply of e-waste from other countries too. It is diffcult for the
SPCBs to get all this information, and the implementation of proper, trans-
parent system is needed. There is much less information available about the
quantities of e-waste imported into the country. Modeling systems for pre-
cise assembly, transportation, and processing needs the correct information
regarding waste production, combination, and outfows.
1.8.3.2 Informal Organizations’ E-Waste Management Practices

There is no facility offered by the formal sector for taking back and process-
ing of e-waste from consumers. Therefore, the amount of waste handled in
the formal sector remains very low. As the formal sector does not generate
very much waste, most facilities operate below their rated capacities. On the
other hand, the informal sector has better strategies than the formal sector to
encourage customers to bring back their waste. A lack of awareness regard-
ing the threat of the material which e-waste contains and the waste manage-
ment practices and stance of informal organizations are a major threat to
their employees and others as well. It is high time this issue is resolved and
a robust system for e-waste management is developed [56].
1.8.3.3 Poor Regulation and Enforcement

In the 2012 regulations, there were many shortfalls. There was no manda-
tory take-back system for producers, which was then addressed in the 2016
amendments. In the 2016 amendments, it was clearly mentioned that with-
out having collection targets, no incentives will be provided to producers. In
addition to this, the reformation provided more positive regulatory measures
by determining continuous and more rigid collection targets. As well as this,
this regulatory endeavor gave a specifc task to the previously unsuitable
regulatory agencies. The role of the regulatory agencies is to audit all e-waste
management processes followed by the producers and then grant authoriza-
tion. But because of poor enforcement, a lack of clarity, and reluctance to
openly share the data on actions, natural policy execution in India has been
affected, which is a threat to the future of the management of e-waste.
1.8.4 Designing of a Powerful E-Waste Management System

The regulations can be made effective by constant evaluation and moni-
toring as well as the regulator having to bring in necessary changes to the
regulations. In addition, the government may have to show relevant perfor-

mance in relation to the different shareholders in the structure. Some impor-
tant points are discussed next.
1.8.4.1 Informal Sector

For the designing of a robust system, the frst step would be to specifcally
identify the informal sector as a relevant shareholder in any forthcoming
e-waste system. But the management methods of this sector pose severe
environmental and health threats to workers. First of all, the problems and
challenges of the informal sector need to be addressed. A crucial step would
be to involve their employees so as to understand their right to a livelihood,
and to develop understanding and realization of their problems along with
recognizing potential solutions. The government should constitute a forum
consisting of various stakeholders like the informal sector, NGOs engaged
with them, PROs, and certifed disposers and manufacturers under the
MoEFCC at the central level as well as at the state level [57]. The objective of
such forums should be to defne roles for each stakeholder and work towards
achieving them.
1.8.4.2 Policy Reformation under EPR

Under the EPR scheme, the ministry should re-evaluate the policy instru-
ments. The assembling of e-waste from service centers with the help of the
informal sector and a compulsory take-back with collection targets may not
be the optimal instrument. In addition, there are several responsibilities of
the producer. For a certain percentage of quantity purchased, an advanced
disposal fee (ADF) could be collected, and the producers would be relieved
from the physical responsibility of the collection of e-waste from service cen-
ters. In this way, revenues produced may be used in different ways.
Some possibilities include:
(a) Incentives offered to customers to submit their e-waste at service

centers
(b) Funds to be allocated to certifed disposers
(c) Provision of skill development training to assist informal sector
workers
This selection can be made within the institute forum suggested by the infor-
mal sector. Determination of the right fee is the main issue with economic
instruments. According to the principles of economics, the right fee would
be equal to the minimal peripheral cost of the end-of-life product. In practice,
the estimation of peripheral cost is diffcult to calculate, so the price should
be suffcient to fund robust, environmentally safe e-waste processing and
disposal. This would also include the subsidies for designing the changes
in the product to make it more environmentally safe, which has been one of
the main aims of the EPR approach universally. The policy structure needs
to target the improvement of advanced systems and/or system exchange to
boost an all-over spread of the use of environmentally safe e-waste disposal
technologies.
1.8.4.3 Execution of Regulations

By adopting economic instruments such as an advanced disposal fee (ADF),
producers would be relieved from the regulatory burden. The funds gener-
ated from ADFs would be spent on technologies to make the tax collection
process easy. The SPCBs and the CPCB will still be needed to direct and
execute the process, with rules made for collection centers, dismantlers, recy-
clers, and PROs. The policies made by MoEFCC must ensure that the e-waste
management system is clear. All steps taken, as well as the related docu-
ments, must be publicly available on the websites of the SPCBs. This data
needs to be updated regularly and publicly available; this is required in the
execution of policies.
1.8.4.4 E-Waste Imports

In the 2016 amendments, it is clearly mentioned that the import of e-waste is
allowed for reuse and recycling but not for fnal disposal. In a country like
India, there is no proper infrastructure for recycling of e-waste, so all kinds
of imports should be banned.
1.8.4.5 Public Awareness

Public awareness is the most important criterion in every aspect. The recent
e-waste regulations need the producers to maintain a proper database on
their websites, like information on the effects of e-waste, proper disposal
methods, and other challenges. Some awareness programs can also be
useful to the public if run at regular intervals. In India, the conducting of
such awareness programs among the public is very low, because of which
overall awareness levels remain low. So the rigid instruction to producers
to conduct these programs at regular intervals may improve the situation.
Simultaneously, producers should be compelled to organize the programs
through the organizations engaged in different areas. There may be collabo-
rations with other programs, like municipal solid waste programs, initiated
by the government. These awareness campaigns should have the objective
of achieving the secure use of e-waste but also decreasing their use. The
evaluation could be done by the government, depending on the quality and
quantity of the awareness campaigns held by the producer and the outcome
achieved.
1.9 Treatment of E-Waste

E-waste is considered the most complex among a wide range of different
kinds of waste. There are multiple forms of e-waste, so various technologies
are required to cover the wide range of products. Consequently, the employ-
ment of various technologies varies for different regions and countries. A
robust management system is required for the assembling and proper treat-
ment of e-waste, which consists of different operators as well as signifcant
logistical and technical assets. To save our environment from damage caused
by this e-waste, many researchers have considered factors like the attitude
of customers toward recycling, the local government context, and the posi-
tion of the producer toward this aspect. Reusing e-waste is a preferable solu-
tion from the aspect of environmental concerns. E-waste reuse is the most
preferable solution, as the disassembly and recycling as well as disposal of
e-waste may be harmful and a threat to the environment and health. The
recovery and recycling of these products is a very important action towards
the contribution to sustainable development. Therefore, the precise legislat-
ing, design, and execution of this waste is environmentally important and
needs to be solved at all levels. The poisonous material from the erosion and
disintegration of e-waste may discharge an amount of harmful substances in
the air, in the form of solids and liquids, which affects the health of humans,
animals, and plants.
1.10 Conclusion
In 2007, according to the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP), 439,000
units of e-waste were generated, among which the computer e-waste
alone was 56,300. In 2010 in India, units of computers installed were about
47,000,000. As time progresses, e-waste generation also increases. These com-
puters generate a vast amount of CO2. To save the environment from CO2
emissions, immediate action should be taken. A computer produces about
675 kg of CO2 when used for 24 hours. Improper e-waste disposal causes
damage to the earth. The solution to reducing CO2 emissions is by farming
trees. Tree planting can support environmental repair from these damages.
In a year, one tree consumes about 1.3–6.8 kg of CO2. So the generation of
CO2 from one computer means almost 100–500 trees would be needed to
recover from that damage.
Especially in developing countries, the increase in the use of electronic
products over recent years and the corresponding increase in e-waste cause
specifc environmental issues for authorities. From the aspect of e-waste
management, India has faced many challenges because of the limited impact
of the old policies. This article focuses on the challenges that India faces like
informal organizations e-waste management methods: poor policy design
and execution, and lack of public awareness. Various shareholders must be
engaged meaningfully to build a powerful e-waste management system of
the future.
In a country like India, the informal sector has great importance in man-
aging e-waste. They have the strength to collect waste from all areas of the
country. They have the ability to collect and dismantle waste from the urban
poor. The issue remains to fnd the right connection between the law and
the informal sector. If the government acknowledges the importance and
contribution of this sector, only then is this possible. The MoEFCC plays
an important role here in defning the place of informal organizations in
e-waste management. They need to review the policies more precisely to
identify the locations of informal organizations. In creating public aware-
ness, the government has a great role to play, which could be an important
step in altering the behavior of consumers. Awareness campaigns could be
held along with other programs which would increase knowledge about the
management of e-waste.
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2
Waste Prevention: Its Impact and Analysis
Arjyadhara Pradhan, Sarita Samal, Babita Panda,

CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 19
2.2 Waste: A Brief Idea.......................................................................................22
2.2.1 Impacts of Waste .............................................................................. 23
2.2.1.1 Environmental Impact ..................................................... 23
2.2.1.2 Health Impact .................................................................... 24
2.2.1.3 Societal Impact .................................................................. 24
2.2.2 Hazardous Material in Waste ........................................................ 25
2.3 Waste Prevention ......................................................................................... 25
2.3.1 Various Strategies for Waste Prevention ...................................... 26
2.3.1.1 Informational Strategies................................................... 26
2.3.1.2 Promotional Strategies ..................................................... 26
2.3.1.3 Regulatory Strategies........................................................ 27
2.3.2 Waste Prevention Methods............................................................. 27
2.3.2.1 Waste Prevention............................................................... 27
2.3.2.2 Waste Minimization ......................................................... 27
2.3.2.3 Reuse................................................................................... 28
2.3.2.4 Recycling ............................................................................ 29
2.3.2.5 Recovery ............................................................................. 29
2.3.2.6 Disposal..............................................................................30
2.3.3 Analysis of Waste and Waste Prevention.....................................30
2.4 Case Study: Three Rs of Waste Prevention .............................................. 31
2.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 33
References...............................................................................................................34
2.1 Introduction
One of the major environmental issues today is waste. While much work is
put into gathering and recovering waste materials. From an environmental
standpoint, waste management is preferable to other forms of waste treat-
ment (landfll, energy recovery, and recycling), because the manufacture
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184096-2 19
and disposal of waste materials and substances is to be avoided. Waste pre-

vention (Directive 2008/88/EC) is characterized as actions taken before a
substance, material, or product becomes waste. It entails strict waste avoid-
ance, i.e., waste generation reduction. The term also refers to extending the
life of goods and reusing them, as well as the qualitative element of mini-
mizing waste’s hazardousness. Waste prevention is something that can hap-
pen in any situation. As a result, the regulatory structure regulating waste
prevention encompasses a diverse set of directives and regulations, such
as REACH (Regulation (EC) No. 1907/2006) and the Eco-design Directive
(Directive 2009/125/EC), both of which seek to avoid creating waste during
the product design process. This makes sense because waste can’t be avoided
once it’s been generated. So far, waste management has been regarded as a
policy area distinct from waste prevention [1]. End-of-life options, such as
collection, landfll, incineration, and recycling, are essential parts of waste
treatment [2]. As a result, avoidance of creating the waste in the frst place
played no part in local waste management so far. One of the amendments
made to the European Waste Framework Directive in 2008 was a greater
emphasis on waste reduction (EU, 2008). Despite the fact that waste reduc-
tion should be prioritized, it is seldom incorporated into local waste man-
agement [3].
The modifcation of the Directive resulted in member states being required
to establish national waste management strategies. Since waste prevention
can occur at any point in the value chain, it is advantageous to establish
comprehensive national strategies. However, until now, national preven-
tion policies have seldom assigned specifc tasks to specifc actors [4], and
local waste managers (LWMs) are rarely mentioned as responsible actors.
As a result, LWMs are rarely required to include waste reduction in their
waste management plans. In addition to their national waste management
strategies, member states must recycle at least half of the waste produced
by their households (EU, 2008). This necessitates improvements to the waste
management system’s socio-technical system, such as the implementation
of collection systems, logistics, treatment plants, and marketing and sales
of the secondary raw materials. Since these processes fall under the conven-
tional domain of local waste management, LWMs play a key role in these
infrastructural innovations. Nonetheless, these modifcations are last-ditch
efforts. As with other environmental issues, it’s better to go after the source
of the problem rather than addressing the symptoms once they’ve appeared.
As a result, the primary goal should be to reduce overall waste quantities.
Otherwise, society risks investing in waste facilities that would not have
been needed if preventive measures had been implemented earlier [5]. As a
result, before making long-term investments in treatment facilities, LWMs
should consider what can be done to avoid waste in their environment. To
put it another way, more integrated resource management is needed. The
fact that waste reduction and reuse are outside the trajectories of local waste
management is an impediment to integrating waste prevention into local
Waste Prevention 21
waste management. As a result, local waste actors lack experience, aware-

ness, and skills in waste prevention [6].
Waste prevention has received more attention in the scientifc commu-
nity in recent years, and this awareness could help LWMs get started with
local waste prevention. As a result, we present a summary of the scientifc
evidence on waste reduction in this chapter, which has been chosen for its
importance to LWMs. The ability of LWMs to infuence waste generation
through the supply chain is restricted to the fnal stages of a product’s life
cycle. Local waste management programs would therefore primarily tar-
get homes, with some retail and industry thrown in for good measure. The
essential data whereupon city waste can be calculated is based on the sum
of family waste produced [7]. The fundamental data required is frst to sur-
vey the potential and importance of waste decrease, and second to focus on
center regions, for example, waste streams, to help prediction of waste. In the
UK, family waste can comprehensively be diminished by 0.5–1 kg of waste
per family per week, for example, through appropriate campaigns [8, 9]. In
addition, there is the belief that the most probable areas with a potential to
reduce waste are frstly food waste and secondly paper waste. The principal
reason is that people in families can more easily affect the levels of house-
hold waste generated, like avoiding using plastic packaging for example. The
genuine potential relies upon the amount of waste and synthesis locally, and
will subsequently contrast between nations. Reference [10] proposes a 20%
decrease of both food (3.3 kg–1 kg every year) and paper waste (3.7 kg–1 kg
every year) as possible in Austria; while Reference [11] recommends that 34%
of food waste in Swedish families is avoidable. This is equivalent to 58 kg
per family each year. Gentil et al. [12] evaluate the natural effect potential
of 20%, and presume that forestalling food and paper squander has a high
natural effect inferable from the upstream impacts of kept away from cre-
ation. The reason is that anticipation and avoidance of food waste has a
higher ecological effect than any treatment choice, for example, incineration
and anaerobic assimilation, would have. Subsequently, waste anticipation of
these two waste streams could play a critical part in asset protection and
environmental change (contingent upon the public waste framework as well
as fnancial considerations). As indicated by the defnition, reuse is thought
of as the avoidance of waste generation. In view of contextual investigations,
Reference [13] gauges that reuse of cumbersome waste, like furnishings,
could be expanded altogether in the UK from 2–3% to 40%. References [14–
16] likewise consider reuse as an approach to forestall the creation of waste;
however, the authors don’t predict the potential quantitatively. A quantita-
tive appraisal would rely intensely upon the qualities of the waste.
As a rule, reuse could allow ecological benefts if reused items were used
instead of obtaining new items; however, no relevant peer-explored consid-
erations have been found that look at reusing items as a substitute to obtain-
ing new items [17]. Besides this, reuse may really fuel utilization, as the cash
saved by purchasing recycled products could be utilized for obtaining new
items, as proposed by [15, 18], where evaluate the asset protection capability
of the reuse of electrical machines to be doing 33%, yet to be immaterial,
in any case, contrasted and productive reusing, which offers more to asset
protection.
Thus, they suggest that different avenues other than asset preservation
should be considered to add to the choices available. The ecological effects
of reuse are consequently generally unseen, and future endeavors to evalu-
ate them require a sensible interpretation of framework limits. There may
likewise be an impressive social potential in including waste avoidance
and reuse in nearby waste administration centers. Social points of view, as
stressed by [14], incorporate the way that reuse and second-hand merchan-
dise give individuals from low-income families the capacity to maintain
expectations for everyday comforts at moderate costs. Besides this, this reuse
should be relied upon to supplant utilization of new things, subsequently
having natural advantages. Local work creation and consequently the re-
employment of unemployed individuals are additionally underlined by [19,
20], who additionally recommend that there is a fnancial potential in reuse
as well. Reuse may accordingly be able to add to each of the three measure-
ments of manageability.
2.2 Waste: A Brief Idea

Waste is one of the major environmental issues that have to be seen as a
top priority. Many things which are discarded and rejected are those items
which we consider not useful. There is a difference between waste and by-
products. By-products are something that can be processed and integrated
into some useful product, whereas waste is something that has been totally
discarded. The importance lies in realizing the levels of actual waste compo-
nents in a product which we consider as waste. There are basically two types
of waste, i.e., controlled waste and non-controlled waste. The waste gener-
ated from domestic areas like household and municipal solid waste comes
under the category of controlled waste. Even waste from construction sites,
industries, and other commercial premises falls under this category. Waste
generated from agriculture, mining activities, quarries, and other such oper-
ations is known as non-controlled waste.
Municipal solid waste (MSW) includes paper, cardboard, glass, plastics,
textiles, metals, and wood waste. Agricultural waste includes manure from
farms, slurry, silage effuent, cereal and crop residues, and rotten output.
Among these different types of waste, some are hazardous, as they contain
toxic and explosives. Oily waste and waste from chemical plants are mostly
dangerous, as they create environmental pollution. Many organic processes
give out strong chemicals as output, which cause air and water pollution.
Waste Prevention 23
2.2.1 Impacts of Waste

Waste is harmful if it exceeds a certain limit and greatly impacts society. The
various impacts of waste are shown in Figure 2.1. The following impacts will
now be discussed:
1. Impact on environment
2. Impact of health
3. Impact on society
2.2.1.1 Environmental Impact

Waste disposal causes various environmental problems. Different types of
waste are released into the environment in various ways; some are deposited
in landflls, some are dumped, some are put in quarries, and some are buried
inside holes in the ground. But very often in India we fnd waste stacked
and gathered by the side of roadways without proper disposal. This waste
eventually rots and produces a very bad smell; sometimes it also generates
methane gas which is explosive in nature and affects the ozone layer. One
type of pollution caused by these waste disposals is leachate. This is pro-
duced during waste decomposition processes. Due to the foul smell of waste
and dumps, vermin and even different kinds of infectious insects become
attracted to these sites. Leachate is also easily spread in the atmosphere.
Studies have shown that waste incineration processes produce various
toxic substances, for example dioxins are produced when plastic is burnt.
FIGURE 2.1
The impact of waste and waste prevention on various felds.
Chemical incineration processes release gases which cause air pollution.

Eventually, air pollution leads to acid rain, and decay and damage to build-
ings. Some other environmental effects are the corrosion of metal structures,
buildings, and pipes.
2.2.1.2 Health Impact

Pollution and waste are always a source of health problems. Different kinds
of health hazards can be observed when environmental pollution increases.
It is mostly workers involved in waste management who are highly prone to
the effects of different harmful and toxic substances, thereby creating dif-
fculties in leading a healthy life. Air pollution caused due to the burning of
waste in dumps causes asthma and lung problems. Sometimes waterlogging
and oil spills by roadsides become the center of various infectious swarms of
bees and other insects, which act as carriers of diseases like cholera, as well
as stomach upsets, nausea, vomiting, etc.
The harmful toxin which comes from burning plastics causes carcino-
genic diseases. Waste from chemical plants and nuclear plants mostly con-
tains cadmium, arsenic, chromium nickel, dioxins, and PAHs, which are
highly carcinogenic and can even create mutations in the genes and body.
The central nervous system of the human body is also affected by these
types of substances produced from waste. Pollutants like SO2 and PM10
affect morbidity and mortality rates depending on the duration of expo-
sure and mostly affect elderly people. Different types of chemical com-
pounds like organo-chlorines and dioxins are lipophilic in nature and get
accumulated inside the fatty tissues. This causes reproductive and endo-
crine problems. Studies show that low birth rates and neonatal deaths
are commonly found near areas where large hazardous wastes have been
dumped.
Waste and waste disposal create several other health issues, such as dis-
eases in the respiratory system; irritation of exposed body parts like skin,
nose, eyes, and ears; frequent headaches; gastric problems; stomach ulcers;
fatigue; and allergies. It has been suggested that evaluation of a relationship
between these symptoms is complicated and confounded by stress, public
perception of risk, odors and nuisance related to the site, and recall bias. For
example, a survey found that residents who indicated they were worried
about pollution reported more symptoms than those who were not worried,
both in the exposed and control areas.
2.2.1.3 Societal Impact

Waste affects the scenic beauty of a place. Peace and sanity of mind can
also be disturbed. Studies show that people living close to waste disposal
areas are psychological affected due to persistent bad odors spreading in the
atmosphere. Town planning and city development authorities must consider
Waste Prevention 25
waste disposal centers to be far away from townships. Municipal corpora-

tions are greatly responsible for the task of proper waste disposal, periodic
garbage cleaning, and cleaning of drains and sewage systems. Even dust
bins inside the city area must be regularly cleaned, and the garbage dumped
at disposal yard must be regularly burnt to prevent any contamination or
infectious diseases from spreading. Care should be taken that each individ-
ual uses proper dust bins and drainage system for disposing their household
or offce waste. This waste, if dumped openly outside, does not give a clean
look and creates a lot of problems.
2.2.2 Hazardous Material in Waste

Landfll sites with waste disposal facilities emit different gases like car-
bon dioxide, methane, mercury vapor, hydrogen sulfde at low rates, and
even 0.5% of volatile organic compounds. The pollutants present are mostly
defned based on various parameters like level of toxicity, explosively, bio-
accumulation, mobility, and environmental persistence. Not only this, even
landfll sites consist of other materials like metals, polychlorinated biphe-
nyls, pesticides, dioxins, asbestos, and pathogens. As per previous investi-
gations, incineration of waste produces pollutants by burning sewage, and
municipal and chemical waste.
Composting, sewage treatment, and landflls are also a source of hazards,
containing microbial pathogens. Dust and the production of particulate mat-
ter are produced in landfll, incineration and composting processes, and by
road traffc involved in all waste management types. Less easily quantifable
hazards, which might nevertheless impact on the population near a waste
disposal site, include odors, litter, noise, heavy traffc, fies, and birds.
2.3 Waste Prevention

Waste reduction can be done at three stages of the product production:
preliminary, intermediate, and fnal. Considering source waste production
reduces the quantity and toxicity of waste before it undergoes other pro-
cesses like composing, recycling, recovery of energy, and going to landfll.
Waste prevention can be defned as the process of reducing the amount
of materials used to create a product and increasing the effciency with
which the products, once created, can be used. There are different catego-
ries of waste prevention, for example quantitative and qualitative. When
the hazardous content of the waste is removed, it greatly benefts humans
and environment. Such a type of waste prevention method is quantita-
tive, whereas just dumping huge amounts of waste to landfll is qualitative
waste prevention.
2.3.1 Various Strategies for Waste Prevention

A study shows that there are three types of waste prevention strategies, as
shown in Figure 2.2.
2.3.1.1 Informational Strategies

The most important concept of informational strategies is making a revolu-
tionary change in people’s minds and behaviors. Every human being lives
their life and deals with their surroundings in their own way. By conduct-
ing several awareness programs, public awareness can be created that would
people’s mindset and behavior, help them to adapt to new changes, and make
them more sensitive to the effects of their behavior on society. Some of the
awareness programs that could be undertaken as informational strategies are:
• Regular campaigns in public places

• Informing the public about various waste prevention techniques
• Eco-labeling
• Societal training
• Incentives and rewards for a cleaner society
• Products with proper information for waste prevention
• Information about waste disposal
2.3.1.2 Promotional Strategies

This strategy deals with fnancial and logistic support for carrying out vari-
ous waste prevention activities. Some of the activities are as follows:
• Voluntary agreement support system

• Facilities for eco-design and fnancial support
FIGURE 2.2
Three different strategies of waste prevention.
Waste Prevention 27
• Promotional activities on environmental management systems

• Infrastructure reuse, repair support systems
• Special incentives for clean consumption
• Emphasis on research and development activities
2.3.1.3 Regulatory Strategies

Regulatory strategies aim at enforcing various limitations on the production
of waste, environmental obligation expansion, and establishment of environ-
mental criteria on different public contracts. The various norms of this type
of strategy include:
• Reform and changes in the responsibility criteria of the producer

• Procurement policies with involvement of green technology by the
producer
• Taxes on waste generation
2.3.2 Waste Prevention Methods

There are various waste prevention methods possible, for example a) pre-
vention, b) minimization, c) reuse, d) recycling, e) recovery, and f) disposal.
Among these various methods, the frst three methods are the most pre-
ferred, with disposal as the least preferred method, as seen in Figure 2.3.
2.3.2.1 Waste Prevention

Waste management always aims at the most fundamental aspect i.e., waste
generation. If waste generation can be reduced, then automatically waste can
be prevented. There are different techniques which can be adopted in the
manufacturing sector, post-use, to reduce waste as well as pollution. Some of
the common methods and strategies adopted in industries include adoption
of environmentally friendly methods in working areas, use of less harm-
ful and least hazardous materials, establishment of fre and leakage detec-
tion systems, improved quality of material storage, reduction in reactivity by
incorporating chemical neutralization techniques, and different water sav-
ing methods. By adopting these all methods, waste can be prevented at some
level at the initial and later phases.
2.3.2.2 Waste Minimization

It has been seen that in many manufacturing industries, such as opera-
tion, maintenance, or product delivery, waste cannot be totally eliminated
from the system. This waste becomes a part of the system. Thus, in order to
get rid of this waste, minimization techniques can be adopted, which will
FIGURE 2.3
This shows various waste preventions methods.
decrease the total amount of waste released into the environment and, as a
consequence, reduce pollution. Minimization of waste generation, or in other
words source reduction, can be collectively utilized through the adoption
of strategies of modern design, and the fabrication of products, goods, and
services that minimize the quantity of waste generated and decrease the level
of toxicity. Factories and large industries have adopted an alternative way of
reusing materials, using substitute and less hazardous materials, using mod-
ern equipment, effcient machinery, and adopting modern procedures. In the
process of waste minimization, a lower usage of resources would be greatly
benefcial to the environment. In addition, this minimization of resources
reduces the related costs.
Nowadays, modern packing systems have been developed that signif-
cantly reduce material use, save time, have better distribution systems,
decrease fuel consumption, as well as reduce emissions to the atmosphere.
Even building materials can be designed with special materials that reduce
the overall mass and weight for a particular construction. In this way, unnec-
essary and excess materials can be reduced, and waste can be minimized.
2.3.2.3 Reuse
Reuse of products or materials is the phenomenon of using the material
again and again until it is totally exhausted and has no benefts. There are
Waste Prevention 29
various products which have been reused, and utility has increased for
water in hydro power plants that can be used for electricity production as
well as irrigation and other domestic activities. In addition, tall buildings
and mansions can be made from different types of construction materials
that can be reused, such as concrete, asphalt, reinforced steel, masonry, and
bamboo poles. It has been seen that not only waste products can be reused
but even by-products by refning and regenerating them. Some examples
of such use include metal fnishing processes where copper and nickel are
recovered and using solvent extraction processes to recover oils, fats, and
plasticizers. In the latter case, activated charcoal, clay, and sand are used as
a fltering medium. Further, another method is the spray-roasting technique
for acid recovery. Even using several bio-mass processes, food-based oils can
be recovered and can be used as bio-diesel. Another example is waste from
plants and trees that can be used as chips.
2.3.2.4 Recycling
Recycling is one of the methods of waste management which refers to
recovery of different types of materials like paper, glass, plastics, wood, and
metals from the waste section. These materials can be further processed,
fabricated, and converted to a new fner product. Recycling of materials
greatly reduces the use of original raw materials used for a particular prod-
uct. This in turn reduces overall cost to the company in procuring new raw
materials. Even different waste materials can be recycled, and with small or
other changes can be made into a new form that then goes on to be used in
other processes.
In addition, recycling has opened up advantages in various felds such
as conservation of natural resources, reduction in energy consumption and
environmental emissions, thereby reducing overall energy consumption and
greenhouse gas emissions. Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions affects
the global climate. Temperatures need to be at healthy levels for the survival
of living organisms. Recycling can even create economic growth by creating
several job options to carry out this work.
2.3.2.5 Recovery
Another strategy of waste prevention is recovery. Very often, many waste
materials after reuse and recycling processes undergo different treatments
to recover some of the useful products or by-products that can be used in
various operations. Biological treatment is one such method of recovery of
materials from waste. There are different methods of bio-degradation like
aerobic composting, bio-treatment using mechanical methods, and anaero-
bic digestion. Usable compost is made by degradation of waste i.e., by sep-
arating the organic part from the inorganic material and allowing aerobic
composting.
Animal manure, waste from yards, and food are known as organic waste.
This waste contains bacteria that are degrading in nature and can convert
this waste to compost, which can then be utilized as fertilizer. Even aero-
bic composting is a method of recovery of waste to create another product.
This is done by piling up organic wastes in open areas or sometimes close
together so that gas can be collected. In this process, wood chips are added
to the waste material so that aerobic degradation of organic materials can
be better. Finally during curing process where pathogens are destroyed, the
fnal material is matured and stabilized. Along with the fnal product, car-
bon dioxide and water are also produced.
Compost materials are mostly used for improvement and remediation
of soil and ground water. These processes are labor intensive. The quality
greatly depends on the quality control of the composting process adopted.
Sometimes, if the process is not properly conducted with good quality con-
trol, large amounts of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere.
Similarly, the anaerobic degradation process releases methane, carbon diox-
ide, and bio-solids. Even biogas has wide applications, for example it can
be used for heating and electricity, and the residues can be used as natural
fertilizers. The most important advantage of anaerobic digestion is biogas
collection. In this process, degradation of waste is much faster than landfll
disposal.
Incineration is a process of waste combustion at a very temperature to pro-
duce electrical energy. This process creates ash as a by-product and reduces
various kinds of hazardous waste like chlorinated hydrocarbons, oils, sol-
vents, and pesticides.
2.3.2.6 Disposal
Under waste management schemes, disposal is one of the methods of waste
prevention. Thus landflls are methods of waste disposal. Landflls are
designed to receive waste of hazardous types as per RCRA subtitle C regula-
tions and also municipal solid waste as per subtitle D regulations. A landfll
can consist of processes regarding the collection of leachate gas collection
systems, and even monitoring of ground water. Landflls cannot be directly
managed by any individual; this requires special permission. Waste within
the landfll sites becomes degraded anaerobically. The output of the deg-
radation process is biogas, which can be collected and used for other util-
ity purposes. Co-generation systems can be combined to produce heat and
electricity. Landflls can be transformed by land recycling methods to create
wonderful playgrounds, recreational parks, and golf courses.
2.3.3 Analysis of Waste and Waste Prevention

For understanding the effect of waste and its prevention methods on
society, a sample of 100 people each was taken for two different areas at
Waste Prevention 31
FIGURE 2.4
Two samples of data showing the health effects.
Bhubaneswar, Odisha. Sample A consists of 100 people residing near waste

landflls and sample B consists of 100 people far away from waste landflls.
The sample for the test was taken from a group of people residing in the
apartments and buildings near these two defned areas. A close health study
was conducted for one year, and from the data collected from the health
reports of the nearest hospitals or dispensaries, it is clearly shown that peo-
ple staying in the close vicinity of the waste disposal area are affected by
more types of diseases than those living further away. Even changes in the
psychological behavior are observed, and the atmosphere remains polluted.
The worst sufferers are the waste management workers who dwell in these
places. From the analysis it is observed that around 67% of health cases are
observed for sample A and 23% from sample B. The results are presented
in Figure 2.4.
2.4 Case Study: Three Rs of Waste Prevention

Among the different waste prevention methods discussed in this chapter,
the three Rs are the typical three methods which every organization should
follow, as seen in Figure 2.5:
1. R – Reduce
2. R – Reuse
3. R – Recycle
FIGURE 2.5
The three Rs concept of waste prevention.
We consider a case study at the Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology

School of Electrical Engineering, Bhubaneshwar, Odisha, where this three R
concept is implemented and is found to have a substantial beneft to the school
in terms of both money and environment concerns. A period of two years, i.e.
2018 and 2019, was considered for analysis of the effect of adopting these three
R waste prevention methods. In 2018 waste prevention methods had not been
adopted, whereas in 2019 waste prevention methods were adopted.
From one of the waste prevention methods, “REDUCE”, some of the mea-
sures taken are, for example:
• Unnecessary Xerox and offce notices are prevented and e-notices

are preferred
• For advertisements, digital marketing is considered
• Publication of regular college articles in online system and
e-magazines
Similarly, from the other method, “REUSE”, the various methods adopted
are for example:
• Reuse of Xerox papers

• Reuse of project components in making other projects
• Reuse of banners and posters by Krutovites society
• Reuse of marker pens for writing on the board
For the last R of waste prevention method, “RECYCLE”, the various mea-
sures taken are for example:
• Recycling of student answer sheets, assignments, project reports,

seminar reports
• Recycling of cardboard/dusters
Waste Prevention 33
FIGURE 2.6
Monthly savings for 2019.
After using all these methods, a fnancial analysis was done to fnd out what
the savings of the department by adopting these three Rs waste prevention
methods were. This is presented in Figure 2.6. The Figure shows the savings
of the department each month by using three Rs waste prevention method.
2.5 Conclusion
Waste generation is unavoidable and exists with the growth of industrializa-
tion. As society grows and contemporary society uses up-to-date equipment
and services, waste grows simultaneously. In this study we have seen the
impact of waste on various sectors like health, environment, and the econ-
omy. Better waste management policies adopted by organizations can help
to get rid of some of the hazards generated with waste disposal. Education
and awareness have to be implemented widely in society to make people
better able to deal with waste hazards and to adopt practices and methods to
reduce waste generation. Every organization should make adoption of waste
management policies compulsory. All methods, like recycle, reuse, and
reduce, can be executed well in every sector. Adoption of the seven steps of
methodical assessment for energy management can really impact waste pre-
vention. The steps are the frst and most important part of identifcation of
waste management options, defning functional units and setting limits for
boundaries, evaluating environmental performance, evaluating economic
performance, choosing optimal scenarios, and fnally analyzing the sensi-
tive effect.
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3
Smart Waste Bin Using AI,
Big Data Analytics and IoT
Nivedita Das, Jyotiprakash Panigrahi,

Chandrima Roy, and Biswaranjan Acharya
CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 37
3.1.1 AI in Smart Waste Management.................................................... 38
3.1.2 AI in Smart Recycling ..................................................................... 39
3.1.3 Big Data Analytics Helps in Smart Waste Management............ 40
3.1.4 Internet of Things (IoT) Helps in Smart Waste Management ... 41
3.2 Related Work ................................................................................................43
3.3 Methodology ................................................................................................44
3.3.1 Support Vector Machine ................................................................. 46
3.3.2 Arduino ............................................................................................. 47
3.3.3 GPS Module ...................................................................................... 47
3.3.4 Sensor ................................................................................................ 48
3.3.4.1 Level Sensor ....................................................................... 48
3.3.4.2 Humidity Sensor ............................................................... 49
3.3.4.3 Infrared (IR) Thermal Sensor .......................................... 49
3.3.5 Functions of Proposed System....................................................... 49
3.3.6 Case Study for Critical Percentage ................................................ 52
3.4 Implementation ............................................................................................ 53
3.5 Results Analysis ........................................................................................... 55
3.5.1 Dataset Description ......................................................................... 56
3.6 Conclusion and Future Work ..................................................................... 58
References............................................................................................................... 58
3.1 Introduction
Waste material that is discarded by people, typically due to a perceived lack
of utility, is garbage, waste, rubbish, or refuse. The defnition does not nec-
essarily include products of bodily waste, solely liquid or gaseous waste,
or products of hazardous waste. Garbage is typically sorted into kinds of
material appropriate for various methods of disposal and is graded. Burying
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184096-3 37
waste also causes both air and water contamination, and a growing amount
of valuable fossil fuels are used by merely shipping it to various sites, result-
ing in more pollution and other problems [1]. The average plastic garbage
bag, buried in a landfll, needs 1,000 years to decay, giving off contaminants
as it does. At present, the collection and maintenance of the municipal waste
management system are essential activities in order to keep high hygienic
standards. The use of the conventional method of waste collection results in
an ineffective system and wasting time and resources [2].
3.1.1 AI in Smart Waste Management

The existing waste management systems are incapable of effectively deal-
ing with the massive amounts of garbage produced every day. By moving to
AI [3] for smart recycling and waste management, garbage sorting and dis-
posal processes will be automated, resulting in more sustainable recycling
practices.
Figure 3.1 shows how artifcial intelligence helps in waste management
starts with intelligent garbage bins. Waste management companies use
Internet of Things (IoT) sensors to keep track of how complete trash cans are
in the region. Municipalities may use this information to improve waste col-
lection paths, times, and frequencies.
Figure 3.2 represents various uses of AI in waste management. Various
concepts about this are described as follows:
1. With the advent of RFID tags, waste sorting systems have changed
dramatically. Songdo, a city in South Korea, employs RFID tags
to sort trash into different categories. The tags are then read by a
FIGURE 3.1
How does AI help in waste management?
Smart Bins Using AI, Big Data, IoT 39
FIGURE 3.2
Uses of AI in waste management.
pneumatic waste disposal system. As a result, the primary server,

which stores all of this information, determines the best way to dis-
pose of all of the waste generated.
2. Another revolutionary concept in waste management is the intel-
ligent trash-can, which is equipped with AI programs and IoT sen-
sors. The sensors on these trashcans measure the waste levels of the
garbage that is thrown in and send this information to the main
disposal system for processing through intermediate servers. The
data are organized by garbage type, quantity, and waste disposal
method. This system as a whole should improve its effectiveness
over time by analyzing historical records.
3. Waste sorting robots have begun to be used in landfll sites.
Traditional waste sorting methods are being phased out in favor of
automated intelligent machines. The robots can sort tons of garbage
in a day, thanks to their multitasking abilities. These robots can eas-
ily differentiate between tin foil and paper thanks to their computer
vision programs. Such large-scale systems have enormous potential
for use in a wide range of industries.
3.1.2 AI in Smart Recycling

Two SFU Mechatronics Systems Engineering engineers created an AI-
powered smart recycling machine that will revolutionize waste management
and enterprises. While sorting and sending garbage, the intelligent bins
should reason for themselves. All that is required is for the trash to be depos-
ited in the appropriate waste bin. Before determining what to do with the
garbage, the bin uses its sensors to inspect and equate the trash retrieved in
previous trash records. Depending on the decision, the garbage is directed
to the appropriate disposal system, such as a landfll or a recycling facility.
We can expect a substantial reduction in waste generated globally if we fnd
better ways to dispose of and recycle trash. This will go a long way toward
preserving the environment for a more prosperous and sustainable future.
3.1.3 Big Data Analytics Helps in Smart Waste Management

The introduction of big data has simplifed the entire recycling and waste
management process. big data has affected many industrial and scientifc
felds [4], as seen in Figure 3.3, in ways that favor the world [5]. It is used
daily, for instance, to help scientists and land managers gain a deeper under-
standing of our changing world and ways of combating climate change [6].
One way to improve recycling effciency is to create a recycling robot, which
makes the process of sorting solid waste much cheaper and safer. The big
data analytics used for different societal applications are defned in the lit-
erature [7], which interested readers can read.
It is through gathering information related to the shapes, textures, and
even brand logos of the content [8] it processes that the robot works. In total,
almost 60 cartons of recyclables per minute can be sorted by a robot! One
way big data is making recycling more effective is through the invention of
FIGURE 3.3
Concepts of big data.
a recycling robot, which makes processing solid waste much cheaper and
safer [9]. The content is sorted by the robot using data related to its shapes,
textures, and even brand logos [10].
Big data [11] is frequently used to aid route planning in order to obtain bet-
ter estimates of how much waste is made, as shown in Figure 3.4. One waste
management company in Manchester, for example, uses big data to fgure
out which neighborhoods generate the most waste and then targets those
neighborhoods for better recycling education. Big data may also be used to
help large enterprises defne areas in which they produce waste in order to
establish strategies for waste reduction [12]. By producing goods that are less
costly or environmentally damaging, many major corporations are attempt-
ing to become more sustainable [13].
Decreasing the amount of manufacturing waste created during product
production is one way businesses can become more sustainable. Here, big
data can aid in increasing productivity and cataloging [14] ways to mini-
mize packaging materials without hazardous items. This will help compa-
nies save money in the long run by reducing their resource use signifcantly.
Figure 3.5 represents the various big data applications in smart cities.
3.1.4 Internet of Things (IoT) Helps in Smart Waste Management

To put it simply, IoT is a network consisting of hundreds of devices that can
connect with each other. The IoT’s AI and ML capabilities allow the network
FIGURE 3.4
Garbage collection in big data environments.
FIGURE 3.5
Big data applications to smart cities.
FIGURE 3.6
How does IoT help in waste management?
to process the information obtained from the linked gadgets. In addition, this
information is sent to the user or is used to determine the next action, such
as changing the equipment, etc. [15] Smart cities, as depicted in Figure 3.6,
are cities that work to improve the lives of their citizens through the use of
digital technology and big data.
It is diffcult for almost every country to handle the increasing infux of
people into different urban areas. Thus, by implementing data sharing and
analytics, artifcial intelligence, and, of course, thousands of sensors, cities
are becoming smarter. New innovations to save operating costs and optimize
the value of existing assets are being implemented by local corporations.
This paper will frst introduce the concepts of artifcial intelligence, big
data, and IoT in Section 1, which will help in Smart Waste Management.
Section 3.2 is about previous studies. Section 3.3 is about the methodology
of the proposed architecture and Section 3.4 shows the implementation and
how actually it works. In Section 3.5, we analyzed the result of this tech-
nique, and Section 3.6 is about the conclusion of the chapter and future
scope.
3.2 Related Work

Waste management has been the subject of extensive study all around the
world. The majority of studies have concentrated on waste generation, dis-
tribution, and recycling manually. People have recently begun to employ
automation to effciently track and capture waste. Several IoT-based smart
technologies have been proposed to solve various issues with smart city
waste management systems. The most important problem for the smart
city is solid waste management. To address these problems, especially solid
waste management, the researchers have used a variety of methods and
techniques. Power, weight, temperature, humidity, and chemical sensors are
used in the monitoring and processing of solid waste [16].
The authors proposed a municipal solid waste management platform for
recycling collection information in [17], with the help of IT technology. A
model for waste management, transportation, recycling, and disposal was
built in this report. The fndings of this study show that the built framework
aids municipal authorities by making use of the data produced at each level
of waste monitoring and processing. Finally, the scheme met its goal by cre-
ating an adaptive waste disposal system for collection materials. Mahajan et
al. have suggested a waste bin control method based on Zig-Bees [18]. The
sensors in the garbage bins detect how much trash is in the container, and
the information is sent to the garbage collection truck driver through a fast
messaging service. In Bhor’s proposed system [19], the amount of trash in
the bins is detected using sensor systems and communicated to the autho-
rized control room via GSM unit. A GUI is also being created to track the
necessary details related to waste bins at different locations. Garbage collect-
ing would be more effcient as a result of this. IoT-based smart garbage and
waste disposal bins have been suggested by S.S. Navghanya. The waste bins
are attached to a microcontroller using a wireless IR device in this system.
Via Wi-Fi, the webpage provides updates on the state of the garbage. The IR
sensor is used to provide information about the various amounts of garbage
in the container. When the threshold level is crossed, the weight sensor is
engaged. Instead of using costly smart bins, they propose to use a sensor-
based solution that is less costly. They often use three IR sensors to show
each amount in the dustbin, as well as a Wi-Fi router to access real-time bin
status [20].
TABLE 3.1
Studies of Previous work
Components Type of
Objective Used Segregation Techniques Used
Automated Flaps, motors, Wet waste, dry Waste is detected by an infrared
waste Capacitive waste, and proximity sensor in the device.
segregator [22] plates, metal waste Metal detector sensor distinguishes
Inductance between wet and dry waste using a
coil, bins, IR capacitive sensing module.
sensor
The research on Jumper cables, Environmentally It will collect household waste such
the relationship Arduino, friendly as paper, plastics, and cardboard
between waste ultrasonic from a single location and deposit it
classifcation tracker, Servo in the classifer platform.
[23] motors, 6V
power supply
Designing waste faps, motors, Wet waste, dry Within the waste collection issue, the
disposal Arduino, IR waste concept of dynamic routes was
schemes and sensor discussed. Although real-time data
packaging were used in this study, it
waste [24] concentrated on a simplifed
version of the problem in which an
optimization model is solved every
day with just 68 waste bins
Waste Arduino, IR Wet waste, dry The ultrasonic sensor detects the
management of sensor waste amount of waste present and
smart city [25] compares it to a set of standards.
The sensor sends a message to the
Arduino, which is in control of the
system’s overall communication, if
the current amount of waste reaches
the threshold limit
Ranchan Mahajan has suggested an IoT-based waste bin monitoring sys-

tem. The sensors are mounted in public garbage bins, and the ARM7 control-
ler is informed of the threshold level indication. The controller can inform the
garbage collection truck driver which garbage bin is fully full and requires
immediate attention. The ARM7 will show a message sent using GSM tech-
nology [21]. Some more research on this is described in Table 3.1.
3.3 Methodology
The proposed model includes the inspection and disposal of solid waste
from wet and dry waste bins located in a locality. The proposed system’s
FIGURE 3.7
Proposed architecture of a smart waste bin.
architecture is shown in Figure 3.7. The proposed framework is applied in

the following stages:
1. Construct a hardware module to synchronize sensor data of the

waste bins.
Garbage bins are mounted at each place, each with ultrasonic sen-
sors that signify the amount of garbage in the bin. The waste bin
status is sent to a central cloud server using an IR level sensor and
humidity sensor.
2. Software and hardware module development on a cloud platform.
This module will receive and display real-time status updates
from all of the garbage bins.
3. Development of a map-based application that shows the current
location and condition of trash cans.
The app will display garbage bin status in real time, which will be
used by garbage collection truck drivers to determine when bins are
full or likely to be full.
4. The shortest path between the garbage truck and fully loaded gar-
bage bins is dynamically generated and displayed.
The fnal stage determines the shortest path between the garbage
truck and the garbage bins. A central cloud server takes care of route
optimization.
Algorithm 1: Smart Waste Management Algorithm

Step 1: Initialize deployed waste bins in different location
Step 2: Initialize web socket network bins
Step 3: Gather all level sensor data, humidity sensor data, and
thermal sensor data from the integrated center
Step 4: Synchronize information every hour on a cloud server
Step 5: Transmit the collected data over the internet to the servers
Step 6: Store and process the information on the server after the
prediction model predicts the critical percentage and if critical
then schedule for pick-up, otherwise wait for critical
Step 7: Using the Dijkstra algorithm, fnd the shortest path and
determine the critical waste bin
3.3.1 Support Vector Machine

The machine learning algorithm known as “Support Vector Machine (SVM)”
was used to carry out the research work fowchart. The SVM technique was
used in this study. SVM is a supervised learning method algorithm that can
be applied to regression and classifcation problems [26]. But SVM has been
mostly used in classifcation problems. SVM is a linear classifer. It predicts
results with both training set and test set. It performs classifcation by fnd-
ing the hyper plane that differentiates the two classes perfectly. How the
SVM classifes the hyper plane is shown in Figure 3.8. It actually classifes
the data set before tuning.
FIGURE 3.8
Two lines separating one hyper plane with the help of training and test set. SVM with separat-
ing hyper plane.
Algorithm 2: Support Vector Machine

(SVM) Classifcation Algorithm
Step 1: data = Load raw data()
Step 2: trainset = data*0.8
testset = data*0.2
trainset Lable = trainset[Last Column]
Step 3: SVM.initialize()
SVM.ft(trainset,trainset Lable)
SVM.save(”svm.pkl”)
Step 4: SVM.load model()
SVM.predict(tesetset)
3.3.2 Arduino
Arduino is an open-source electronics platform with simple hardware and
software that is low-cost. Arduino boards can take inputs like light from
a sensor, a fnger on a button, or a tweet and transform them to outputs
like turning on an LED, activating a motor, or publishing something online.
Figure 3.9 depicts the Arduino board that was used.
3.3.3 GPS Module

The Global Positioning System, or GPS, is a satellite-based global navigation
system that provides synchronized direction, velocity, and time. Everywhere
FIGURE 3.9
The Arduino Uno is an open-source microcontroller board designed by Arduino.cc and based
on the Microchip ATmega328P microprocessor.
FIGURE 3.10
The Global Positioning System (GPS) was created to allow military and civilian users to accu-
rately determine geographical locations.
you look, GPS is present. GPS devices are used in cars, smartphones, and
watches. The longitude and latitude of the smart bin are calculated using
GPS here. The GPS is shown in Figure 3.10.
3.3.4 Sensor
A sensor is a device that senses sensory data in its environment and con-
verts it into data that humans or machines can understand. The majority of
sensors are electronic (data are converted to electronic data), but some, such
as a glass thermometer that displays visual data [27], are simpler. Different
sensors are used for different purposes. Here in this chapter, we use three
types of sensors. These are level sensor, humidity sensor, and infrared (IR)
thermal MLX 20 sensor.
3.3.4.1 Level Sensor

A level sensor is a system that monitors, maintains, and measures liquid (and
sometimes solid) levels [28]. Once the liquid level has been detected, the sen-
sor converts the perceived data into an electric signal. There are seven main
level sensors. These are capacitance, ultrasonic, microwave/radar, vibrat-
ing, conductivity, optical level switches, and foat switches. A level sensor
is shown in Figure 3.11. This IR level sensor is always generic; no specifc
model is used. It checks the level of the smart bin, meaning it checks the sta-
tus of the bin. The status is semi-critical, critical, and not-critical [29].
FIGURE 3.11
IR Level Sensor for Arduino with IR LED.
3.3.4.2 Humidity Sensor

A humidity sensor (also known as a hygrometer) is an electronic system that
detects humidity in its surroundings and transforms the results into an elec-
trical signal [30]. To determine relative humidity, the maximum amount of
humidity for air at the same temperature is compared to the live humidity
reading at the same temperature. A humidity sensor detects monitors and
records moisture as well as air temperature. The ratio of moisture in the air
to the maximum amount of moisture at a given air temperature is called rela-
tive humidity [31]. When looking for warmth, relative humidity becomes a
key consideration. A humidity sensor (also known as a hygrometer) is shown
in Figure 3.12. This sensor measures the percentage of humidity inside or
outside of the bin (very near area).
3.3.4.3 Infrared (IR) Thermal Sensor

These sensors concentrate infrared energy from an object onto one or more
photodetectors [32]. These photodetectors translate the energy into an elec-
trical signal equivalent to the
target’s infrared energy. Different types of infrared (IR) thermal sen-
sors are present. Some of them are very popular. These are Infrared (IR)
Thermal MLX 20 Sensor, Infrared (IR) Thermal MLX 40 Sensor, Infrared (IR)
Thermal MLX 80 Sensor, and Infrared (IR) Thermal MLX 120 Sensor. Here
in this chapter, we used Infrared (IR) Thermal MLX 20 Sensor as shown in
Figure 3.13. This sensor measures the temperature [33].
3.3.5 Functions of Proposed System

In our experiment we follow these methods or functions as shown in
Figure 3.14. The main functions are given below in Figure 3.14.
FIGURE 3.12
IR Level Sensor for Arduino with IR LED.
FIGURE 3.13
Infrared (IR) Thermal MLX 20 Sensor.
a) Dataset
When we start generating data using all sensors with GPS, the
produced data are a combination of ordinary values and foating-
point values. To get a dataset (as shown in Figure 3.18) we need to do
pre-processing.
b) Pre-processing
This involves data being pre-processed in order to allow it to be
further examined, or primary processing. Pre-processing steps could
include things like extracting data from a larger collection, fltering
it for different purposes, and merging datasets. In this process the
FIGURE 3.14
Functions of the proposed system.
generated data that show ordinary value with string and foating
point are converted to normal form (as shown in Figure 3.18).
c) Machine learning classifcation (ML) technique
Here a machine learning classifcation technique known as a
Support Vector Machine (SVM) is used [34]. The produced dataset
is non-linear, so we cannot use any linear algorithm. So, we use the
SVM algorithm. The behavior of SVM has always given the best per-
formance with a smaller number of datasets. In our process, we have
only 400 attributes of data.
d) Trained model
After implementing SVM and tuning, a model is generated. Here
we get an effciency of trained model.
e) Cloud app
After getting trained model data with accuracy, it goes into a
cloud app. All sensor data with GPS data also goes into a cloud app.
f) Prediction
The process of predicting what will occur in the future is known
as predictive. It will check the critical level.
g) Action scheduler
Action scheduler is performed according to the predicted value,
i.e., critical level status. It will prepare for pick-up operation after
getting the longitude and latitude from GPS with shortest path.
h) Garbage collector
This is removing or discharging garbage and frees up spaces
periodically from the smart bin.
i) Smart Bin
This is an automated system that collects garbage in a smart and
effcient manner.
The fowchart for the proposed architecture is shown in
Figure 3.15.
Here we use an algorithm to fnd the shortest path covered by the cleaning
vehicle to clean the smart dustbin after a getting message from the cloud.
The algorithm is known as “Dijkstra’s shortest path Algorithm” [35]. When
all edge costs are positive, Dijkstra always gives the shortest path. When neg-
ative edge costs exist, however, it can fail.
Algorithm 3: Dijkstra’s Shortest Path Algorithm

Dijkstra(G, w, s)
Step 1: INITIALIZE SINGLE_SOURCE (G, s)
Step 2: s = Φ <- set of evaluated vertices
Step 3: Q = G.v <- minimum priority queue
Step 4: While Q ≠ Φ
Step 5: u = EXTRACT - MIN(Q)
Step 6: s = s ∪ {u}
Step 7: For each vertex v ϵ G. adj[u]
Step 8: RELAX(u, v, w)
The vehicle follows Dijkstra’s algorithm and gets ready to perform (as shown
in Figure 3.16(a)).
After receiving a message from the cloud, the vehicle begins to operate.
After determining the shortest route, the vehicle travels from point A (start)
to point E (destination) (as shown in Figure 3.16(b)).
For calculating the best route for a cleaning vehicle using GPS, fnd the
fnal shortest path in which the garbage collector vehicle arrives faster (as
shown in Figure 3.16(c)).
3.3.6 Case Study for Critical Percentage

Here we create real-time data sets to train the machine. To train the machine
we need the critical percentage. Case studies are given in Table 3.2.
FIGURE 3.15
Flow-chart of proposed architecture.
3.4 Implementation
As a working model of the real world, the proposed framework is tested
in practice. Here we take three pieces of data and produce a dataset which
trains our whole system. According to critical percentage, the smart bin
FIGURE 3.16
(a) Dijkstra’s algorithm gets ready to perform. (b) Following Dijkstra’s algorithm and starting
to work after getting message (source-sestination(s)). (c) The vehicle arrives and follows this
shortest path route.
TABLE 3.2
Case Study for Critical Percentage
Case Level (0–100%) IR Thermal Temp Humidity Critical Type
1 No Low High Semi-critical
2 Less High High Semi-critical
(rotten and bad smell)
3 Full Low Low Critical (immediate action
required)
4 Less High Less Semi-critical
(Note: If it is very hot and the level is not full at all, then no action is required. For example, gen-
erally at 12 noon it is very hot. The sensor is synchronized to the main board every hour.)
requires cleaning as soon as possible. When it takes data from these dis-
cussed three sensors (critical level, humidity level, and thermal signature),
it is connected to the Arduino board. Then the Arduino board is connected
to the GPS. Where through GPS, we show longitude and latitude of smart
bins. This board connects to Wi-Fi. So, this system works where Wi-Fi is
available.
Here we pulled data, and we send it to the application which has already
been placed in the cloud. We placed the critical level percentage in the cloud.
After getting numbers of data, we trained with the help of a machine learn-
ing model. After training, it will defne whether the bins are actually critical
or not. In every hour, a schedule takes place in an Arduino board. All data
coming from all sensors are managed by the cloud. Generally, at 12 noon,
heat level is high. Critical level is also high due to the heat. But we don’t need
to clean the dustbins. To avoid this type of situation we used artifcial intel-
ligence. Figures 3.17(a), (b), and (c) show the setup of the smart bin.
When the dustbin shows as critical it sends messages to the cloud. Then
the cleaning vehicle gets a message from the cloud. It moves and follows
Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm. These smart bins are always placed in a
Wi-Fi area. They only work in smart cities. If we have a neural network, it
will directly connect without the need for Wi-Fi.
3.5 Results Analysis

We produced the dataset shown in Figure 3.18 using this sensor data. But the
generated dataset is in the form of alphanumeric and foating point. After
pre-processing we get this dataset. After getting the dataset, we train our
model using machine learning classifcation, i.e., support vector machine
(SVM). We have 400 attributes of data, so SVM gives the best performance.
Figure 3.18 represents the screenshot of ten datasets. After implementing
FIGURE 3.17
(a) Set up of outside of smart bin. (b) Set up of inside of smart bin. (c) Set up of whole smart bin
with equipment’s name.
SVM and tuning, a model is generated. The fow time effciency of the
trained model is 90%.
3.5.1 Dataset Description

In this case, temperature is a critical factor. We don’t wait until the trash can
is full. We decide whether or not to pick up the dustbin right away based on
sensor data. If a dog’s body is dumped in a dustbin, no one will use it because
of the foul odor. It actually needed to be picked up right away. Otherwise, it
creates an unfavorable environment. We installed a sensor inside the dustbin
that indicates if it is not critical and is also not full. As a result, no action is
FIGURE 3.18
Screenshot of real-time dataset generated before trained model (in .csv).
required. Any parameters are not hard coded in this case. It accurately pre-
dicted all of the parameters with generated values. Our goal is to answer the
question, “How do we handle waste wisely?” In this data set, we describe the
entire data generation process.
a) The frst data represents that the humidity is 30%, the temperature
is 30°C, and the level is full, indicating that the class is semi-critical,
which means that only dry waste is present in the dustbin at this
time. It is ready for pickup, but if it is not picked up soon, it is fne.
b) The humidity is 63%, the temperature is 30°C, and the level is not
full, so the class is critical, indicating that some rotten things were
recently placed in the dustbin. As a result, the humidity rises. Pick-up
action is required as soon as possible.
c) The third data shows that the humidity is 40%, the temperature is
37°C, and the level is not full, indicating that the class is semi-criti-
cal, implying an unnecessary increase in temperature at 12 noon.
d) In the fourth data point, humidity is 81%, temperature is 33°C, and
the level is not full, indicating that the class is semi-critical, implying
that some liquid things like curry or water have been thrown away.
So, it’s better if the action is completed.
e) The ffth data point shows that the humidity is 46%, the temperature
is 31°C, and the level is full, indicating that the class is critical and
that the dustbin requires immediate attention.
f) In the sixth data point, the humidity is 90%, the temperature is 26°C,
and the level is not full, indicating that the class is critical, indicating
that the dustbin is full of watery things. It calls for immediate action.
g) The seventh data point shows that the humidity is 77%, the tempera-
ture is 35°C, and the level is full, indicating that the class is critical
and that immediate action is required for the dustbin. The eighth
data point takes humidity is 58%, the temperature is 50°C, and level
is not full, so the class is critical, meaning the dustbin is full of rotten
things. It requires immediate action.
h) The ninth sample point shows humidity at 27%, temperature at 25°C,
and level is not full, indicating that the class is not critical and no
action is required for the dustbin.
i) The tenth data point represents the humidity at 10%, the tempera-
ture at 11°C, and the level is not full, so the class is not critical, which
means the dustbin does not require immediate action.
3.6 Conclusion and Future Work

When a smart-bin is introduced into our daily lives, it will be extremely ben-
efcial in avoiding the creation of a bad odor or a bad scene. Here are some
real-world examples. When someone throws dead animals or birds into a
bin, this emits a foul odor and creates a disturbing scene. This is where the
smart bin comes in handy. It sends a message to the cleaning vehicle when it
is full. There’s no need to wait for municipal sweeping crews.
Smart solid waste management programs include real-time intelligent bin
status monitoring and rule-based decision algorithms. For sending solid waste
data through a wireless sensor network, the monitoring program uses deci-
sion algorithms. The machine is composed of three components: a smart bin,
a portal, and a control station. The basic idea is that when the waste bins reach
the critical level, smart bins gather their status data and send it to a server via
a coordinated intermediary. A series of server applications display the modi-
fed bin status in real time. The main contribution of the system is the devel-
opment and implementation of an automatic bin status management system
that employs a variety of novel rules-based decision algorithms. However, the
device faces technological challenges such as gateway long-range connectivity
technology, incorrect sensor data output, and a lack of GPS for position track-
ing, as well as citizen participation in the system for better interactions.
In the future this can be developed into edge-based distributed smart
waste bins with the feature of recycling. When it comes to separation of
materials, the recycling material will be recycled at another location. This
will prevent environmental pollution as well as waste.
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4
Artifcial Intelligence and Reducing
Food Waste during Harvest and
Post-Harvest Processes
Ibrahim A. Abouelsaad, Islam I. Teiba,

Emad H. El-Bilawy, and Islam El-Sharkawy
CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................64
4.2 Food Loss and Food Waste.........................................................................65
4.3 Reasons for Harvest and post-Harvest Loss/Waste ...............................65
4.3.1 Harvesting ........................................................................................65
4.3.2 Post-Harvest Drying........................................................................ 66
4.3.3 Packaging .......................................................................................... 66
4.3.4 Transportation.................................................................................. 67
4.3.5 Storage ............................................................................................... 67
4.3.6 Marketing.......................................................................................... 68
4.3.7 Consumer.......................................................................................... 68
4.4 Artifcial Intelligence Applications for Reducing Crop Loss/Waste ... 68
4.4.1 Crop Monitoring during Production ............................................ 68
4.4.1.1 Weather Prediction ........................................................... 69
4.4.1.2 Disease Detection.............................................................. 69
4.4.1.3 Nutrient Management ...................................................... 69
4.4.1.4 Crop Yield Prediction ....................................................... 70
4.4.2 Demand Prediction and Production Planning............................ 71
4.4.3 Distribution and Transportation ................................................... 71
4.4.4 Consumer Analytics........................................................................ 72
4.4.5 Harvesting Robots ........................................................................... 73
4.5 Conclusions................................................................................................... 73
References............................................................................................................... 74
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184096-4 63
4.1 Introduction
Providing food for the growing population worldwide, with many chal-
lenges, is of great interest at present [1]. The world population is expected
to reach nine billion by the year 2050, and this must be accompanied by
an increase of 70% of food [2]. Therefore, many researchers have been con-
cerned with increasing the production of various crops while improving
their quality [3–6]. In the meantime, massive quantities of food are being
wasted for several reasons. Handling the crops from harvest until they
reach the consumer, a quantity of waste occurs that can be estimated at 50%,
which might be more in developing countries [7]. It is evident that reducing
the loss of crops is of great importance to compensate for food shortages in
the world [8]. This can be achieved by improving the crop harvesting, stor-
age, and handling system. Moreover, the use of modern technologies can
reduce waste, ensure quality preservation, and help in making the right
decisions [9–11].
Understanding the causes of crop waste during harvest and post-harvest is
of great importance in identifying problems and reducing waste [2]. Several
factors control the preservation of the quantity and quality of crops until
they reach the consumer [12, 13]. These factors start from the cultivated feld
before harvesting. For instance, good follow-up of crops (crop monitoring)
before harvest, ensuring that they are free from pests and fungal diseases,
and choosing the right time for harvesting are crucial factors in determining
crops’ quality and increasing shelf life. There may be a tremendous waste
of crops during the storage stage due to the lack of appropriate facilities and
equipment or the absence of reasonable control over the storage atmosphere
(temperature, humidity, ethylene, CO2, and O2). Other factors infuence the
quantity and quality of crops and the level of waste, such as handling, trans-
port packages, transportation, and consumer behavior [2, 7]. The availabil-
ity of technology that helps producers to monitor, collect information, make
decisions, and avoid human errors will reduce food waste [9, 14, 15].
In the agricultural sector, the applications of artifcial intelligence (or intel-
ligent agriculture) are in continuous progress as part of the modern tech-
nological revolution [9, 16, 17]. The applications of artifcial intelligence in
agriculture have become of increasing interest due to its potential ability to
solve the problems of agricultural labor shortage, climate change, and over-
population. Agricultural robots are a well-known example of the use of arti-
fcial intelligence in the agriculture sector. Many companies are currently
developing the programming of these devices and fxing their defects to
perform many tasks such as harvesting better and faster than human labor
[17]. Crop monitoring is based on deep-learning algorithms and computer
vision that analyze the data captured by drones [9, 18]. The machine learning
models (Image-Based Predictive Analytics) test massive data amounts that
are generated on historical weather patterns, images from drones, the spread
AI and Reducing Food Waste 65
of disease, and soil reports to support and improve crop yield. Images taken
of different crops under white light or UV-A conditions can determine the
ripeness of the fruits and their readiness for harvesting. This helps farm-
ers to separate crops into categories according to maturity before sending
them to consumer markets. Overall, artifcial intelligence applications can
help enhance human lives and solve future problems and challenges [19, 20].
4.2 Food Loss and Food Waste

In the literature, food waste during post-harvest is most likely indicated as
food loss [21]. However, as described elsewhere [2], food loss is a term that
expresses the decrease in the quantity or quality of food in a way that ren-
ders it unft for consumption. Food waste may occur due to a lack of infor-
mation, infrastructure, equipment, experiences, and markets. Food waste is
a term that includes edible and good food but is discarded due to human
behavior [2]. In this chapter, we indicate both food loss and food waste as
food waste [21].
4.3 Reasons for Harvest and post-Harvest Loss/Waste

4.3.1 Harvesting
Harvesting is separating the edible portion from the rest of the plant.
Manual and mechanical harvesting are standard methods for crop harvest.
Harvesting is an important process that determines the size and quality of
a crop [22, 23]. The targets of a good harvest are to maximize crop yield and
reduce waste while preserving the quality and nutritional value. Logically,
inadequate harvesting practices can lead to waste, damage, and reduction
of the quality of crops [2, 21]. Crops could be wasted during the harvesting
process for several reasons, including leaving the edible parts in the feld and
exposing them to rotting, plowing the edible parts in the soil, pest attack,
improper harvest timing, and mechanical damage during the harvesting
process itself [2, 21].
The appropriate time for harvesting is an essential factor determining the
amount of waste produced from the economic crops [7]. Nevertheless, har-
vesting may take place at inappropriate times due to economic reasons or
human error in determining the proper times. Unripe vegetables and fruits
are susceptible to mechanical damage during harvest, unsuitable for human
consumption, and thus are disposed of. Additionally, overripe fruits are
subject to mechanical damage during harvest and susceptible to attack by

disease and insects.
For cereals, the harvest is also determined by the degree of maturity [2].
Field crops are subjected to drying before harvest to ensure good storage of
these crops due to the reduced moisture content. However, at the same time,
leaving the feld crops for a period without harvest makes them vulnerable
to attack by insects, birds, and rodents. On the other hand, an early harvest
of crops exposes them to micro-organisms and the decomposition of seeds
during storage.
Several studies have determined the appropriate timing for harvesting in
different types of vegetables and fruits based on several chemical proper-
ties such as the contents of juice, sugar, starch, acidity, oil, protein, and total
soluble solids (TSS) [24]. Furthermore, physical properties determine the har-
vest time for these crops, including size, shape, external and internal color,
texture properties, and frmness or tenderness. Both the chemical and physi-
cal properties may determine the appropriate harvest time. For example, the
appropriate ripening date in tomatoes is determined by fruit size, color, TSS,
and PH [25].
4.3.2 Post-Harvest Drying

This process is conducted for feld crops to reduce the moisture content before
storage. The length of the drying period depends greatly on the weather
conditions and the moisture content of the crops after harvest. At this stage,
the crops may be vulnerable to attack by birds and rodents. Moreover, large
quantities of these crops may be scattered or wasted in the drying places.
Accurately adjusting the moisture content of these crops after the drying
process is critical to avoid wastage [2]. For instance, if the grains and ears are
not suffciently dried, the high moisture content favors the growth of fungi
and molds in storage. On the other hand, if the moisture content of the crops
is signifcantly reduced after the drying process, the grains will become
sensitive to cracking and fragmentation, as occurs in rice, which reduces its
quality [2].
4.3.3 Packaging
After harvest, crops are often packed to prepare for transportation. Crop
packing may be executed improperly, or crops may be deposited in vehicles
without any packing. Selecting the appropriate packaging material has a
signifcant role in preserving crops and reducing their waste because these
packages help extend the shelf life of vegetables and fruits [7, 23]. On the
other hand, low-quality containers that may be purchased for a low price
may cause mechanical wounds to the fruits and increase the spread of molds
in the stores. The export process requires packages with special character-
istics during long-distance transportation, such as gas exchange, preserving
moisture content, and reducing the chlorophyll breakdown, as occurs in

vegetables.
4.3.4 Transportation
Crops may need to be moved from their production places to the storage
places or the markets. During the transport of crops from the felds, they
may be subject to wounds (mechanical damage) and consequently fungal
infections. Therefore, the quality of these crops may be severely affected,
especially in crops that are consumed fresh, such as vegetables and fruits
[7, 21]. Accordingly, the global trading system requires fast and effcient
transportation that maintains the quantity and quality of crops over long
distances.
The method of transportation depends on several factors, such as the
nature of those crops, distance, marketing value, and weather conditions
(e.g., wind, heat, cold, sunlight, and rainfall) [7, 21]. Moreover, when trans-
porting crops, they may be in a closed space, so other internal factors must
be considered, such as air humidity, temperature, mixed loads (types of
crops transported together), the rate of moisture loss, and atmospheric gas
concentration. These factors directly affect the biological processes within
crops [26]. Thus, no doubt, neglecting (or lack of information) these fac-
tors greatly infuences the shelf life of the vegetable and fruit crops and
increases the waste rate before they even reach the market or the desired
destination.
4.3.5 Storage
Crops may be stored for several reasons. Crop storage is necessary to increase
the supply of crops in times of scarcity and to avoid a shortage of supplies in
the market. Also, crops may be stored due to the availability of water and the
appropriate weather conditions for the occurrence of abundant agricultural
production in a certain period of the year without the rest of the periods.
Economic conditions also control the farmers, where the farmer may resort
to storing crops due to the low prices and hoping to resell them at a better
price after a suitable storage period.
Storage is a method of preserving the quantity and quality of crops with
less spoilage and waste for a period longer than the average shelf life for
those crops [2]. Crop storage depends mainly on scientifc methods and prin-
ciples; thus, paying attention to these principles is the basis for the success
of the storage process [27]. In closed storage conditions, control of hygiene,
humidity, temperature, atmospheric gas concentration (e.g., CO2, O2, and eth-
ylene), and ventilation dramatically contributes to the success of long-term
storage [28]. Also, controlling pests and avoiding mold growth reduce food
waste effectively. Therefore, the lack of adequate storage facilities in develop-
ing countries may be the leading cause of crop waste after harvest [2].
4.3.6 Marketing
The marketing process depends heavily on the previous stages [12]. Of
course, high-quality crops have a good chance of selling compared to low-
quality crops that carry insects and defects. Also, choosing the appropriate
time to offer crops for sale and choosing the period of consumer demand
during the year has a great role in avoiding the waste of these crops. Crops
also differ in their ability to stay in the market, as vegetable and fruit crops
must be marketed quickly, especially in the summer. Farmers must be aware
of all these factors and have information for the marketing process’s success
to avoid crops being wasted by not reaching consumers.
4.3.7 Consumer
The consumption stage is the arrival of the crops to the consumer after they are
purchased from the market. In a study carried out by FAO [29], vegetables and
fruits account for 39 % of total household waste. There are many reasons for
the occurrence of such a large amount of waste, such as over-purchasing with-
out planning, home storage facilities, income, and socio-cultural factors (e.g.,
gender and lifestyle) [13]. In general, there are noticeable differences between
countries and their economic power in the causes of agricultural crop waste. In
developing countries, the waste is mainly due to the lack of capacity for storage
and cooling in homes. However, waste is primarily due to consumer behavior,
safety policies, and quality standard requirements in developed countries [7].
4.4 Artificial Intelligence Applications for

Reducing Crop Loss/Waste
4.4.1 Crop Monitoring during Production
Sensors and imaging devices have helped producers in the agricultural sec-
tor to reduce yield losses and increase production. High-resolution cameras
and sensors mounted on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) are the eyes of the
farmer on the farm to obtain, analyze, and test data [9, 14]. In fact, the use of
aerial survey methods is not new in the feld of agriculture. A decade ago,
satellites were used to study forests and huge agricultural areas. However,
the use of drones allowed a new level of accuracy and made it easier to col-
lect and analyze data. For instance, the UAV provides high-resolution and
high-quality images independent of satellite location because the images are
taken from a level close to farmland [18, 30].
In studies on the feasibility and challenges of using drones in agriculture, the
ability of these devices to help farmers in increasing yield and reduce wastage
has been demonstrated [31]. This was performed by early detection of problems
such as pests and dehydration using special cameras. Monitoring crops (health
status) using a multispectral imaging system installed on a drone was achieved
[32]. A microcontroller with two cameras was used in that system; the frst is
a standard RGB camera, and the other is sensitive to infrared radiation. The
system exhibits images used by software to compute the normalized difference
vegetation index (NDVI). Furthermore, sensors mounted on UAV with the opti-
mal procedures for surveying, data collection, and analysis are continuously
developed and tested for precision farming applications [33].
4.4.1.1 Weather Prediction

The crops interact with the surrounding weather conditions [34]. Predicting
weather conditions such as rainfall, humidity, average sunshine, and drought
guide farmers to optimally plan agricultural and harvesting practices [35].
Weather conditions also directly control the spread of disease and insects
that are moved with crops to the storages and markets and reduce their qual-
ity, thus increasing waste. Table 4.1 lists various artifcial intelligence tech-
nologies used in weather prediction.
4.4.1.2 Disease Detection

Using artifcial intelligence techniques (e.g., pattern recognition and machine
learning), it is now possible to detect early pathological and insect infections
before their spread on the farm (see Table 4.2) [42]. Early elimination of these
diseases and insects and preventing their spread increases the quality of
crops and thus increases marketing opportunities and consumer demand
for them. Also, reducing disease and insect injuries in the felds signifcantly
reduces their transport to storage areas after harvest.
4.4.1.3 Nutrient Management

To obtain good quality traits of crops, adequate quantities of nutrients are
required in the soil [52–54]. A crop quality management application such as
TABLE 4.1
Summary of Artifcial Intelligence Technologies Used in Weather Prediction
Technique Application References
Genetic algorithm Rainfall prediction [36]
Ensemble learning Rainfall prediction [37]
Regression Rainfall prediction [38]
Regression Drought forecasting [39]
Artifcial neural network Climate change impact [40]
Decision tree Climate change impact [40]
Instance-based learning Evapotranspiration estimation [41]
TABLE 4.2
Summary of Artifcial Intelligence Technologies Used in Disease Detection
Artifcial neural network Disease detection [43]
Ensemble learning Wheat yellow rust monitoring [44]
Instance-based learning Leaf disease detection [45]
Support-vector machine Leaf disease detection [45]
Artifcial neural network Grape leaf disease detection [46]
Image processing, K-mean clustering Disease detection in Malus domestica [47]
Machine vision and image processing Identifcation of citrus disease [48]
techniques
Computer vision and image processing Detection of fungal diseases in fruits [49]
algorithms and vegetables
Artifcial neural network Detect rice leaf disease [50]
Fuzzy logic with k-means segmentation Disease severity of rice crop [51]
TABLE 4.3
Summary of Nutrient Management Achieved by Artifcial Intelligence
Artifcial neural network Nitrogen status estimation [56]
Artifcial neural network Prediction of soil fertility for several [57]
nutrients
Deep learning Prediction of soil fertility for several [57]
nutrients
Hyperspectral frame camera Monitoring the leaf nitrogen level in rice [58]
Digital photography from model Remote sensing of crop nitrogen status [59]
aircraft
Management-oriented modeling Minimizes nitrate leaching [60]
Artifcial neural network Estimate soil nutrients after erosion [61]
Remote sensing, decision tree Nitrogen application rates in corn [62]
site-specifc nutrient management is an optimal method for the detection and

classifcation of crop quality parameters [9]. This, of course, helps to increase
the market value of crops and reduce loss or waste [55]. Table 4.3 shows the
different artifcial intelligence technologies used for nutrient management.
4.4.1.4 Crop Yield Prediction

Predicting crop yield helps effectively in managing crop production and
determining many plans for marketing. For example, farm inputs, such
as fertilizers and equipment required for harvesting, can be determined
according to soil and crop needs, thus increasing feld effciency [63]. The
forecasting of crop yield also helps in determining the areas required for
storage, the number of packages, and the expected economic return for those
crops (see Table 4.4).
4.4.2 Demand Prediction and Production Planning

The main objective of this stage is to predict the demand for food (crops) and
plan ahead for agricultural production. Predicting the size of food needs
greatly helps to avoid overproduction and reduce crop losses and also helps
in the optimal use of resources [72]. The use of big data analytics and ML
algorithms helps reduce setup time and improve the sense of demand [9]
(see Table 4.5).
4.4.3 Distribution and Transportation

At this stage, studies are concerned with analyzing road problems and
reducing the damage of agricultural products while preserving their qual-
ity [9, 14]. These studies also contribute to the evaluation and analysis of
distribution problems with many applications for distribution scheduling,
identifying the storage location, storage management, dynamic allocation,
TABLE 4.4
Crop Yield Prediction Achieved by Artifcial Intelligence
Artifcial neural network Prediction of cotton yield [64]
Artifcial neural network Prediction of corn yield [65]
Regression Forecasting yield of maturing rice [66]
Fuzzy cognitive map learning Prediction of apples yield [67]
Regression Pre-harvest forecast of sugarcane yield [68]
Decision tree algorithms Soybean productivity [69]
Artifcial neural network approach Agricultural crop yield estimating [70]
Artifcial neural network Rice yield prediction [71]
TABLE 4.5
Artifcial Intelligence for Demand Prediction and Production Planning
Artifcial neural network Modeling consumer’s behavior for packed vegetable [73]
Artifcial neural network Demand forecasting for the foodstuff retail segment [74]
Genetic algorithm Food supply chain management [75]
Genetic algorithm Optimization of economics and environmental life [76]
cycle assessment in oilseed production
Genetic algorithm Environmental life cycle assessment in paddy [77]
production
Genetic algorithm Estimation of food shelf life [78]
developing local food supply chains, estimation of product shelf life, and
predicting supply chain risks under uncertainties (see Table 4.6) [9, 18].
4.4.4 Consumer Analytics

Providing accurate data on consumer needs and the connected trends will
assist producers in setting priorities, better planning ahead, and saving
resources. Machine learning techniques (e.g., Bayesian network, clustering,
artifcial neural network, and support vector machine) are used to predict
consumer needs and behavior in the buying process (see Table 4.7).
TABLE 4.6
Summary of Artifcial Intelligence Technologies Used in Distribution and
Transportation
Regression Quality assurance in sustainable food supply chain. [79]
Clustering Distribution planning for fruit-and-vegetable cold chains. [80]
Genetic algorithm Evaluate vehicle routing problem in the delivery of fresh [81]
agricultural products.
Genetic algorithm Optimizing integrated inventory policy for a multi-stage [82]
supply. Chain
Genetic algorithm Cost-optimization for fresh food quality and transportation [83]
Genetic algorithm Minimize food damage and estimate vehicle routing [84]
problem and considering road conditions
Regression A logistic network to optimize the development of local [85]
food system with safety and sustainability
Regression Monitor the crops stored in the supply chain inventories [86]
and provide status about their quality
TABLE 4.7
Different Artifcial Intelligence Applications Used for Consumer Needs and
Behavior
Artifcial neural network Classifying consumer purchasing decision [87]
Bayesian network Analyzing organic food buyers [88]
Clustering Analysis of the reasons for buying organic rice [89]
Support vector machines Forecasting consumer healthy choices regarding [90]
wheat four
Artifcial neural network Predicting consumer demand and buying [91]
behavior
Support vector machines Customer feedback [92]
Bayesian network Predicting the consumers buying behavior [73]
Wavelet neural networks Forecasting soybean sack price and the customer [93]
demand
4.4.5 Harvesting Robots

Robotics is used in many different felds such as the automotive industry,
medicine, and military equipment. In the agricultural sector, robots sup-
ported by artifcial intelligence were used to accomplish many heavy and
labor-intensive tasks such as planting seeds, spraying, and harvesting [17,
94]. The acute shortage of agricultural labor and the increase in migration
from the countryside to the cities have demonstrated the importance of
harvest robots in increasing agricultural production, reducing waste, and
improving sustainable agriculture [17].
The idea of using this technology began in a cotton gin device in 1794 by
the inventor Eli Whitney (1765–1825) [14]. This machine was used to quickly
separate the seeds from the cotton fber, which revolutionized cotton produc-
tion at that time. This was followed by a great development in agricultural
robots in planting seeds and removing seeds employing infrared light [95].
Harvest robots operate in a very complex environment due to the large dif-
ferences between crops in size, shape, color, and texture of fruits. Therefore,
harvest robots that depend on machine vision should have the ability to col-
lect information and adapt to detect the target of different crops and learn
independently [96]. The robots, as intelligent automated machines, should
have intelligent reasoning for decision making and a network transmission
function for sending the fruit images to a data center or server [17, 96, 97].
Table 4.8 lists various agricultural harvesting robots.
4.5 Conclusions
Agricultural production goes through many stages, starting from growing
crops in the felds, through to harvesting and trading them until reaching
the fnal consumer. During these many stages, crops are susceptible to spoil-
age, waste, and reduced quality. With the availability of artifcial intelligence
technology and the introduction of its application in the agricultural sector,
it is possible to increase agricultural production, improve quality, and reduce
waste. This is done by monitoring crops as they grow, tracking disease infec-
tions, crop needs of elements, and forecasting weather conditions. The use of
robots in harvesting may replace many arduous tasks for farmers and allow
crops to be classifed according to their quality and degree of maturity. The
applications of artifcial intelligence also provide the opportunity to monitor
crops in stores, and determine market requirements and consumer trends,
which will greatly help in planning in advance for production and identify-
ing priorities. The technology of artifcial intelligence and its application in
the agricultural sector is a continuous progression to face many challenges
such as high costs, the accuracy of results, low speed of harvesting, and the
TABLE 4.8
Robots Used in Harvesting
Fruits Time Required
Recognition to Harvest One
Recognition Method Accuracy (%) Fruit (s) References
Vision-Based Target (Multi box detector plus a 90 16 [98]
stereo camera)
Stereoscopic 3D vision sensing to recognize oil 65–70 - [99]
palm fresh fruits
Stereoscopic vision (stereo camera) for apples 89.5 - [100]
location
Laser range fnder (test the role of light to get - - [101]
information) for tomato cluster harvesting
A multispectral imaging analysis for citrus 88–93 - [102]
fruit detection
Feature images fusion for robust tomato 93 - [103]
detection
Deep detection network (in-depth learning), 91 31.7 [104]
to locate the iceberg lettuce
Binocular stereo vision for clustered tomatoes 87.9 - [105]
detection
Vision-based determination of spatial 87 - [106]
information (binocular stereo vision) for
grape clusters harvesting
Double otsu algorithm (multiple color targets) 95 - [107]
for litchi fruit detection
A vision servo system (three cameras to make 82.16 51.1 [108]
the visual servo system) for sweet pepper
harvest
Visual system by stereoscopic vision plus 76.1 5.5 [109]
deep neural network for kiwi fruit picking
Citrus recognition by shape analysis method 90 - [110]
and fruit detection algorithm
Fruit detection from images by deep learning 96.3 - [111]
Fruit geometry and color space for ripe 96 - [112]
tomato detection
ability to apply to different types of crops and under different environmen-

tal conditions.
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5
IoT-Enabled Services for Sustainable
Municipal Solid Waste Management in India
Hrishikesh Chandra Gautam, Vinay Yadav, and Vipin Singh
CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................83
5.2 Municipal Solid Waste Management in India .........................................84
5.3 Internet of Things (IoT) ...............................................................................85
5.4 IoT Applications in MSW Management ...................................................85
5.5 Structure of IoT Framework ....................................................................... 88
5.5.1 Perception Layer............................................................................... 88
5.5.2 Network Layer.................................................................................. 89
5.5.3 Middleware Layer............................................................................ 89
5.5.4 Application Layer............................................................................. 90
5.5.5 Business Layer.................................................................................. 90
5.6 IoT-Based SWM Application in Indian Cities .......................................... 90
5.6.1 Bengaluru.......................................................................................... 90
5.6.2 Vijaywada.......................................................................................... 91
5.6.3 Surat ................................................................................................... 92
5.6.4 Vapi .................................................................................................... 93
5.6.5 Bhopal................................................................................................ 93
5.6.6 Indore................................................................................................. 94
5.7 Conclusions................................................................................................... 94
References............................................................................................................... 95
5.1 Introduction
Rapid urbanization and industrial development have led to an increase in
material consumption due to affuent lifestyles, and as a result increases in
per capita municipal solid waste (MSW) have been generated (Yadav et al.,
2016, 2020). The increase in the amount of solid waste generated has turned
effcient and sustainable management of solid waste into a challenge. The
complex system of solid waste management (SWM), which comprises eff-
cient collection and segregation to proper disposal, reuse, and recycling of
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184096-5 83
the waste generated, is facing challenges due to increases in population and

solid waste quantities. These challenges are faced by offcials from sanita-
tion departments, city municipalities, decision makers, as well as ordinary
citizens on a daily basis. A lot of studies have been done in recent decades
in various felds, ranging from effcient collection and disposal to the eco-
nomic sustainability of the collection process (Yadav et al., 2021). In the stud-
ies, the SWM infrastructure in developing countries like India is found to be
improper and inadequate compared to developed countries in the West. The
problem is compounded by the momentous growth in population and affu-
ent lifestyle of the population.
5.2 Municipal Solid Waste Management in India

MSW Management is a challenging task due to the huge amount (85 million
tons) of municipal solid waste per year by 377 million people living in 7,935
towns and cities. Of MSW, 50% of waste is collected, 14% treated, and 36%
reaches landfll sites (Samar, 2019). Per capita MSW generated in developing
countries of around 0.3–0.5 kg per person per day is smaller compared to
industrialized countries of 0.8–1.4 kg per person per day, but due to lack of
infrastructure and monetary resources it poses huge problems. According
to CPCB (2016), approximately 62 million metric tons (MT) MSW was gener-
ated yearly in India, which is ~0.45 kg per capita per day. This is expected to
increase by 165 MT, 230 MT, and 436 MT by 2030, 2041, and 2050, respectively.
About 82% of generated MWS is being collected, out of which only 28% is
treated, the remaining being openly dumped (Sharma and Jain, 2019). The
revenue allotted to SWM does not compensate the monetary requirement for
minimization and treatment of solid waste. As a cheaper option, most of the
generated waste fnally goes to landfll sites, but due to limitations of space
required and the increasing population the option is not sustainable for a
long duration. Apart from that, a lot of waste generated in developed coun-
tries goes to landfll sites in Asian and African countries as a cheap solution,
which increases the burden on landfll sites in developing and poor coun-
tries. This issue of Not In My Backyard (NIMBY) has been widely reported
in literature and increases the severity of an already dire situation (Sonak et
al., 2008; Guerrero et al., 2013).
In recent years the rise of information technology, artifcial intelligence
(AI), machine learning (ML), and Internet of Things (IoT) in general has
made MSW management effcient on many fronts (Atzori et al., 2010). With
the help of faster computation, involvement of big data, better maintenance
of infrastructure through effcient data handling, and understanding the
core of problems through data analytics, better handling and management
can be achieved.
IoT-Enabled Services in India 85
5.3 Internet of Things (IoT)

With the rapid rise in technology and digitalization over recent years, a
lot of devices that we commonly use in our lives as well as industries have
been replaced by so-called smart devices which possess microprocessors for
faster and more effcient utilization. These devices are normally connected to
surrounding devices through Bluetooth or Wi-Fi, where data can be shared
over a network of devices and can enhance the performance of a device at an
individual as well as network level. This enhancement of performance and
connectivity lead us to the concept of IoT.
IoT can be defned as interconnecting physical devices like sensors and
actuators into wired or wireless networks for the achievement of specifc
tasks (Alqahtani et al., 2019; Saha et al., 2017; Thakker et al., 2015). The inter-
connectivity helps the device to share the data and information with others
across the platform by a unifed network which can enhance the effciency
of the device and perform a variety of actions to develop innovative prod-
ucts and solutions. The basic idea of IoT is to connect and share informa-
tion between radio frequency identifcation tags, sensors, actuators mobile
phones, and smart devices online or through ad hoc networks so that the
devices can operate more effciently and at a larger scale (Arasteh et al., 2016;
Kim et al., 2017; Anagnostopoulos et al., 2015; Kunst et al., 2018; Shyam et
al., 2017). Recent projects have also been involved in applications in smart
city development as well as industrial IoT. Even though the applications are
at a nascent stage, their potential in making our everyday life easier and
more effcient is huge. Areas where these technologies are being explored
and research is being conducted are solid waste management, health, supply
chain management, connecting houses, buildings, and cars, etc.
The issues that have to be resolved for effcient application in all these areas
include better analytic and monitoring tools for the network, effcient and
fast updating of data storage, as well as backup, security issues involving
data access and data theft, and fast internet access to all the devices at dif-
ferent times. A lot of recent applications are paying attention to these issues,
and rapid development is taking place in resolution of these issues.
5.4 IoT Applications in MSW Management

In the case of MSW, the IoT solution has been applied to a number of steps
including waste collection, transportation of waste, waste segregation, waste
recycling etc. (Weber et al., 2017; Zanella et al., 2014). Application of IoT in
effcient waste collection involves detecting the flling level, tilt, fume and
gas generation, GPS location, humidity, temperature sensing, and detection
of fre. If any of these parameters are not found within the desired value or
limit, the nearest person with the responsibility of MSW collection will be
prompted to take the desired steps in alleviating the issue. These parameters
have been considered in development of smart waste bins which have been
developed and are operational in some municipalities (Islam et al., 2012;
Mahajan et al., 2014; Sinha et al., 2015).
In the case of waste transportation/collection, the collection vehicle has
to traverse through the city to collect MSW disposed in bins. The IoT sys-
tem detects through sensors when a specifc waste bin is flled more than a
given level and send a signal to the driver of the collection truck. The driver
gets the location of the bins which have been flled more than the desired
level and have to be emptied. A routing algorithm is applied to the location
of bins and the route traversed for the waste transportation with the least
distance and fuel expenditure, keeping in mind the traffc across the area
travelled (Arora et al., 2020; Varsha et al., 2019a, 2019b). Sensors also take
account of the amount of waste flled in the truck and the distance from
the dumping yard, keeping in mind the route, time, and duration. Sensors
can also detect the emission of fues/poisonous gases in the collected waste
(Figure 5.1).
Nidhya et al. (2020) developed an enhanced route election algorithm to
decide the path of the waste collection truck so that the truck can traverse
through the city and collect waste from smart bins flled more than 90%
using the ERS algorithm, using the shortest route thereby saving time, fuel,
and producing low emissions. In the study, they proposed a system compris-
ing smart bins, remote servers, and base station. The smart bin is equipped
with a sensor which sends a signal to the remote server through the base
FIGURE 5.1
An outline of a framework for IoT applications in the collection of processing of waste under
the solid waste management plan.
station when the smart bin is flled more than 90%. The remote server is
connected to all the smart bins maintained by the city corporation. The base
station is used for referencing the smart bin and its geolocation.
The ERS algorithm frst directs the collection vehicle to the closest flled
smart bin and then directs the vehicle to the next smart bin with the short-
est travel time. Otherwise, the nearest smart bin is selected until the end of
the collection procedure. The algorithm and the collection system developed
takes care of collection and monitoring of garbage in real time, complexity
of route detection in pickup of garbage in multiple locations, as well as end-
to-end delays in data transmission between the smart bin and the remote
server.
Murugesan et al. (2019) proposed a framework-based model on waste level
detection in waste bins. The data, generated from the level of waste and
detected with sensors, is transmitted to offcials through the internet. The
data is also used to detect unwanted waste bins which can be removed or
transferred to other locations for enhancing the route and structure of the
MSW collection network. The data is also used to understand the distribu-
tion and trends of the waste collection status and distribution to allocate
the collection manpower and resources more effciently in the future. The
spatial analysis helps in detecting unwanted waste bins and also to antici-
pate the waste collected status of waste bins area-wide. A sensor hub com-
prises a bridge rectifer, step-down transformer, a channel of circuit, and a
device to regulate voltage, with data transfer through an ethernet modem
connected to Arduino UNO microcomputer board. Ultrasonic sensors are
used to detect the level to which the waste bin is flled, and the data is com-
municated to the nearest control room through an HTML based webpage.
The ultrasonic sensor uses sound waves to detect the height of waste col-
lected in the waste bin. Downpour sensors are used to detect precipitation
and IR sensors are used to detect proximity with objects kept near the waste
bin. In case of precipitation, the waste bin lid is automatically locked with
the help of motors. Another study by Malapur et al. (2017) proposed an
MSW management system to provide an optimized path for waste collec-
tion vehicles using dynamic scheduling. The waste bins provide alerts when
flled up using sensors. A user-friendly android app helps in the optimizing
collection of waste. Nirde et al. (2017) proposed an IoT-based wireless solid
waste management system for smart cities which helps municipal bodies
with continuous monitoring of the waste level in waste bins remotely, using
a web server, thereby saving time and optimizing costs. The authorities get
informed of flled waste bins through a message-using Global System for
Mobile Communications (GSM) placed in the waste bin. Garbage collection
vehicles are sent to the relevant location for waste collection. Poddar et al.
proposed an integrated system for waste management, using smart waste
bins equipped with a network of sensors. The system also transmits real-
time data indicating the waste level of the bin (Poddar et al., 2017).
Kumar et al. (2016) proposed an IoT-based alert system for waste collection,
which sends an alert to the municipal web server, based on the garbage level
in dustbins, to empty the dustbins with proper verifcation. The system is
supported by a module integrated with RFID and IoT. Baby et al. (2017) pro-
posed a waste alert system that alerts the municipality to collect waste from
flled up waste bins. The garbage trucks are sent to only those areas with
flled garbage bins, saving time and decreasing fuel use and vehicular emis-
sions. The collected data is used to train machine-learning based models to
get an understanding of waste generation trends. The model results are used
to predict the waste bins that are going to be flled soon. Pardini et al. (2018)
proposed a smart waste bin with load cell sensors and ultrasonic sensors
used for identifcation, Global Positioning System (GPS) for determining the
location and Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) or General
Packet Radio Service (GPRS) for communication. The study intends to con-
tribute to social, economic, and environmental management of large cities.
Even with fexibility in structure of IoT devices, sensors, and sensor net-
works, there are issues related to speed in data collection, quality of data
collected, as well as connectivity across the network and data privacy (Gubbi
et al., 2017). To address these issues, standard structures consisting of vari-
ous layers have been proposed over the years. These structures are proposed
with the objective of effcient quality of standards (QoS), sustainability, data
integrity, confdentiality, and reliability.
5.5 Structure of IoT Framework

The different components and layers in the IoT framework are described
below. Even though the detailed structure can vary based on application, the
overall framework follows the following structure (see Figure 5.2).
5.5.1 Perception Layer

Perception layer of IoT architecture is also defned as the physical layer of
the network as it constitutes the hardware allocated with the responsibility
of collecting data in the form of physical information, processing the data,
and transmitting it to the higher layer securely. It uses the application of sen-
sors to detect the physical information from the surrounding such as weight
temperature, humidity etc. In addition, the data can be collected through QR
codes and RFID tags. In the case of solid waste management systems, the
perception layer consists of sensors which collect the data regarding level of
waste collected, weight, humidity, presence of gas and fumes, temperature,
detection of fre, precipitation, as well as nearby objects, and sends the infor-
mation to the higher layers.
FIGURE 5.2
Detailed architecture of IoT infrastructure.
5.5.2 Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for collection of data from the perception
layer and transferring the data to higher layers where the processing system
for the collected data is located.
The layer uses a single or combination of different connectivity protocols
like GSM, UMTS, Wi-Fi, Infrared etc. In addition to connecting the different
components of the IoT network, the layer also has the responsibility to per-
form cloud computing tasks and overall data management.
5.5.3 Middleware Layer

This is the layer consisting of software or a set of layers used to intercon-
nect the components which are unable to communicate otherwise. The main
objective of this layer is to provide concurrency between the perception layer
and application layer so that they can interact effectively and effciently, and
it also plays in modifcation and development of new IoT infrastructures.
5.5.4 Application Layer

This layer does not contribute to the overall structure of the IoT infrastruc-
ture directly, but it provides the various services and platforms for the users
to interact with the IoT system and access the information produced by the
infrastructure and interpret the information to take proper action. This layer
may consist of webpages, Android apps etc. or a combination of them.
5.5.5 Business Layer

This layer manages the overall IoT system including the service-related
applications and reports. This layer is responsible for providing the analysis
report of the underlying layers and over-effciency of the IoT application. The
layer also addresses issues related to connectivity, data speed, processing
time, and privacy.
5.6 IoT-Based SWM Application in Indian Cities

IoT based solutions for solid waste management have been applied to a num-
ber of Indian cities under the Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan Programme, opera-
tional under the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA, 2019).
The solution ranges from smart waste bins using IoT-based sensors to use
of RFID tags for waste collection vehicles and automated weighbridges for
weighing the waste collected.
5.6.1 Bengaluru
The city of Bengaluru generates a large amount of waste amounting to 4,500
tons per day. The collection and transportation of waste from different loca-
tions in the city require 4,000+ primary collection vehicles (PCV) and 500+
secondary transportation vehicles (STV). IoT-based technologies have been
applied for monitoring and regularizing of the feet movement of collection
vehicles to the destinations for waste collection and recording of the tonnage
of waste delivered at designated waste collection yards as well as landflls.
All the waste collection vehicles (PCVs and STVs) under Bruhat Bengaluru
Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) are installed with RFID tags.
Installation of RFID tags ensures that only authorized vehicles are allowed
at the designated destinations and unauthorized transfer of waste can be
stopped. The RFID applications are also used to record the PCV’s/STV’s
weight at the weighbridge as an essential data feld to the scanning process.
This daily data is used for calculating payments to be given to service pro-
viders based on the waste collection vehicle’s performance. The details of all
the operational waste collection vehicles are uploaded to the Auto Tipper
Registration (ATR) application by the offcial in charge of the waste collec-
tion. The PCVs are provided with RFID tags which are fxed on the vehicle
for easy and fast scanning. The RFIDs of all the PCVs are scanned at the mus-
tering point as well as the frst and second transfer points to the STVs. The
regular scanning of vehicles helps in recording vehicle attendance as well as
completion of the required number of trips for the day and transfer of waste
to the designated STVs. The RFID scanning application is installed in the
presence of authorized personnel with their approval and authentication.
Every vehicle provided with an RFID tag has to be scanned while entering
the collection/processing plants or sanitary landfll. The vehicle is allowed
access after authorization through the RFID tags provided to the waste col-
lection vehicles. The data provided through RFID tags of different vehicles
is compiled and sent to the cellphones of the SWM offcials on a daily basis.
The RFID-based monitoring with centralized control room is integrated into
the blockchain-based citizen helpline. The daily data of vehicle movement
through designated destinations and vehicle performance is analyzed at the
end of the month.
The RFID-based smart monitoring system monitors and analyses the
movement as well as performance of all the vehicles in a fast and effcient
manner. All the vehicles reach the designated destination; and there is no
possibility of data manipulation with regard to vehicle performance. The
elimination of data manipulation makes the collected data more reliable and
authentic. It enables the offcials to analyze the number of vehicles that arrive
against the space allocated for vehicles as well as the input of waste reach-
ing the processing plants and the sanitary landflls. This helps in optimiza-
tion of vehicles, waste bins, and manpower required based on the amount
of waste transferred and total number of trips made to collect the waste. The
integrated system has improved the overall effciency of waste collection and
transportation in a seamless manner and increased the overall quality of
work for the designated offcials.
5.6.2 Vijaywada
Vijaywada is a city in Andhra Pradesh state in India with the waste gen-
eration of 550 metric tons/day. All the solid waste management bins are
installed with RFID tags for monitoring the waste disposal and collection
process and increasing the effciency and speed of the overall process. The
RFID tags are read in a timely manner by the RFID readers, and the collec-
tion of waste from the bins with the help of the waste collection vehicle is
recorded. The movement of the waste collection vehicle between the waste
bins and waste processing plant is recorded in real time using a GPS system.
All the data collected through the IoT-based system is transferred to the cen-
tral command center where the data is processed and evaluated to analyze
the overall effciency of the system, and corrective measures are taken to
enhance the effciency. The entire process of waste collection and transporta-
tion to processing sites and landfll is monitored through a structured pro-
cess using IoT-enabled devices and networks. RFID tags installed on top of
each waste bin are allotted a tag with unique details (serial number, location,
collection vehicle details etc.). Once the collection vehicle reaches the loca-
tion, the driver can read the RFID tag with his RFID reader, and the infor-
mation is sent to the server with waste bin details and time of lifting, and
the database is updated. SIM-based solar close circuit TV (CCTV) cameras
which require low maintenance are installed across the city to monitor the
condition of waste bin as well as spillage of waste. The vehicular movement
is recorded using GPS-based vehicle tracking devices and updated to the
server in real time for online monitoring. Timely lifting of garbage using IoT-
based garbage monitoring saves manpower and day-to-day operating costs,
and the frequency of complaints is also reduced.
5.6.3 Surat
In Surat, a city in Gujrat state, IoT applications were developed to ensure
that the collection vehicles attend the specifed route at the defned time for
collecting waste. The system was also used for measuring the performance
of vehicle/contractor and calculation of payment and penalty based on the
performance. The system is able to generate reports of the vehicle and waste
collection performance on demand.
The system monitors the vehicle in real time providing the information
of waste collection to the server. The transfer and disposal sites are also
automated to increase effciency and also minimize human intervention.
The door-to-door vehicles are installed with radio frequency identifcation
(RFID) tags that identify the vehicle in real time at the transfer stations and
record the weight of waste collected which is updated on the server.
The system tracks a total of 551 vehicles where GPS is used for real-
time tracking of location to check whether the door-to-door vehicle has
traversed through all the points of interest and collected waste along the
route assigned for the specifc vehicle. The contractors can also be penalized
based on the number of points of interest not covered along the route. GPS
devices provide real-time monitoring information of all the door-to-door
collection vehicles to the command-and-control center of Surat Municipal
Corporation. Vehicle information and the points of interest traversed can
also be linked to the weight of collected waste automatically recorded at the
weighbridge.
The system works with minimum human intervention to provide accurate
real-time data for each vehicle at all the waste handling facilities. The system
is accountable and transparent which prevents misuse by avoiding manual
intervention. It ensures real-time coverage of all of Surat city with actionable
data for effcient decision making. The software application part of the sys-
tem is also being used for redressal of public grievances.
5.6.4 Vapi
An IoT-based system for waste collection, disposal, and addressing user
complaints in real time was developed for the city of Vapi. The system is cur-
rently being used by Vapi Municipal Corporation.
The system used near feld communication (NFC) tags that were provided
to every house. It solves the problem of diffculty in fnding addresses by
municipal employees. It also helps the municipal corporation to integrate all
government services into individual houses.
A digital easy city code is provided to all households using the NFC tag
which validates all the visits by door-to-door collection facilities. It also helps
the citizen to locate all houses digitally and share the location. Smartphone-
enabled complaint management helps to record all citizens grievances in real-
time and provide an effcient way for waste management offcials to resolve
issues in a fast and effcient manner. Citizens connect using SMS, and phone
call alerts are also sent to citizens to provide updated information. Easy city
code is an open smart address system which can be used by citizens to access
the geolocation of a given address and is easy to fnd and share.
The developed system has reduced the grievances received related to door-
to-door collection of waste by 90%, and the number of grievances solved per
day has increased ten-fold. The system helped the waste department save
20+ lakh rupees a day and reduced the time taken in addressing and solving
grievances from two days to one day. The system has also added accountabil-
ity and transparency regarding the working of Vapi Municipal Corporation.
Timely data-oriented reports and analytics also help in improving the sys-
tem and effcient decision making.
5.6.5 Bhopal
Bhopal, a city in the state of Madhya Pradesh, was facing the issue of ineff-
cient waste management due to its wide geographical area, with bins placed at
different locations and which fll at different rates i.e., bins in areas with high
traffc rates and population are flled at a faster rate. Aligning the garbage
collection trip with the status of flled garbage bins was not possible, leading
to a higher number of trips with excess fuel expenditure and operating costs.
The municipal corporation has installed 700 RFID tags and fuel sensors in
waste collection vehicles as well as 230 IoT-based sensors in 460 twin bins
across high priority zones identifed by the authorities. A real-time vehicle
tracking system (RTVTS) was integrated with real-time monitoring using IoT
sensors for seamless and effcient collection of waste across the city. The inte-
gration helped in route planning as well as optimizing the waste collection,
resulting in a high frequency of weekly waste collection and a reduction in
grievances by citizens. The twin bins in the identifed zones were installed
with IoT-based ultrasonic sensor devices which identify the fll status and
alert the central command center in real time once the waste bin reaches
80% of its fll capacity. Accordingly, the nearest vehicle enroute is identifed
and instructed through SMS triggered by the RTVTS system to collect waste
from the identifed garbage bin. The integrated system helps in route plan-
ning of the garbage collection by vehicle as well as ward/area-wise route
optimization in the city for effective mapping of the vehicle, route planning,
and improved monitoring of waste collection. Real-time data analysis helps
in comparing the ward/area-wise data collection process of the city i.e. spa-
tially as well as temporally. It helps in effcient decision making and avoiding
unnecessary trips. It also helps in weekly analysis of waste collection trips,
creating reports on fuel effciency, cost, and manpower optimization.
5.6.6 Indore
Indore city in Madhya Pradesh has a waste generation capacity of 1,100 tons
per day. The city’s municipal corporation was facing the issues of not know-
ing whether all the waste had been collected, assessment of the quantity of
wet and dry waste collected, as well as data manipulation in the amount of
waste collected and trips taken. An integrated IoT-based system was devel-
oped for the city to address these issues in a timely and effcient manner.
The door-to-door collection vehicles were equipped with GPS and RFID
tags. The vehicles are automatically read with the help of an RFID tag at the
respective transfer station, and entry of unauthorized vehicles is stopped.
Real-time data is recorded, transferred, and analyzed at the command cen-
ter. When the waste collection vehicle equipped with GPS and RFID reaches
the weighbridge, the automated barrier can read the RFID tag and open. The
vehicle weighing operation is conducted in three stages. At the frst weigh-
bridge the vehicle is weighed. Then the vehicle unloads the dry waste, and
weight is recorded at the second weighbridge. Wet waste is unloaded, and
the vehicle is weighed at the third weighbridge. The compiled data is com-
municated to the central command center in real time. The data of distance
travelled between collection sites and the processing facility, and the amount
of dry and wet waste collected by each vehicle is recorded and analyzed
for all departments at the command center. The system has optimized the
day-to-day operation costs, time spent, and manpower utilized. The system
has stopped the manipulation and tampering of collected data by removing
human intervention in the data collection process. The accurate data is used
for future planning and development as well as further optimization of the
waste collection process.
5.7 Conclusions
The current work deals with the application of IoT in solid waste manage-
ment in Indian cities. The current situation of solid waste management in
India was described, followed by the description of IoT-based systems and

their different applications. The chapter ends with a detailed account of IoT-
based systems applied in different cities across India. Various benefts and
shortcomings of the technology were discussed as summarized below.
The benefts of application of IoT in developing a smart SWM are seam-
less and allow real-time connectivity and fow of information. It helps the
stakeholders (citizens as well as municipal organization offcials) to connect
and share information regarding waste collection and disposal through
updates on smartphone applications or SMS. IoT makes the SWM system
more effcient in terms of waste collected, time spent, as well as money spent
on vehicle fuel.
The system also minimizes human intervention which thereby reduces
hindrances caused by unintentional human error as well as data manipula-
tion. The data is recorded and stored at a central server from which analytic
reports are generated on effciency and resources utilized, and these com-
municated to shareholders. Data trends are also used for future improve-
ments in the system.
The system also has some shortcomings such as investment in installation
being required, as well as maintenance. Even though the system is devel-
oped with devices which need low maintenance, technical knowledge and
support will be required in case of maintenance as well as handling of errors
and faults.
The public as well as employees at waste collection facilities must be edu-
cated on using the system effciently through mobile applications. Initial
training may be required for the offcials to access the data and make sense
of the system.
Lack of accessibility of fast internet and mobile communication at the loca-
tion can also act as a roadblock in the application of IoT-based systems in
developing an effcient solid waste management system.
Machine learning-based applications in combination with big data sys-
tems can be used to gain knowledge about the waste generation. Waste gen-
eration can be forecasted, and based on the results of this, waste handling
offcials can be informed in advance. A combination of spatial interpolation
and clustering techniques can also help in identifying the hotspots where
extra resources could be allocated. Further research is required to reduce the
overall costs and provide better data connectivity in remote locations.
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6
IoT-Enabled Smart Dustbin
Sankalp Nayak, Alok Narayan, and Jitendra Kumar Rout
CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 99
6.2 Related Work .............................................................................................. 101
6.3 Proposed Methodology............................................................................. 103
6.3.1 Hardware and Software Used ..................................................... 103
6.4 Proposed Architecture.............................................................................. 111
6.4.1 Architecture of System Components .......................................... 114
6.4.1.1 Data Generation Unit...................................................... 115
6.4.1.2 Data Processing Unit ...................................................... 115
6.4.1.3 Application Unit .............................................................. 116
6.5 Conclusion and Future Scope .................................................................. 118
References............................................................................................................. 119
6.1 Introduction
As far as the present-day scenario goes, the primary cause of land pollu-
tion is waste overfow which may accumulate and lead to severe threats on
humankind and all living things at large. Therefore, the project of “smart
connected dustbins” was designed. In the frst place, it tackles waste disposal
and, in due course, prevents the problems caused otherwise. The project uses
concepts of IoT, Android applications, and cloud technologies to deploy the
idea as mentioned above.
The smart dustbin works based on a variety of sensors. The IoT concept
is widely used as it helps to connect various components over the internet
and aids in intercommunication as and when required. Primarily sensors
are located all over the bins to track their locations, as they are spread across
different places and have to be coordinated from a single site. A unique ID
is provided for each bin to aid in proper identifcation. Various other sen-
sors are used like ultrasonic sensors, which track the level of garbage in the
bins, the master Arduino catcher with Wi-Fi module which sends an alarm
to relevant authorities when the threshold limit of the bin is reached, and
then the mobile applications or message services can be used for taking a
quick view. Further, another detector, i.e., the odor detector, can be used to
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184096-6 99
notify offcials about the rotting smell of the garbage so that harmless chemi-
cal sprinklers can be spread. The tracking of the bins and their monitoring
becomes very viable using mobile applications.
The research aims at designing and building a model to estimate the
amount of content inside the smart dustbins. The authorities are sent an app
notifcation when the content of the bin exceeds 80%. The tracking can be
easily maintained with the help of the unique ID, and the collected data can
be easily viewed on the back end with the help of a mobile app or dashboard.
a. Problem defnition: Domestic garbage is disposed of in dustbins

positioned along the roadway. Every public garbage bin is emptied
at random. Because the dustbins occasionally fll up quicker than
usual, constant human supervision is necessary to manage the over-
fow level. People cannot throw their garbage in dustbins when it has
overfowed so they dump it outside the bin. During the rainy season,
the situation deteriorates as rainwater enters the trash, creating a foul
odor. And as we have seen all around us, dustbins are overfowing,
and the involved garbage collecting authorities frequently do not get
notifcation within the time frame specifed. Moreover, the garbage
collection trucks don’t know which dustbin needs to be emptied;
instead, they sequentially visit dustbin sites where many dustbins
don’t need to be emptied as they might not be full. The process of
visiting sequentially where some dustbin might not be required to be
emptied consumes a lot of time and energy, such as wastage of fuel.
It reduces the overall effciency of the waste collection system.
b. Need for improvement in waste management system
i. One of the most crucial things that every human being values is
cleanliness. We must acknowledge flthy places and make them
tidy and nice in order to be clean. This is also benefcial to the tran-
quility of the environment. Dustbins are generally seen as dirty
since they are overfowing with trash and emit terrible odors.
ii. Waste management reduces the volume and hazardous charac-
ter of residential and industrial waste, preventing harm to the
inhabitants and the environment as well.
iii. By the end of 2030, at least two-thirds of the entire population
across the globe will live in cities. For urban areas, this type of
waste management system is essential.
c. Features of the smart dustbin
i. It emphasizes the concept of “digital India.”
ii. It can check the form of the waste (i.e., solid or liquid waste).
iii. The smart dustbin will check the amount of waste present in
it and will periodically send the messages to the appropriate
authority directly.
IoT-Enabled Smart Dustbin 101
iv. The smart dustbin app will also notify the municipal corpora-
tion workers about the shortest path available to the dustbins
using “transportation software.”
d. Advantages of the smart dustbin
i. The Global Positioning System (GPS) shows the shortest path
available, saving time and fuel to a great extent.
ii. The system is used to indicate the amount of waste that has been
disposed of.
iii. Webpages make it simple to keep track of the dustbin.
iv. Daily seasonal information is gathered from the e-waste man-
agement. Cleaning companies can plan effciently and send their
staff to empty the trash and the routes their cleaners should take
for the least amount of trip.
v. Our smart operating system enables communication between
dustbins and service operators
vi. The sensors of the containers provide real-time information that
will lead to the ability to prioritize collection processes.
vii. Reduces the infrastructure load and the operating and mainte-
nance costs of the service by up to 30%.
viii. Reduces the amount of time spent by human monitoring. The
system may be used to reduce costs and time.
e. Applications of the smart dustbin
i. Paves the way for digitalization of the entire globe and smart
connected cities.
ii. It reduces time and increases the effciency of waste control and
management.
The rest of the chapter is organized as follows: details of the related works
are discussed in Section 6.2. The details of the proposed IoT-enabled smart
dustbins are given in Section 6.3. Section 6.4 depicts the proposed architec-
tural details. Finally, Section 6.5 concludes the chapter.
6.2 Related Work

Upon a survey all over India’s street disposal bins, it has been found that due
to lack of monitoring, there have been cases that have led to overfowing con-
ditions of the dustbins that contributed to the pollution of neighboring places
and led to many diseases. Obviously, the concerned authorities can’t keep
track manually of the various sites those bins are located. Hence as a boon
to this problem, we have come up with an innovative approach of the “smart
connected dustbins”, which narrow down the management problem to a great
extent and thus lead to the disposal of this harmful waste more effciently.
The existing projects have been of great help for our project even though
they are not as effcient as the ones we have developed. IoT concepts have
been implemented for establishing an interconnection between the vari-
ous bins spread across the place, and the use of Android applications has
been the prime source of proper monitoring and management of this entire
process.
Parikh et al. [1] have given an abstract idea about smart dustbins, which
are basically built upon components like ultrasonic sensors, servo motors,
and microcontrollers. On sensing the person’s presence automatically, the
dustbin accepts the RFID from the user and displays the person’s name on
the serial LCD located at the front of the dustbin. The servo motor opens the
dustbin door until the person leaves the place from the time his presence is
detected initially, which is detected by the ultrasonic sensors. After the entire
thing is over, the GSM attached to the dustbin sends payback points to the
users, which they can redeem using an Android application “DUSTBIN”. If
the dustbin is full, it automatically sends a message to the control room by
turning on the red LED attached to it. In a nutshell, this dustbin helps clean
India.
A similar work by Damakale et al. [2] proposed an idea that mainly focuses
on providing a reliable and easy solution to garbage disposal. This extends
to all types of users. This project basically tackles the problem of GMS by
introducing IoT, which works on the basis of the amount of garbage present
in the dustbin. This modernized system of bringing IoT into the foreground
becomes a real-time project. Also, the further applications of system MP
Labs and CSS compiler to program microcontrollers make it an even more
effcient system.
Mamun et al. [3] have introduced a model for solid waste bins to make
them more automated. Several sensing technologies have been merged and
coupled to provide detection of bin states and other required parameters.
Although the algorithms and their results seem to be effcient for automatic
bin state monitoring, the study lacks remote bin monitoring. In a similar line,
Anagnostopoulos et al. [4] have introduced the notion of dynamic schedul-
ing, which is necessary for dustbin cleaning. Top-k query helped cleaning of
garbage cans on a frst-come, frst-served basis. Detecting the kind of waste
has yet to be fgured out and is only a notion. Furthermore, nothing is being
done to address the issue of garbage collection. Zaslavsky et al.’s [5] and
Helmy et al.’s [6] analyses on sensor data management would aid in the data
separation of different dustbins. The suggested system compensates users
by computing points based on weight and trash type inserted using a waste-
type recognition system. Suresh et al. [7] explored different approaches to
monitor IoT, its capabilities, and basic ideas about creating an application
related to information management over the internet. Further, the inclusion

of IoT fog nodes into the smart dustbin ecosystem will reduce the delay in
cleaning the dustbins [8].
6.3 Proposed Methodology

Rather than utilizing a large number of bins in a disorganized way across
the city, one might have a small number of smart bins that are available and
inexpensive to release. In this paper, a methodology is proposed for real-
time monitoring of the garbage level and its threshold value using several
sensors. To control overfow and prevent people from dumping trash outside
the dustbin, a smart bin system is suggested, which can detect overfow and
inform the appropriate authority. It will also identify wastes being put out-
side bin and alert people not to dispose of wastes outside with red LED and a
buzzer. Additionally, it will also let people know that the dustbin is full and
to use next dustbin. Apart from this, a water sensor is there that will detect
water in case of rain and will automatically close the door. The data gener-
ated by different sensors will be transferred to the control unit and updated
regularly via the Wi-Fi module, which will notify the appropriate authorities
regarding the status of each dustbin. As a result, the waste collection vehicle
will only be dispatched when it is required. Based on which, the optimum
route for the garbage collecting van must be identifed, reducing fuel con-
sumption, costs, time, and labor. These cost savings and effective waste man-
agement may be accomplished by applying this resource optimization. Wet
sensor and humidity sensor data will be used to determine if trash is entirely
separated or not, which will aid in recycling, disposal, and reuse. To create
reports and to do qualitative analysis, data mining will be used. The major
objective of the technology that will be deployed is to substitute the city’s
current time-consuming method, enabling this to become a smart city. The
block diagram of the proposed methodology is shown in Figure 6.1.
6.3.1 Hardware and Software Used

The smart dustbin is built on the Arduino UNO board platform. It is con-
nected with a bin ultrasonic sensor (HC-SR04), a Wi-Fi module (ESP8266)
2.4GHz band, register, load cell, humidity sensor, LED, capacitor, Vero board,
jump wire, and power supply adapter.
The description of the components used are as follows:
a. Ultrasonic sensors: The ultrasonic sensors generally use the con-

cept that bats use, i.e., sonar. This measures the distance between
two objects and offers an amazing range of contact-free distance
FIGURE 6.1
The block diagram of the proposed methodology.
FIGURE 6.2
Ultrasonic transmission and its refection wave.
ranging from 1 to 13 feet. This process is generally not affected by

light or black materials; the soft materials might cause the process to
slow down a bit. It becomes complete with ultrasonic transmitting,
as shown in Figure 6.2. The ultrasonic sensor is shown in Figure 6.3.
The level of garbage in the dustbin will be detected using an ultra-
sonic sensor. The distance between the sensor and the garbage in
the dustbin decides the level of the garbage. VCC (5V), Trig, Echo,
and GND are the four pins on this module. Trig is used to transmit
a high-level ultrasonic pulse lasting no less than 10s before the Echo
Pin detects the returning pulse. The sensor will estimate the dis-
tance by calculating the time delay between transmitting the signal
and receiving its echo.
It operates by delivering a sound wave (original wave) and receiv-
ing a response from the other end (refected wave), as shown in
FIGURE 6.3
HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor.
Figure 6.2. We can calculate the distance(s) by calculating the dura-

tion of passage of a sound wave.
d = [Speed * Time];
Time = The time it takes for a sound wave to travel to and from a
bin. The speed is equal 330m/s (i.e., velocity of sound)
So, total distance travelled (D) = [d * 2].
Technical specifcations
i. Resolution: 0.3cm
ii. Effectual Angle: <15°
iii. Ranging Distance: 2cm–400cm/1”–13ft
iv. Measuring Angle: 30°
v. Power Supply: 5V DC
vi. Quiescent Current: <2mA
vii. Working Current: 15mA
viii. Frequency: 40Hz
ix. Range 2cm–4m
b. Humidity sensor: A temperature and humidity sensor must be
employed to differentiate dry and wet trash (as shown in Figure 6.4).
The DHT11 sensor will be utilized for this purpose. Dry and moist
waste would be separated based on the output temperature. The
FIGURE 6.4
Image of a DHT11 humidity sensor.
sensor detects ambient air using a capacitive humidity sensor and a

thermistor and outputs a digital signal on the data pin.
Every two seconds, the sensor will get new data. With a 2–5%
margin of error, it will be accurate for 0–100% humidity measure-
ments and -40 to 80°C temperature readings with a 0.5°C margin of
error.
Load Cell: To weigh the dustbin, the load cell must be utilized. It
is basically a transducer which produces an electrical signal propor-
tional to the force being measured. It can measure anything from
a few micrograms to 200 kg. The output signal is generally in the
millivolt range and will require amplifcation before it can be used.
In order to extract quantifable data from a load cell, the HX711 load
cell amplifer must be utilized.
Rain sensors are coupled in order to detect rainfall. A sample of
the rain sensor is shown in Figure 6.5. Rain sensors are basically a
collection of water sensors linked together by AND gates. They are
installed on various sides, and rain is recognized by combining the
data from all of the water sensors.
c. Wi-Fi module (ESP8266): The ESP8266 is a low-cost Wi-Fi micro-
chip with TCP/IP stacks and the ability to act as a microcontroller.
This tiny gadget aids the microcontrollers in connecting to a Wi-Fi
network and establishing TCP/IP connections using Hayes-Style
instructions. The inexpensive cost and the fact that the module only
required a few external components. The ESP8285 is an ESP8266
with 1 MB of built-in fash that enables single-chip Wi-Fi connectiv-
ity. The successor of this chip is ESP32 which is shown in Figure 6.6.
FIGURE 6.5
Image of a rain sensor.
FIGURE 6.6
The Esp8266 Wi-Fi module.
d. Arduino: Arduino boards are used for establishing the connection

and allow management and working of the various sensors of the
dustbins. These boards are available commercially in the pre-assem-
bled form. People having Lesser General Public License (LGPL) or
General Public License GNU (GPL) are responsible for creating and
distributing these boards.
A set of digital and analog pins located within the boards are used
for connecting the sensors. The boards also have a USB (Universal
Serial Bus) by which users can load programs into the board from
FIGURE 6.7
Arduino Uno Board.
their computers to effciently manage the working of various sen-

sors. The pin diagram of the Arduino board is shown in Figure 6.7.
i. Voltage regulator: This stabilizes the processors’ DC voltage and
controls the input voltage to the Arduino.
ii. The Power USB-Arduino board works well with the help of a sin-
gle USB connection connected to the USB port of your computer.
iii. Power (barrel jack): By connecting it to a barrel jack, the boards
can be easily powered up with the help of AC mains.
iv. Crystal Oscillator: This aids in tackling timing issues. The num-
ber on its top is the frequency.
v. Arduino Reset: There are two options for resetting the Arduino
and making it work from scratch, either by using the reset but-
ton or by connecting it to the board with an external reset button
present labeled as RESET.
vi. Pins: 5V Supply 5 Output Volts.
vii. Pins: 3V Supply 3.3 Output Volts.
viii. GND (ground): These help in grounding the circuit. They are
multiple in number.
ix. Win: This pin is used to power up an AC mains power supply

from an external power source like the Arduino board.
x. Analog pin: Pins from A0 to A5 can read signals from analog as
well as moisture sensors and convert these to a digital value that
the microprocessors can process.
xi. Main microcontroller: This is considered to be the brain of the
board. ATMEL is the primary manufacturer of microcontrollers.
The information available on top of the IC tells you about the
board.
xii. ICSP pin: ICSP is an AVR, a small programming header that
includes SCK, MISO, MOSI, RESET, VCC, and GND. This is often
known as Serial Peripheral Interface, which can be considered an
“extension” of the output.
xiii. TX and RX LED-lighting: There are two labels on your board, TX
(transit) and RX (receiver). They are given away at various points
on the Arduino board. One on virtual pin zero and one indicates
all of the serial communication pins, and any other one is TX
and RX. While attempting to send serial data, the TX fashes at
different speeds. The speed at which it fashes is determined by a
variety of factors, including the baud rate used by the board and
the RX fashes when it receives data.
xiv. Digital I/O: The Arduino UNO board has 14 virtual pins, six of
which are used for PWM, or Pulse Width Modulation output.
These pins can be used as enter pins to test logical values, such
as zero and one, or as virtual output pins to power modules such
as LEDs, relays, and so on.
xv. AREF-AREF stands for Analog Reference: it is used to get an
outside reference voltage between 0V to fve V because the top
restricts entering pins.
e. PIC16F877A microcontroller: This is well-known in the industry. It’s
incredibly easy to use, and it also makes programming easier. One
of its primary advantages is it can be rewritable as it uses FLASH
memory. As shown in Figure 6.8, it contains 40 pins in total, with 33
for input and 33 for output.
It is versatile, permitting it to be applied in regions wherein
microcontrollers have in no way been hired previously, along with
microprocessor packages and timer tasks.
• It features a 35-instruction set that is somewhat smaller.
• It can operate at a frequency of up to 20MHz.
• Between 4.2 and 5.5 volts is the operational voltage. If you give it
a voltage, it will work.
• It may be irreversibly destroyed if the voltage exceeds 5.5 volts.
FIGURE 6.8
PIC16f877a microcontroller.
FIGURE 6.9
Jump wires.
• It does not have an inner oscillator now.

• The most contemporary every PORT can sink, or supply is around
100mA. Therefore, the contemporary restriction for every GPIO
pin of PIC16F877A is 10 milli-amperes.
• It had 4 IC packaging which included 40-pin PDIP, 44-pin PLCC,
44-pin TQFP, 44-pin QFN.
f. Jump wires: Jump wires, also known as jumper wires (as shown
in Figure. 6.9), are used for solderless bread boarding. They can be
manufactured manually, though manually manufacturing the jump
wires is a tedious job for large circuits; they can also be obtained in
ready-to-use jump wire sets.
FIGURE 6.10
Working of IR sensors.
g. Infrared (IR) sensor: An IR sensor is a piece of electrical equipment

that detects/monitors infrared radiation. Infrared sensors are linked
to detect trash put near the dustbin. When a thing is tossed near the
bin, the infrared sensor identifes it, and activates the buzzer.
As shown in Figure 6.10, IR sensors detect light of a specifc wavelength in

the Infra-Red (IR) spectrum using a specialized light sensor. Using a LED
that generates light at the same wavelength as what the sensor is searching
for, you can test the intensity of the received light. The light from the LED
bounces off an item and enters the light sensor when it is in close proximity
to the sensor. This results in a considerable rise in intensity, which may be
detected using a threshold.
6.4 Proposed Architecture

The smart IoT-based waste management system design focuses on optimiza-
tion algorithms and techniques for collecting public garbage. The proposed
approach can be adopted in smart cities where people are already overbur-
dened with their demanding schedules and don’t have time to waste on
administration [9]. If desired, bins can be deployed in a city where a large bin
with the capacity to collect solid waste from a single house can be installed.
As the frst step, the system creates the different sensor nodes as garbage col-
lectors in cities. Each container has a varied storage capacity; therefore, we
fll the containers at random. In the second step, before locating the vehicle
root, we collect all of the flling ratio measurements from each container and
feed them into the genetic algorithm. In the third step, the genetic algorithm
will run all of the input populations, and after GA is fnished, it will deter-
mine the vehicle root depending on the likelihood of container flling. Each
container is given four to fve attributes as chromosomes, such as container
ID, location, capacity, current flling ratio, weight, and so on. We will evalu-
ate the real-time accuracy and compare it to various current approaches after
GA has supplied the best path [6].
Dustbins are positioned at various locations inside this structure. In this
scenario, garbage bins will be separated into two types i.e., master and slave
dustbins. Slave will be equipped with an IoT module, and master with an
Arduino Uno along with a Wi-Fi module (ESP8266) for cloud connectivity [9].
Every dustbin is assigned a unique identifer. A database will maintain infor-
mation about dustbins that should be put in areas based on their associated
IDs. The smart, clean dustbins are linked to the internet to provide real-time
status updates. Two ultrasonic sensors are positioned at the highest point of
the dustbin to minimize incorrect level measurement, while a load cell is put
at the foot of the dustbin to feel the weight of the garbage in the dustbin and
to decide whether or not the threshold limit is met, a load sensor, as well as
an overweight sensor for the rubbish in the bin, and a humidity sensor for
wet and dry waste identifcation are included. Then, for that IR, sensors were
installed over the bin’s lid to detect waste outside the bin. If there is any trash
around, the sensor detects it. When rain is detected, the rain sensors immedi-
ately lock the dustbin. At each trash can, all of these sensors are linked to a PIC
microcontroller. These sensors transmit data to the controller. Additionally,
three LEDs of different colors are used, namely red, orange, and green. When
the dustbin is 100% full, the red LED glows, which signifes that the dustbin is
100% full, the green light indicates that the dustbin is empty, and the orange
LED signifes the dustbin is 50% flled. Here, a rain sensor is attached to detect
rain and close the LED of the dustbin so that rainwater doesn’t enter the dust-
bin. Then the IR sensor detects if some garbage is left outside the dustbin;
for that, an installed buzzer buzzes so that people are made of this. Arduino
Uno will have to be addressed by every garbage, slave, or master bin with a
Wi-Fi module, and Arduino Uno will function as a broker. Arduino Uno’s will
gather data from sensors mounted to master and slave dustbins, perform noise
reduction techniques, and transfer data to the server over Wi-Fi. Arduino Uno
must send a message to the server regarding the amount of garbage in a bin,
wet and dry waste segregation levels, and the dustbin IDs.
The server matches IDs with the database and will fnd levels of dustbins at
different locations across the city. The algorithm has been developed to check
the flling status of dustbins periodically. If the dustbin is flled to its capac-
ity, it will be indicated by LED lights; simultaneously, the encoded signal
will be transferred to the dustbin via the broker. Various IoT protocols can be
utilized for data transmissions like MQTT or COaP. The collected data in the
cloud will be analyzed using different analytic tools to extract useful infor-
mation. From the collected data, real-time garbage levels can be monitored
by the webpage, which will help the appropriate authority to track the exact
location and amount of the garbage. The garbage trucks may then discharge
the garbage at a specifc spot, and the garbage collection vehicle can identify
the most effcient path for waste pickup. When the garbage level exceeds a
certain threshold, an alarm is sent out for immediate garbage pickup. The
data on wet and dry segregation levels will aid in analyzing and refning cur-
rent waste management methods to improve effciency. The user will be able
to utilize this system effectively thanks to the user-friendly Web GUI and
Android applications. The waste collection department will be able to trace
the exact position and amount of rubbish by monitoring the webpage. The
garbage trucks may then discharge the trash at a specifc spot. An innovative
solution to the problem of waste management is the Dynamic Routing and
Intelligent Transportation System [10].
Figure 6.11 shows the master-slave architecture of the dustbin. The small
dustbin acts as a slave and the big dustbin as master. The master dustbin is
FIGURE 6.11
Overview architecture of smart dustbin.
attached to the Arduino Uno. Arduino is connected to the internet and trans-
fers data of all the dustbins data to the cloud.
Figure 6.12 depicts the project’s fow chart. It simply lays out the project’s
concept. Option starts the fow of the smart waste management system
project. Ultrasonic sensors are used to detect the amount of garbage in the
bins, and when it reaches a certain level, a message is sent to the appropriate
authorities through the Arduino Wi-Fi module so that the dustbin may be
cleaned as quickly as possible. The procedure continues indefnitely until the
dustbin is cleaned [9].
6.4.1 Architecture of System Components

For better comprehension, this system has been divided into three compo-
nents that will communicate with one another as shown in Figure 6.13. The
FIGURE 6.12
Flow chart of the system architecture.
FIGURE 6.13
Architecture of system.
three components are: i. Data Generation Unit, ii. Data Processing Unit, and
iii. Application Unit.
6.4.1.1 Data Generation Unit

This unit consists of fve sensor-equipped trash cans. These include an
ultrasonic sensor (HC-SR04) as a level indication, a humidity sensor, a load
sensor to provide an estimate of weight, an IR sensor linked to a buzzer to
alert people that they have left garbage outside and near the dustbin, and
a rain sensor to prevent the dustbin from opening during rain. The con-
troller (PIC16f877a) is used to examine the values from all of the sensors
and send the data to the master Arduino Uno. In order to transfer data,
Arduino Uno sends messages and establishes connectivity between the
server and the dustbins. An Arduino Uno r3 is a microcontroller board that
is used to collect data readings from each dustbin and transfer the data to
the server [11].
6.4.1.2 Data Processing Unit

This unit consists of the server that contains an algorithm that determines
which bins in the collection list should be updated based on the data received.
The algorithm then computes the entire weight from the list, and the variety
of vehicles and form of vehicles are selected appropriately. There are several
techniques for selecting dustbins for collection, one of which is a cluster-
based algorithm in which a collection of neighboring dustbins is treated as
a cluster. After that, a list of these clusters that need to be collected is pre-
served. These clusters are picked as collecting nodes using a Top-k query-
based approach based on the data properties of the vehicles [12]. Based on
their capacity, these clusters are chosen as nodes for each truck, and each is
assigned a path to collect garbage from the cluster nodes. It will compute
the shortest path from the truck’s current GPS location to the nodes using
Dijkstra’s method [13]. This would increase effciency while also addressing
the problem of overloaded trash trucks [14].
6.4.1.3 Application Unit

Two Android applications make up the application unit. The frst, depending
on the user’s GPS position, will offer information about the cluster’s clos-
est dustbins [15]. Second, the GPS position of the vehicle as well as its total
capacity will be obtained by a municipal truck application and, as illustrated
in Figure 6.14, the application will provide a route as well as the nodes where
waste must be collected for that specifc vehicle.
6.4.1.3.1 Product Prototypes

Figures 6.15 and 6.16 show the top and side of the prototype of smart IoT
dustbin.
FIGURE 6.14
Overall end to end process of the garbage collection.
FIGURE 6.15
Top view of IoT Device.
FIGURE 6.16
Side view of IoT device.
6.4.1.3.2 System UI of Android App

Figure 6.17 shows the android application UI, where users can log in and give
access to current location. Then the application will let the user know about
the nearest empty dustbin. The application also helps the authority to display
which dustbin needs to be emptied and the shorter path to reach the dustbin.
6.4.1.3.3 Test Cases and Results

Software or hardware system testing (as shown in Figure 6.18) involves
evaluating the acceptability of a whole integrated system against its defned
requirements. It’s a part of the black-box testing, which does not really
FIGURE 6.17
UI of android app.
FIGURE 6.18
Different testing processes.
require any prior knowledge about the code or internal structure or imple-
mentation [16].
Table 6.1 shows the different test cases and different results obtained.
Initially, when the dustbin is empty, a green light glows to indicate people
can drop garbage into dustbins; when the dustbin is flled up completely, a
red LED illuminates to indicate that the dustbin is full and another dustbin
should be used.
6.5 Conclusion and Future Scope

Smart dustbins are indeed a solution for unsanitary environmental scenarios
in cities. Using the garbage collection bin, which uses the internet, IR sensor,
TABLE 6.1
Test Cases and Results
Test Test Case System
ID Title Test Condition Behavior Expected Result
01 Empty Obtaining a full empty length LEDs ON Same
of dustbin (green LED ON)
02 25% full Obtaining the 75% empty One LED ON Same
length (green LED glows)
03 50% full Obtaining the 50% empty One LED Same
length ON (orange LED glows)
04 75% full Obtaining the 25% empty One LED Same
length ON (orange LED glows)
05 100% full Obtaining length between 5 One LED ON Same
to 2 cm as fully flled (red LED glows)
and Arduino, this system is assured as it sends notifcations on status. This

also alerts the authorities to take proper action on time to clear the litter. This
smart bin method is helpful to reduce dependency on manual labour and is a
step closer to developing the concept of smart connected cities. It cuts down
on time to a large extent, thereby making all the actions more feasible. This
project paves the way for a better future that is almost free from land pollu-
tion due to proper waste management, and the prevention of many diseases
caused this way. The bins can be made more effcient if the segregation of
different types of wastes is added to them.
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7
IoT-Based Smart Waste
Management for Smart Cities
Nitika Rani
CONTENTS
7.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 121
7.2 Municipal Waste ........................................................................................ 124
7.2.1 Waste Composition........................................................................ 125
7.2.2 Categories of Waste ....................................................................... 126
7.2.3 Waste Management ....................................................................... 126
7.2.4 Concept of Integrated Waste Management................................ 127
7.3 Waste Management by Using IoT (Internet of Things) ........................ 129
7.3.1 IoT-Based Municipal Waste Management Methods ................. 130
7.3.2 Steps Involved in IoT-Based Municipal Solid Waste
Disposal Methods .......................................................................... 130
7.3.3 Working of Any IoT-Based Smart Bin Based on Three
Modules........................................................................................... 131
7.3.3.1 Sensing Module............................................................... 131
7.3.3.2 Storage .............................................................................. 133
7.3.3.3 User Module .................................................................... 133
7.3.4 Other Methods to Control the Overfowing of Dustbins ........ 133
7.4 Benefts of Smart Waste Management .................................................... 135
7.5 Future Prospects ........................................................................................ 136
7.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 136
References............................................................................................................. 137
7.1 Introduction
Urbanization, better quality of life, and economic development increase the
amount of waste generation. According to the World Bank, the world’s pro-
duction of municipal waste is 2.01 billion tons annually. A n average 0.74 kg
of waste is generated per person per day (The World Bank). It is estimated
that the rate of annual waste generation could rise to 70% from 2016 to 2050,
and consequently the amount of waste generation would also rise from 2.01
billion tons in 2016 to 3.04 billion tons in 2050 (World Bank, 2019).
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184096-7 121

No authentic estimation is available regarding municipal solid waste

generation in India. According to the Central Pollution Control Board
and Ministry of Urban Development in India, between 2014 and 2015 the
amount of waste generation was 52 million tons. Reports given by a task
force on energy to the Planning Commission in 2014 gave a rate of waste
generation of 62 million tons. On the basis of the total population of India
being 440 million in 2017 and the rate of waste generation per capita on
daily basis is 450 gm, the municipal waste generation for 2017 comes to 72
million tons, and when per capita generation is reduced to 400 mg then
the estimation for municipal waste generation is lower 64 million tons
(Ahluwalia and Patel, 2018). It is estimated that out of the total municipal
solid waste (MSW), approximately 80% was collected, while only 22% was
processed or treated. If waste management methods like separation, col-
lection, conveying, management, and disposal are not done properly, this
leads to environment degradation and affects quality of life (Municipal
Solid Waste Management Manual, 2016). The rate of municipal waste gen-
eration is highest among the biggest six metropolitan areas of India: Delhi,
Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, and Hyderabad. Hyderabad pro-
duces 4,000 TPD (tons per day) while Delhi produces 9,620 TPD waste, and
they constitute 16% of the total urban population of India. MSW generation
by these cities constitutes 21% of the total waste generated by all cities in
India. Among less populated cities between one and fve million inhabit-
ants, Kanpur and Lucknow are the top waste generators from 1,500 TPD
to 1,200 TPD (Ahluwalia and Patel, 2018). In terms of per capita waste gen-
erators, South Asia, therefore including India, is among the lowest waste
generators with 0.5 kg per person per day, while North America (Bermuda,
Canada, and the United States) is the highest waste generator with 2.2 kg
per person per day. Waste generated by Sub-Saharan Africa is at the low-
est rate, with 0.45 kg per person per day (Times of India, 2020). Discarding
garbage in public places makes that area unhygienic and also becomes the
reason for various types of disease in the locality. This decreases the value
of that area due to the bad odors.
A waste management system by means of IoT is one of the latest and most
appropriate methods to reduce health-related problems and to improve tidi-
ness in cities (Misra et al., 2018). The combination of information and com-
munication technology (ICT) with advanced progressive projects helps to
modify the topography of urban landscapes by making smart cities. Smart
cities upgrade the standards of living of the population, add more investment
possibilities, and create a healthy and sustainable environment (Kumari et
al., 2019). Today, many governments are planning to convert their cities into
smart cities. Smart cities mainly include smart economy, smart people, smart
living, and smart governance, all of which can be achieved through residents
being self-decisive, independent, and smart (Chaudhari and Bhole, 2019). In
smart cities, the problem of solid waste generation is very serious and its
management should be taken seriously. Two main factors responsible for the
IoT-Based Smart Waste Management for Smart Cities 123
TABLE 7.1
Top Municipal Waste Generator Cities of India, 2016
City Population (in millions) Waste Generation (tons per day)
Delhi 19.1 9620
Mumbai 20.0 8600
Kolkata 14.7 6000
Chennai 10.1 5000
Bangalore 10.4 4200
Hyderabad 9.1 4000
Ahemdabad 7.5 2500
Pune 5.8 2300
Surat 5.8 1680
Kanpur 3.0 1500
Lucknow 3.3 1200
Nagpur 2.7 1000
Jaipur 3.5 1000
Ludhiana 1.7 850
Indore 2.5 850
Coimbatore 2.6 850
Agra 2.0 790
Source: State Pollution Control Boards, Municipal Corporation, and UN popu-

lation estimation.
generation of waste are, frst, the growing rates of the population, and, sec-
ond, standards of living (Ali et al., 2020) (Table 7.1).
Continuous modernization and population increases lead to the genera-
tion of large amounts of waste in urban areas. Open dumping is a fre hazard,
and causes damage, diseases, economic loss, and environmental pollution.
To reduce these problems, large numbers of garbage bins are kept at differ-
ent sites, and regular checking and collection of waste is done to keep the
environment clean (Saha H. et.al 2018). Improper waste management results
in overfowing dustbins in smart cities, resulting in various health issues to
humans and adverse impacts on the environment (Abba and Light, 2020).
Therefore, effective solid waste management is required to minimize these
effects. Solid waste management includes reduction, collection, treatment,
and disposal of solid waste in a productive way so that human health and
the environment are protected. The advancement in technological develop-
ments that has led to change in the feld of waste management is because of
the internet (Pardini et al., 2019). The internet has transformed the world by
connecting computers to the World Wide Web, helping communication on
a large scale. So in order to manage overloaded dustbins and prevent the
causes of fre and other environment related problems, Internet of Things
(IoT) is one of the advanced techniques which are very useful in order to deal
with the abovementioned problems. Smart municipal waste management
includes the uses of IoT, where sensors are placed in dustbins to keep an eye
on conditions like fll-level, temperature, humidity, etc. and to also ensure
that bins are serviced only when needed; this reduces operational costs and
improves customer experience. The structure of IoT consists of multiple
devices and appliances which are interconnected.
7.2 Municipal Waste

Waste refers to a substance which is left after its use and is also undesirable,
unpleasant, and of no use. It is thrown away after use. It can also be defned
as material or objects that are considered to be disposed of or are essential to
be disposed of according to the legal norms in the national law. In order to
achieve a better life, people move into cities. With the rise in population in
cities, the amount of waste generated also rises (Kumari et al., 2019).
There are many sources of solid waste generation, and there is no link
between source and municipality. The work of municipalities to manage this
waste became the origin of the word “municipal” (Figure 7.1).
FIGURE 7.1
Sources of municipal solid waste.
Waste can be categorized on the basis of its origin (domestic, industrial,

etc.), content (organic, glass, plastic, etc.), and its potential hazards (being
toxic, fammable, etc.) (Solid Waste, India Water Portal). In municipal waste,
municipal means being related to local government, and municipal waste
means waste which is taken and treated by the municipality. In India,
municipal corporations are in charge of management activities related to
public health. Municipal waste includes waste generated by houses, offces,
institutes, shops, businesses, gardens, yard wastes, etc. (Agarwal et al., 2015).
The whole process of the solid waste management (SWM) system includes
main four steps, namely, cleaning, collection, conveyance, and treatment.
Out of these, the cleaning and collections are conducted by the municipality
corporation, the public health department of the city, while the conveyance
and treatment of waste are done by the transportation department of the
municipality corporation. The whole city is categorized into different areas,
and areas are again categorized into different wards for waste collection and
transportation.
Presently, SWM in India is done by taking away waste from residential
and industrial areas and transporting it to dumping sites. This is the duty
of authorities, usually municipal, to deal with the solid waste generated
within their respective areas. Waste collection is purely on a contract basis
and is carried out by junk pickers, contractors, and municipalities (Agarwl
et al., 2015). The most common methods of SWM are open dumping and
landfll as they are cheap, easy, and convenient methods, but they cause
adverse impacts to the environment such as environmental contamination
and methane gas generation by means of the decomposition of organic mat-
ter, which promotes global warming as well other problems like bad odor,
waste piling up, etc. (Saleh and Koller, 2019). Mostly human activities lead
to waste generation, and the methods used to store, collect, and dispose of
waste result in serious risks to the environment as well as to human health
(Zhu et al., 2008).
7.2.1 Waste Composition

The types and quality of municipal solid wastes vary from one country to
another. Changes can also take place even within the country from place
to place due to various factors, such as lifestyle, location, climate etc. The
composition of MSW consists of distinct materials generated from differ-
ent types of activities like intake of food, culture, tradition, way of living,
and income. The quantity and composition of MSW vary between different
municipalities and the time of the year. Various factors affect the character-
istics of MSW like climate, per capita income, and rate of urbanization and
industrialization (Singh et al., 2014).
• Paper and degradable organic matter

• Metal, glass, ceramics, plastics, textiles, dirt, and wood etc.
FIGURE 7.2
Composition of municipal solid waste.
• The composition of waste from a particular area also changes, pos-

sibly after long intervals or annually due to seasonal variations
(Figure 7.2)
7.2.2 Categories of Waste

Municipal waste consists of various types of waste, such as household
waste, waste from different types of factories, hazardous waste, demolition
waste, agriculture and food processing waste, biomedical waste, butchery
waste, etc. Classifcation of waste is as follows (Agarwal et al., 2015):
• Biodegradable waste: waste from kitchen: food (cooked and

uncooked), green waste like vegetables, fowers, fruits, etc., and paper
• Inert waste: includes C&D waste (construction and demolition)
• Recyclable waste: glass, plastics, cardboard, etc.
• Domestic waste: left-over medicine, e-waste, paint containers, bulbs
and tubes, apparatus used for fertilizers and pesticides, batteries.
7.2.3 Waste Management

Municipal authorities play an important role in making society clean, beau-
tiful, and environmentally healthy. Doing their duties effciently means
managing city waste in terms of processing and disposing of municipal

solid waste. Methods of waste management may differ from one country
to another, between urban and rural areas, and from industrial to residen-
tial areas. Waste management includes keeping an eye on all the activities
related to waste management. This is from the start, meaning the source of
waste generation, then the collection of waste done by junk pickers, after that
transportation, and then deposit of waste at its fnal destination, which can
be landfll, incineration, or recycling sites. Thus, if there is any kind of mis-
management or lack of effcient and appropriate solid waste management,
the waste generated by citizens’ activities results in health risks through dis-
ease transmission and the environment being affected (Pardini et al., 2019).
Defcient information about the route, location of dustbins, co-ordination
between truck drivers, and infrastructure creates negative impacts on SWM,
and in order to manage it effciently, new technologies can be used which
help to fnd the best route to reach the required destinations as well as help-
ing to clean the dustbins in time to prevent overfowing (Özmen and Özsoy,
2020).
In India, municipal waste management is regulated by the Solid Waste
Management (SWM) Rules, 2016, which were renamed from the MSW (M&H)
Rules, 2000. The MoEF & CC was responsible for revising the 2000 rules.
The salient features of the Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules, 2016 are:
• Explaining new technologies and options available for municipal

solid waste management (MSWM) in India
• Understanding the hypothesis of integrated SWM
• Requirement of state and regional level strategies as well as contri-
butions from cities for MSWM
The amended manual includes all aspects of MSWM, such as drafting of

policy, and technological, institutional, economic, and legal aspects.
7.2.4 Concept of Integrated Waste Management

Integrated waste management is based on the three Rs concept: reduce, reuse,
and recycle. The aim of an integrated solid waste management (ISWM) sys-
tem is to minimize the amount of waste being disposed of and maximizing
resource recovery and effciency (Figure 7.3).
According to the integrated solid waste management hierarchy, the meth-
ods of waste management, in order of preference, are:
• Reduce waste generation and reuse waste at source: benefcial waste

management is to decrease waste generation at different stages,
such as during the designing of the product, manufacturing, during
wrapping, use, and reuse. Reduction at source helps in the reduction
FIGURE 7.3
Integrated solid waste management hierarchy.
of handling, treatment, and disposal costs. It also protects the envi-

ronment by reducing the generation of leachate and greenhouse gas
emissions
• Recycling: the other option is the recovery of recyclable material from
waste material and creating a new product. Paper, glass, plastic, and
metals are recyclable items. During recycling, disposed material is
selected, remanufactured, and converted into useful items
• Waste to composting: composting includes the decomposition of
waste organically. Composting of organic waste helps to improve
soil health and increase crop production
• Waste to energy: waste to energy includes the production of energy
from waste. Incineration is one method of energy generation. This
method can be more effcient if proper door-to-door waste collec-
tion, segregation and management of inert materials, and correct
pre-treatment of two separate energy-generating parts are followed
(Surapaneni and Symala, 2018)
• Waste disposal: this is the least preferred waste disposal method
and includes the disposal of waste, mainly comprising of inert mate-
rial, and is done by means of sanitary and lined landflls which can
be constructed according to the SWM Rules, 2016 (Municipal Solid
Waste Management Manual, 2016)
7.3 Waste Management by Using IoT (Internet of Things)

Using IoT with smart sensors in waste management increases operational
effciency, reduces costs, and enhances customer satisfaction (Sharma, 201).
IoT technology is one of the most important applications and well-planned
mechanisms to construct smart cities. Due to the continuous increase in
populations, smart cities are facing the major problem or challenge of the
continuous increase in waste generation (Khoa et al., 2020). Population explo-
sion and an upgrade in the way of living are two main reasons for the gen-
eration of solid waste in large amounts, both in rural and non-rural areas of
the country (Agarwal et al., 2015). In order to manage the waste, dustbins are
provided by the government, people dump their waste in these dustbins,
and they are taken away by the municipal corporation (MC). Due to the large
population numbers, we fnd dustbins overfowing at various places in cities,
causing unhygienic environments and bad odors and resulting in human
illness. It is diffcult to stop waste generation, but a smart system can help to
get a real-time status of the dustbins. This chapter helps to understand the
new and innovative methods that can be used to make cities healthy and
clean. These methods or systems are based on the regular monitoring of the
levels of waste in garbage bins and connect the dustbins and the waste col-
lector truck drivers by means of organized web-based structures that keep
an eye on the status of the dustbins (Abba and Light, 2020) (Figure 7.4).
With the advancement of the internet, smart sensors, technologies, soft-
ware, interconnection of machines, and communication between objects
without the involvement of humans, IoT is the new and latest exemplar for
municipal solid waste management. IoT can be defned as an effective and
FIGURE 7.4
Overloaded dustbins.
global network infrastructure, in which smart things, subsystems, and other

physical and virtual entities are identifable, self-governing, and self-con-
fgurable (Pardini et al., 2020). IoT includes various physical and electrical
instruments, updated vehicles, buildings, and tools, and all these devices
and instruments must be linked with each other by means of the internet to
exchange data between each other (Ali et al., 2020).
Two main problems related to waste collection are:
• Scheduling: when to collect waste from dustbins

• Routing: selection of route by waste collectors
IoT-based municipal waste management includes management of waste by

using sensors in refuse bins to check the fll-level, temperature, and tilt to
improve waste collection, and servicing the bin is provided when needed
which helps in reducing pollution, fuel consumption, etc. It also helps col-
lectors to manage their daily and weekly schedule to pick up the garbage
(Chaudhari S. and Bhole V., 2019).
7.3.1 IoT-Based Municipal Waste Management Methods

The aim of IoT-based smart systems is to take care of waste management
in smart cities. In some systems, a signal is sent to the worker by means of
sensors through a server, then the worker travels to the required destination
to collect the waste. In other methods, systems consist of sensors, micro-con-
trollers and Wi-Fi networks which are used in garbage management systems
in order to clean the bins in time when they reach their maximum waste
levels. If garbage is not removed within good time, information is sent to
higher authorities, and appropriate action is taken (Kadus et al., 2020. One
of the similar proposed systems includes the measuring of garbage levels
inside the bin, and when the bin is full it sends a signal to the municipality,
based on the type of garbage, i.e., household waste, paper, glass, or plastic.
This system consists of a sensor and microcontroller, and everything is con-
nected to a device which stores data for future use (Mustafa M.R. and Azir
K.N.F, 2017).
7.3.2 Steps Involved in IoT-Based Municipal

Solid Waste Disposal Methods
• Relevant hardware that indicates the fll level of waste in the bins:
garbage bins with ultrasonic sensors are placed at each location in
which sensors indicate the extent of waste in the bins at different
levels
• Module on central cloud server: up-to-date information regard-
ing the status of garbage bins is received by this module and is
continuously displayed on the web application. This also sends mes-

sages to the client side (municipal corporation, garbage collector
truck drivers, etc.) through a mobile application
• Use of app on phone to indicate the location and present waste level
of bins on geographical area map: by means of mobile applications,
truck drivers hired for garbage collection get accurate information
regarding the level of waste in garbage bins and if the garbage bins
are full or about to be full.
• Creation and layout of shortest route for garbage collector truck
driver to reach the fully flled garbage bins: to empty the fully flled
bins within time, the garbage collection truck needs a short route to
reach the relevant bins, and so the shortest path for truck is calcu-
lated. Management of route development is done on a central cloud
server (Chaudhri S. and Bhole V., 2019)
7.3.3 Working of Any IoT-Based Smart Bin Based on Three Modules

IoT-operated perceptive waste collection and the appropriate system is
accomplished with the help of different equipment, application software/
programming tools, and other IoT devices. Numerous technological mod-
ules and sensors are integrated in this system. The function of the system is
based on three modules.
7.3.3.1 Sensing Module

The sensing module consists of different components that coordinate with each
other as a system. The sensing module includes the Arduino Uno microcon-
troller, sensors, Wi-Fi network, and solar power operated battery (Figure 7.5).
a) Sensors: in order to check the level of waste in bins, ultrasonic sen-

sors are used. Based on the space inside the dustbin, there are three
levels:
FIGURE 7.5
HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor.
i) Empty level: this is the initial level of waste in the dustbin, and
the system shows this level when dustbins are emptied and
unflled by the garbage truck driver within time.
ii) Half level: this is the next level of waste in the dustbin, and it
helps to identify how much time a dustbin will take to fll up.
When truck drivers go to take waste from full bins, they can also
pick up the waste from these half-flled bins. Emptying half-full
bins helps to save fuel and the costs of running the waste truck,
and it also helps in the control of air pollution.
iii) Full level: when the sensor triggers “full”, status of this level is
received by the system and notifcation is sent by the system to
the municipal authority and truck driver.
Different sensors can be used for different parameters in dustbins,
for example the temperature sensor and the humidity sensor, the lat-
ter of which is to determine the extent of humidity in the debris in
order to prevent unfavorable events happening, like fre. The weight
sensor is to determine the weight of waste collected from the bins so
that predictions for future waste generation from a particular area
can be made (Figure 7.6).
b) Arduino Uno microcontroller: by means of a microcontroller, data
received from the sensors is sent to a server by means of an inter-
net network. Many types of microcontroller are available and decid-
ing which microcontroller to use depends upon its storage capacity,
processing speed, use of electricity, and price. Use of the Arduino
Uno-type microcontroller is one good option. Arduino is a computer
which is intentionally designed for people who are not experts in
electronics, engineering, or programming. It is inexpensive, cross-
platform (it can run on Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux), and easy
FIGURE 7.6
Arduino Uno microcontroller.
to program (Chaware et al., 2017, Srikanth, C. et al, 2019). Arduino

manages the overall communication. The Arduino Uno controller
receives information from the different sensors, and transmission of
this information to the server is done via internet networks and ser-
vices (Ali et al., 2020)
c) Data collected through various sensors are sent to the server through
wireless networks. Wi-Fi is used as a network interface
d) Battery: wireless technology, data received by sensors, and forward-
ing it on are directly infuenced by energy consumption. A solar-
based charging battery is used to fulfll the energy requirement
7.3.3.2 Storage
The storage module includes the storage of data received from sensors in the
form of a database so it can be retrieved easily. This storage can be used to
estimate the waste level and generation in the bin monthly or annually.
7.3.3.3 User Module
a) Waste data collection: after getting information about the level of

bins, and if the bin is full, the waste truck responsible for that site
receives a message and collects the waste
b) Display: the latest information about the bins is displayed on an
screen and shared with other devices such as smartphone, tablet, etc.
with data access, helping the waste truck to get the updated status
(Nirde K. et.al, 2017) (Figure 7.7)
7.3.4 Other Methods to Control the Overflowing of Dustbins

Other methods include Data Gathering Layer (DGL), Data Processing Layer
(DPL), and Data Demonstration Layer (DDL).
In the Data Gathering Layer (DGL), readings are taken from waste bins
with the help of different types of sensors. The readings from the sensors
are sent to the Data Processing Layer (DPL) through a microcontroller
(Raspberry Pi module) for processing. Assessment of temperature level,
humidity level, and volume of waste inside the bin is done by the Smart Bin
Model. The MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) protocols, which
transport messages between devices, take care of messages and communica-
tion between the microcontroller sub-system and the control desk. The Data
Demonstration Layer (DDL) consists of the Alert Notifcation Sub-System
and control desk. The Alert Notifcation Sub System (ANS) includes various
types of signals for temperature level, humidity level, remaining waste level
inside the bin, and a buzzer or alarm to make the waste collectors aware of
the status of the waste bin (Figure 7.8).
FIGURE 7.7
Diagram showing municipal waste management by IoT.
FIGURE 7.8
Other methods for waste management by IoT in brief.
In this method, different kinds of sensors, such as DHT-11 and HY-SR05

are used to accumulate the information about the bin, which is equipped
with the Raspberry Pi module. In order to measure the humidity and tem-
perature of the residual waste in the waste bins, the DHT-11 sensor is used.
The flled level of the waste bins is estimated by an ultrasonic distance sen-
sor (HY-SR05). Then the information sent by the sensors is analyzed by the
microcontroller, Raspberry Pi with Node-Red, which helps to make future
projections. If the fndings are at a critical level, the information will be sent
to the authorities about the waste that needs to be collected and from what
place (Kumari et al., 2018).
In addition to the above explained methods of waste management by
means of IoT, some other methods are also available as follows:
RFID (radio frequency identifcation) technology: this technology

is mainly for food waste collection. In RFID, RF means “radio fre-
quency” and ID means “identifer”. Radio Frequency Identifcation
(RFID) refers to contactless technologies which detect people or
objects through radio waves (Kumar N. et al., 2016). In order to locate
the bin, scanning from RFID requires the lid of the dustbin to be
closed.
Automation of bins: in order to prevent the overfowing of bins, a con-
veyor belt helps to close the lid of bins when they get completely full.
This can be done by means of RF technology (Chellam et al., 2020)
Currently, there are several companies such as Bigbelly, Sensoneo, and

Ecube Labs aiming to create smart waste management systems so that cities
can develop processes and contribute towards making society healthy and
the environment clean. Bigbelly provides waste and recycling systems by
using smart systems with cloud-based platforms to manage the solid waste.
Sensoneo uses smart sensors and smart analytics for smart waste manage-
ment by monitoring waste management processes, and optimizing waste
collection routes, frequencies, and vehicle load. In addition to this, Sensoneo
also provides an application which shows all the smart bins of a city in a city
map, which helps to fnd the closest smart bin as well as the shortest path
to reach that bin. Lastly, Ecube Labs offers eco-friendly waste management
solutions for smart cities (Özmen and Özsoy, 2020.
7.4 Benefits of Smart Waste Management

Out of the various environmental problems faced by cities, the problem of
waste management is of utmost importance because of its adverse effects on
the health of people living there ( Shyam G. et al., 2017). This chapter helps
to understand the different methods of managing overfowing bins in smart

cities in a smart way. Overfowing garbage containers impact health and air
pollution. Picking up and handling overfowing garbage by waste collec-
tion staff is also of great concern, as this can transmit various infections or
chronic diseases to them. The latest methods provide up-to-date information
regarding the status of dustbins so that the waste collectors can pick up the
waste on time (Smart Waste Collection Report by Navigation Research) and
also help the waste collector to fnd the shortest path to reach the particular
bin. Proper solid waste management processes (generation, collection, trans-
portation, and disposal) enable the minimization of greenhouse gas emis-
sions, thereby preventing environmental pollution and enhancing the health
of citizens.
7.5 Future Prospects

In the future, according to various studies, appropriate sensors can be used
in the interior of waste bins to measure their toxic gas levels, radiation levels,
and to measure the weight of collected solid waste. Research should be done
to detect the suitability of integrating waste
management systems in small towns and their nearby villages for effcient
MSWM. Future prospects also include the low cost of the system including
development as well as maintenance. Furthermore, the capability of the IoT-
based system can be improved by using accessible GIS data without making
any speculations.
7.6 Conclusion
Due to increases in the amount of waste generated, we require a more stra-
tegic, effcient, and better framework in order to manage waste-related prob-
lems. To prevent any kind of epidemic situation as well making smart cities
healthy, economically and environmentally, we need a very well-planned
technology-based solid waste management system and also strong imple-
mentation of this in our country. This chapter explains the different types
of smart ways to manage solid waste in smart cities. These methods use IoT
(Internet of Things). IoT-based effcient waste management systems take care
of all garbage bins located everywhere in the city in a smart way, with charac-
teristics like resource management: inexpensive and time saving. A smart bin
increases recycling rates with the help of IoT systems and their collected data.
As a result, smart bins are seen as an eco-friendly solution for smart cities.
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8
Serverless IoT Architecture for Smart
Waste Management Systems
Rahul Singh, Bholanath Roy, and Vipin Singh
CONTENTS
8.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 139
8.2 Waste Generation and Management....................................................... 140
8.3 Internet of Things (IoT) Era and Its Application in Waste
Management ............................................................................................... 141
8.4 Role of Servers in IoT-Based MSW Management Systems................... 145
8.4.1 Physical or Dedicated Server IoT Systems.................................. 145
8.4.2 Serverless IoT Systems................................................................... 146
Advantages of Serverless IoT Systems ................................................... 150
8.5 Conclusions................................................................................................. 150
References............................................................................................................. 151
8.1 Introduction
Compared to past decades, the present way of living is changing continu-
ously, with rapid population growth, urbanization, and industrialization
being signifcantly evident. Substantial economic growth has greatly con-
tributed towards changing patterns of living, which in turn leads to produc-
tion of municipal solid waste (MSW). This generated waste ultimately has
an undesirable impact on the environment as well as on public health. The
composition of MSW generally contains (a) organic waste e.g., food waste,
inert material, paper, cardboard, textile, and wood, etc. and (b) inorganic
waste e.g., construction waste, glass, leather, metals, plastics, Thermocol, etc.
(Palanivel and Sulaiman, 2014). It further contains some toxic and hazardous
substances such as paints, pharmaceuticals/medicines, syringes, pesticides,
sanitary napkins, etc. Approximately 2.1 billion tons of MSW were gener-
ated in the world in 2016, which would lead to ~3.4 billion tons by 2050 and
where about 0.24 billion tons of plastic waste would be produced globally
(Sharma and Jain, 2020). It could be observed that annual MSW generation
would increase by 70% by 2050. Presently about 6% of waste is composted
and ~14% recycled, whereas ~35–40% of waste is not managed appropriately
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184096-8 139

and found randomly dumped or disposed of via open burning (World Bank,
2018). Appropriate management of MSW is essential for sustainable develop-
ment and to build a livable environment, but it is a big challenge for several
developing countries as well as cities. Along with the changes in living pat-
terns, this is an era of innovations. There are several technological devel-
opments in the feld of engineering throughout the world that address the
issues of various sectors. One of these developments is the Internet of Things
(IoT), which helps to automate any particular feld at present. As waste man-
agement is a regular activity that needs a lot of manpower on a daily basis, it
naturally has impact on effciency of work, accuracy, budget, social aspects,
and human health. Alternatively, IoT-based smart waste management sys-
tems could reduce the costs of waste management and provide real time
information to increase effciency and develop further strategies. There is a
requirement for physical infrastructure in this automated system, and with
that comes the associated high costs for the establishment and maintenance
of servers. In such cases, serverless IoT plays an important role and reduces
the costs of establishment and maintenance.
8.2 Waste Generation and Management

The rate of generation of MSW varies widely among countries in the world
and depends mainly on level of income, climate factors, social and cultural
pattern, etc. It has been reported that high income countries generate approxi-
mately six times more MSW as compared to low-income countries. Per capita
MSW generation for Brazil was found to be ~300–600 kg/year in 2012 (UNEP,
2015). India is developing and has the fastest growing economy (sixth larg-
est in terms of GDP and third largest in purchasing power parity) (Gramer,
2016). India is the second most populated country, where ~377 million live
in urban areas and produce ~62 million metric tons (MT) of MSW per year.
This generation of MSW is increasing 5% yearly and is expected to be 165
MT per year by 2031. Waste generation per capita was found to be ~350–485
grams/day (CPHEEO, 2018). Composition of solid waste generated in India
is shown in Figure 8.1, and city waste generation is provided in Figure 8.2 for
the years 2000–2016. Proper handling of such huge quantities of waste at a
nationwide level is critical, as a lot of effort is required for collection, trans-
portation, treatment, and disposal in order to maintain environmental and
public health hygiene. Presently ~22–28% of MSW is being processed and
treated, and untreated waste may require ~1240 hectares of land per year for
its disposal through landfll, further increasing to 66,000 hectares/year by
2031 (Paulraj et al., 2019).
Shekdar (2009) reported that per capita waste generation was found to
be highest for Hongkong (~2.2 kg/day/person) and lowest for Nepal (0.2
Serverless IoT Architecture for SWM 141
FIGURE 8.1
Composition of Indian solid waste (Shekdar, 2009).
to 0.5 kg/day/person). The integrated approach for MSW management in

Asian countries consists of collection systems for MSW and transportation,
landflling, and processing systems for volume reduction or energy/material
recovery. There are several methods for processing MSW, such as incinera-
tion, pyrolysis, anaerobic digestion, gasifcation, etc.
The management of MSW is of serious concern in India as well as world-
wide. Several developed countries are focusing on readymade solutions with
the use of the latest technologies and automation in this sector. IoT is one
solution that can reduce human resources for effcient management of MSW.
8.3 Internet of Things (IoT) Era and Its

Application in Waste Management
John Romkey, in 1990, was the frst person who tested TCP/IP protocol
(Khvoynitskaya, 2019). After one year, Cambridge University scientists cre-
ated a model for a web camera to monitor a staff coffee pot at their computer
lab. They programmed the web camera to take a picture of the coffee pot
three times per minute and send that picture to the local computer so that
any one of them would know whether coffee was available or not. In 1999,
Kevin Aston coined the term the “Internet of Things” in his presentation
for Procter. He described IoT as a technology that connected many devices
via radio frequency identifcation (RFID) for supply chain management. IoT
has many advantages (Brous et al., 2020) that can improve services as well
as analysis of historical data. If service improvement is to be focused on,
FIGURE 8.2
Solid waste generation in Indian cities between 2000 and 2016 (CPCB, 2018).
automation based on that data with the help of IoT real-time sensor data
is effcient and enhances productivity. In the case of historical data, there
are different types of sensors by which different types of data collection are
possible in a single place. In addition, this type of collected data is used for
historical analysis and machine learning algorithms. Some features of IoT
are as follows:
(1) Easy access: helps to easily access location and mobility and makes
certain tasks more manageable.
(2) Heterogeneity: IoT integrates different technologies such as track-

ing and identifcation. It also uses wired and wireless sensors, Radio
Frequency Identifcation (RFID) technology, latest protocol, and
ZigBee technology (Chen and Jin, 2012). IoT creates heterogeneity,
which means the different types of sensors and technology work
together to collect more valuable data than traditional methods.
(3) Better time management: sensors are fast in nature, and we do not
use an intermediary between sensors and the cloud server. That’s
why it will take a little time to refect sensor data on the server. That
is the power of serverless IoT by which we can visualize data and
make decisions in real-time. It doesn’t take extra time to collect and
process the data. So, time management is better. It also cuts associ-
ated costs.
(4) Mobility: as IoT sensors are small in size and need a low power sup-
ply, a small battery can be used to operate them, creating mobility
in our system. Many projects and systems where a fxed power sup-
ply is not possible can avoid these diffculties with IoT. IoT needed
internet, and nowadays internet can also be used by mobile devices
to make IoT more usable and reliable (Esquer et al., 2017).
The IoT-based waste management system is designed using various compo-

nents (Keramidas, 2016; BEHRTECH, 2020) such as the following:
(a) Temperature sensors: to sense temperature. These sensors measure

the amount of heat energy from where sensors have been installed
and later converts that heat energy into data
(b) Humidity sensors: to measure the humidity of the atmosphere.
They measure the amount of water vapor present in the air
(c) Pressure sensors: these are used to sense pressure. They take pres-
sure as an input and convert it into an electrical signal., and then that
signal into data
(d) Proximity sensors: to detect nearby objects without contact. Such
types of sensors often emit electromagnetic felds, and if any entity
or person comes in that range, it senses and gives a signal in the
form of data
(e) Gas sensors: to detect changes in air quality. In other words, we can
say that it detects the presence of various gases
(f) Accelerometers: to detect the acceleration force of an object, i.e., the
rate of change velocity of an object within a certain time
(g) Optical sensors: used to convert light into an electrical signal
(h) Smoke sensors: detect smoke particles (airborne particles) with
some gases in the air. They can be used for fre safety in any location
(i) Actuators: used to take certain actions based on specifc input sig-
nals. They are different from sensors
(j) Arduino: an open-source microcontroller-based electronic circuit
board having multiple variants with limited memory. It is used as
a prototyping platform to connect sensors and actuators. It can be
connected to a computer via a USB port and can be programmed
(k) Raspberry Pi: a small-sized computer board having a complete
operating system. It is used to run any type of application because
it has the same features as Arduino in addition to the operating sys-
tem. The operating system makes it easy to install dependencies
(Sethi and Sarangi, 2017)
Misra et al. (2018) used an ultrasonic sensor in a waste bin to fnd the level of
waste in the waste bin. They discovered that the ultrasonic sensor has long-
distance ability to sense; that is why ultrasonic was used instead of an IR
sensor. The IR sensor is also affected by sunlight. In addition, they fnd the
intensity of biogas levels in municipal areas. Sensor data is transferred over
the internet to the server, where it will be processed. After that, monitoring
will occur. And according to the level of waste in the waste bin, the relevant
waste bin that needs to be picked up will be selected. This research was
based on specifc scenarios rather than based on daily collection data. Daily
collection data and historical data were used to forecast future states and
availability of vehicles near the site. An ammonia and hydrogen sulfde gas
sensor was also used in the waste bin. The MT-135 sensor was used to assess
air quality and dangerous gases. Wi-Fi serial module ESP 8266 was used to
transfer data to the server over the internet.
One of the good solutions to smart waste management is Bigbelly (SB,
2021). Initially, it was a solar-powered garbage compactor manufactured by
US company Bigbelly Solar. The goal was to reduce the use of fossil fuels.
Originally, it was used for public spaces, universities, and parks. Bigbelly
uses the Internet of Things. It has been deployed in over 50 countries and is
recognized by the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group. It offers to improve
quality of life and increase productivity. It has good features like GPS, is self-
powered with solar technology, therefore it is possible to connect with the
internet at any time. A similar study was reported for another commercial
waste management solution (CH, 2021). The researchers used secure web and
IoT sensors to report and visualize real-time data. Based on the location of
containers that require servicing, the best route was found. The sensors also
indicated whether the container was full or not and generated a smart route
to the driver. Bine (2020) also reported another commercial waste manage-
ment system. This researcher used big data and IoT to identify the waste and
after identifcation, the system will sort the waste according to type. This
system analyzes the waste before collection so that after sorting, less space
will be taken up than the original size of the load. A centralized system was
used to control all the sensors and monitor processing in real time using
wireless communication to optimize the logistics.
8.4 Role of Servers in IoT-Based MSW Management Systems

In order to make IoT more valuable, a server is needed. This is typically
a hardware infrastructure that works as the heart of an entire network
(Figure 8.3) for hosting. These servers are responsible for collection of gener-
ated data, connected to IoT devices, and sensors of smart waste management
systems. These are either localized or centralized, with a large capacity for
memory and processing power to operate an IoT network causing an imme-
diate response. The server saves data and processes it to make usable infor-
mation for some decisions-based output in the form of signals or graphs or
sends data to mobile applications. Many types of servers exist at the moment
that can contribute greatly to our needs. In other words, when an IoT appli-
cation in a waste management system is not connected with a server, it is
impossible to work on historical data, leading to delays or irregular decision
making. There are also many kinds of real-time data that we can observe
by using the mobile app, but that data needs to be saved on the server frst
(Aman et al., 2018).
8.4.1 Physical or Dedicated Server IoT Systems

This is a traditional or conventional type of server that is basically dedi-
cated computers designated for private use. This server is usually built by
individuals using hardware that is arranged in a specifc confguration to
fulfll a certain requirement. It has physical components like random-access
FIGURE 8.3
IoT network model for smart waste management (Aman et al., 2018).
memory (RAM), a central processing unit (CPU), a graphics processing unit

(GPU), motherboard, hard drive, and networking card etc. It is powerful and
customizable, but certain costs associated with hardware, space, and main-
tenance would be involved. The owner has access to the complete system
in dedicated servers; thus, it provides a high level of security. These servers
are not very user friendly, therefore require a skilled person to operate and
manage them. Another consideration is that the setup cost of physical serv-
ers is relatively high, and if any hardware fails for any reason, the server
goes down, which is a big drawback during operations of certain tasks.
Sometimes the server is required for a certain task, thus after performing
that task, the associated hardware becomes useless. Hence, based on some of
these drawbacks of dedicated servers, cloud-based servers were developed
as an alternative option, which do not require physical establishment and
are also maintenance free for users (Abidi and Singh, 2013; Patra and Barik,
2015).
8.4.2 Serverless IoT Systems

According to Baldini et al. (2017), serverless systems are a new and emerging
feld which makes applications and services smoother and faster. They were
popularized by Amazon in 2014 with Amazon Lambda, after that Google
Cloud Functions in 2016, later Microsoft Azure Functions, and then IBM
OpenWhisk was developed. Google reported that over a fve-year period,
i.e. 2016 to 2021, the popularity of searches using the keyword “serverless”
increased. One of the most important concerns that people have is about the
meaning of serverless. It doesn’t actually mean “without a server”; this is a
misconception, as it is a cloud-based server. For these servers, there is no
need to set up a server of our own; it is purchased from companies or third-
party service providers who provide facilities to access their server space
with the help of the internet and where the actual location of the server is
not known. Also, developers have no concern about server maintenance,
scalability, monitoring, and fault tolerance. These responsibilities are taken
care of by service providers. In serverless architecture, on the bottom layer,
there are many sensors deployed at the endpoint. This means these sen-
sors directly interact with the object or environment where automation is
required. Such sensors are used to sense and generate data. These types of
sensors are attached to a controller (local computer) that has the ability to
take input from sensors in the form of data. There are many controllers in
the market, such as Arduino and Raspberry Pi, which are most widely used
for educational purposes (Abidi and Singh, 2013).
Arduino and Raspberry Pi have their own computation power and mem-
ory (Figure 8.4). Both can collect sensor input in the form of data stored,
processed, and manipulated according to need. There are different ports for
different types of sensors to take input. Output ports are also available. Most
FIGURE 8.4
Typical three-layer IoT architecture (Todd D., 2019).
of the hardware and connections are only required to connect such sensors
with controllers because after this layer, hardware, connection wires, and
maintenance will be zero for the end-user. These controllers are directly con-
nected to the internet with a wired or wireless connection. A Wi-Fi mod-
ule could be used for Arduino to connect it to the internet or inbuilt Wi-Fi
in Raspberry Pi. Therefore, it doesn’t require an external hardware module
to connect with the internet. Also, via the internet, our entire network is
directly connected with a cloud service provider that manages the rest of the
responsibilities, like data collection in proper formatting, data storage, data
representation, or generating triggers for other actions (Truong and Dustdar,
2015; Wang et al., 2019).
In Table 8.1 the comparison of serverless platforms of fve different
companies – Amazon, Microsoft, Google, Oracle, and IBM – has been
shown. Their corresponding serverless platforms are AWS Lambda, Azure
Functions, GCP Cloud Functions, Oracle Cloud Functions, and IBM Cloud
Functions respectively. The Node.js is used by major serverless providers,
Microsoft Azure only uses typescript, and GCP Cloud Functions only uses
Visual Basic (Sethi and Sarangi, 2017). Each of the above supports custom
runtimes. These have concurrency limits, which is essential in terms of
availability because they handle a number of server requests that are gen-
erally hidden. When it comes to resource memory, this is consumed by
code and resources at the time of the active state, each of them providing a
minimum of 128 MB and a maximum of at least 1 GB. As an exception, AWS
Lambda provides a maximum of up to 10 GB. When it comes to cost, there
are not many differences among them, as all are near about the same and
initially provide some free usage. The most commonly used runtime lan-
guages for serverless applications based on a survey by IBM with 391 users
with multiple selection options (IBM, 2021b) are JavaScript, Java, Python,
C++, C#, Ruby, .NET, PHP, Node.js, PowerShell, Go, TypeScript, Swift, .NET
Core, Bash, F#, Rust, etc. There are various other applications of serverless
systems, such as customer relationship management (CRM), data analyt-
ics/business intelligence, fnance database applications, HR applications,
engineering streaming media applications, enterprise resource planning,
etc. (IBM, 2021b).
TABLE 8.1
148
Serverless Services Comparisons (Tropeano, 2019; Harvey 2020; Rifai 2021; Butusov, 2021; Heller, 2021; IBM Cloud, 2021; IBM, 2021a;
EOCF, 2021; OFF, 2021)
Services and
Product Name Amazon Microsoft Google Oracle IBM
Product for AWS Lambda Azure Functions GCP Cloud Functions Oracle Cloud IBM Cloud
Serverless Functions Functions
Supported C#, Go, Java, Node.js, C#, F#, Java, Node.js, C#, F#, Go, Java, Node.js, Go, Java, Ruby, Node. Node.js, Python,
Languages PowerShell, Python, PowerShell, Python, Python, Ruby, Visual js Swift, PHP
Ruby TypeScript Basic
Support for Yes, using custom Yes, using Azure Yes, using custom custom Dockerfles Docker skeleton
Custom deployment packages Functions custom Docker images
Runtimes or AWS Lambda Layers handlers
Concurrency limit Standard: 1000 per No advertised No advertised Standard: 1000
region (soft limit) concurrency limit concurrency limit
Reserved: varies
Provisioned: varies
Resource Memory 128 M–10240 MB 128 MB–1500 MB 128 MB–4096 MB (in 128 MB–1024 MB 128 MB–2048 MB
(Consumption Plan) multiples of 128 MB)
128 MB–14000 MB
(Premium and
Dedicated Plans)
HTTP Integration Yes Yes Yes Yes
Support
Granular IM cost 1M requests per month 1M requests per month 2M requests per month 2M requests per 5M requests for
free, then $0.20/1M free then $0.20/1M free, then $0.40/1M month free, then free, then
requests, plus executions, plus invocations, plus $0.0000002/2M $0.000017/
$0.00001667/GB-sec $0.000016/GB-sec $0.0000165/GB-sec invocation, plus GB-sec.
$0.00001417/GB-sec
(Continued)
IoT-Based Smart Waste Management for Environmental Sustainability
TABLE 8.1 (CONTINUED)
Serverless Services Comparisons (Tropeano, 2019; Harvey 2020; Rifai 2021; Butusov, 2021; Heller, 2021; IBM Cloud, 2021; IBM, 2021a;
EOCF, 2021; OFF, 2021)
Services and
Product Name Amazon Microsoft Google Oracle IBM
Examples Netfix, FUJIFILM, Lucille Games,
The Seattle Times, Relativity HomeAway
Financial Engines
Pros • Dominant market • Second largest • Designed for
position provider cloud-native
• Extensive, mature • Integration with businesses
offerings Microsoft tools and • Commitment to
• Support for large software open source and
Serverless IoT Architecture for SWM
organizations • Broad feature set portability

• Extensive training • Hybrid cloud • Deep discounts and
• Global reach • Support for open fexible contracts
• Can build app by source • DevOps expertise
using Lambda • Great debugging • automatic
with other web support scalability
services. • Instant
• Scalability deployment
Cons • Diffcult to use • Issues with • Late entrant to IaaS
• Cost management documentation market
• Overwhelming • Incomplete • Fewer features and
options management tooling services
• Security Issues • Technical support • Historically not as
enterprise-focused
• Network
performance
149
Advantages of Serverless IoT Systems

(See Leitersdorf et al., 2017; Malawski et al., 2017;DdoS, 2020.)
1. Scalability: as an essential as well as robust property of serverless

architecture, it allows the user to increase the server space with spe-
cifc nominal costs.
2. Big data generation: as IoT sensors generate continuous data, more
space and processing of data are required. This can be handled eas-
ily through a serverless system.
3. Billing model: serverless architecture has crucial advantages for
the billing model, it is reducing the costs which is making it more
demanding and adaptable, and working on the true pay-per-use
model. The customer only has to pay for the computational resources
that the function has executed. That means the customer will not be
charged by the company if other functions have not been executed.
4. Security: serverless architecture cares about security also. At the ini-
tial stage, every small company has a lack of management tools and
security experts. And if they use a server, it will be more expensive.
Due to the advantages of serverless IoT, dedicated servers are generally not
preferred these days because with serverless systems, there is no need to
purchase hardware and operating system licensing. Users don’t need to
worry about such responsibilities, as the third-party provider that sets up
the server is actually responsible for maintaining that server and licensing
the operating system. These service providers also manage the operating
system. Serverless systems make it possible for developers to use servers and
resources such as memory and computing power based on pay-per-use. This
means the user only has to pay for the time that the service is availed of,
which is cost effective and less expensive than using dedicated servers. Also,
in serverless systems, there is no need to hire a person to maintain the serv-
ers and their runtime failure problems. One of the most important aspects is
security. With a physically set up server, connected to the internet, security is
a critical concern and a big challenge for users. But with serverless systems,
developers can depend on a highly secure service provided by a third party
and can therefore concentrate on their businesses.
8.5 Conclusions
Overcoming hazardous issues regarding public health and the environ-
ment is risky as well as time consuming. Thus, recent developments like
IoT have played a pivotal role in addressing such issues. Further, running
these IoT-based smartly designed waste management systems on serverless

IoT architecture is a more appropriate mechanism because of resource con-
straints, it being easy to learn and operate, it is highly secure, and allows a
continuous fow of data. There are many companies who provide this service
at a reasonable cost. It can also be concluded that use of serverless systems
for data storage and backend operations helps to resolve issues related to
skilled labor availability.
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9
IoT in Hospital Solid Waste
Generation and Management
Uma Rahangdale, Amar Shinde, Gazala Yasmin Ashraf, and Vipin Singh
CONTENTS
9.1 Introduction................................................................................................ 155
9.2 Healthcare Waste (HCW) Generation, Exposure, and Impact ............ 156
9.3 Traditional Approach for Healthcare Waste Management.................. 161
9.4 Limitations of Traditional Approach for Healthcare Waste
Management ............................................................................................... 162
9.5 IoT in Healthcare Waste Management.................................................... 163
9.5.1 Defnition and Application of IoT................................................ 163
9.5.2 How IoT Works for Waste Management in Healthcare
Systems ............................................................................................ 164
9.5.3 Advantages of IoT-Based Healthcare Waste Management
over Traditional Approach ........................................................... 166
9.6 Conclusions................................................................................................. 167
References............................................................................................................. 167
9.1 Introduction
The hospital and healthcare industry has become one of the fastest-growing
sectors in past decades (Yeoh et al., 2013). The infrastructure of the health-
care industry is increasing with the increase in population, further leading
to an increment in budget and investment are for this industry. It was esti-
mated that around 7.8 trillion USD worldwide for the year 2017 was spent on
the infrastructure of the healthcare industry, which is nearly 10% of global
GDP. It is further estimated to be approximately 8.6 billion USD in 2030 and
9.8 billion USD in 2050. Healthcare global market opportunities and strate-
gies to 2022 reported that the rapidly growing healthcare industry reached
a value of nearly $8,452 billion in 2018 with a compound annual growth rate
(CAGR) of 7.3%. It is expected to further grow up to $11,909 billion by 2022.
Moreover, the healthcare industry in India is growing at a rate of 17% annu-
ally and is expected to reach revenues of $300 billion by 2022 (BW, 2019). The
global Internet of Things (IoT) in hospitals and healthcare is also growing
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184096-9 155

simultaneously. Business of IoT in this sector is expected to increase from

~72.5 billion (USD) in the year 2020 to ~188.2 billion (USD) by the year 2025,
at a CAGR of ~21%. The growth factors for IoT in this sector are the increas-
ing focus on active patient engagement and patient-centric care, monitoring
measures for cost control, development of high-speed networking technolo-
gies connectivity, and patient-centric service delivery through various pos-
sible ways (IHM, 2020). The increase in the healthcare facilities for patient
treatment will result in the production of large amounts of healthcare waste
(Wilson et al., 2015; BW, 2019; GS, 2019). According to CPCB (2018), there are
about 270,416 healthcare facilities in India, where 97,382 are bedded facilities
with 2,206,362 beds. An approximately 44% increase in healthcare facilities
was reported between 2016 and 2018. Healthcare waste is being produced in
hospitals and needs to be collected, transferred, and disposed of. The Indian
Government initiated the frst set of rules for biomedical waste management
in 1998 via the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF). These rules
were set out to deal with the defnition and segregation categories of biomed-
ical waste, and in order to protect those who handle the waste, as well as its
treatment, etc. A recent amendment for biomedical waste management came
in the year 2016, which further simplifed categorization, authorization, and
improvement in different steps of healthcare waste handling (Shettennavar
and Vithayathil, 2019).
9.2 Healthcare Waste (HCW) Generation, Exposure, and Impact

According to WHO (1985), healthcare waste (HCW) or biomedical waste
(BMW) includes all the waste generated from medical procedures within
healthcare facilities (HCFs). Sources of hospital waste are laboratory cultures
waste, and sharps objects like disposable needles, syringes, etc. Pathological
waste includes tissues, human fesh, blood and body fuids, and pharmaceu-
ticals drugs and chemicals treatment (WHO, 2005).
Nemathaga et al. (2008) investigated healthcare waste generation and its
management practice in South Africa. The study was done in two hospitals.
Firstly, Tshilidzini hospital serves a town population of nearly 26,000. This
contains 530 beds (450 patients were admitted during this study visit) with
an average of 160 admissions per day and 340 in outpatient (OPD) atten-
dance. There are about 1,800 members of staff in the hospital. Ten major
wards are in this hospital. The second hospital was Elim hospital, which has
about 1,000 members of staff. There are a total of 323 beds in this hospital,
where average patient admission was 70 per day (250 admitted during this
study visit). The hospital includes nine major wards.
The study of Nemathaga et al. (2008) reported generation of HCW was
found to be 0.55 kg/patient for Tshilidzini, and 0.65 kg/patient for Elim
IoT in Hospital SWM and Generation 157
hospital. Total daily HCW production in Tshilidzini was found to be ~350

kg/day, which included ~225 kg general waste, 25 kg sharp objects, and ~100
kg medical waste, whereas in Elim hospital, it was about 229 kg/day, consist-
ing of 131 kg general waste, ~25 kg sharp objects, and 73 kg medical waste
(Figure 9.1). The HCW by ward (including kitchen) was further investigated
in the study, where it was found that the maternity ward generated the high-
est amount of waste in both hospitals (Figure 9.2). HCW may have serious
impacts on health and environment, and it was also reported that exposure
to HCW may have serious impacts on human health such as mutagenic and
carcinogenic effects, effects on the respiratory system, and nervous and
reproductive systems.
Hasan and Rahman (2018) studied healthcare waste management para-
digms in Khulna, the southwestern division of Bangladesh. The study was
done by surveying 20 different hospitals including diagnostic centers, a total
of ~3000 people.
Overall BMW generation rate and hazardous BMW generation rate were
0.90 kg/bed/day and 0.18 kg/bed/day. An assessment of the management
systems revealed that ~56% of workers did not receive any form of training
in the handling of hazardous waste. Around 54% of them did not use any
safety equipment or clothing. This study reported that a major part of hospital
waste is non-hazardous in nature. Approximately 20% is hazardous, which
further includes 8% of infectious waste, 1% chemicals, 2% sharp objects, and
5% pathological waste (Figure 9.3). Kenny and Priyadarshini (2021) reported
per bed hospital waste generation for various countries, according to which
developing countries generate a high level of HCW. It was observed that
developed countries like the United States, Canada, and Ireland generate
FIGURE 9.1
Type of healthcare waste generation in two hospitals of South Africa (Nemathaga et al., 2008).
FIGURE 9.2
Department-wise healthcare waste generation in two hospitals of South Africa (Nemathaga
et al., 2008).
FIGURE 9.3
Composition of hospital waste (Hasan and Rahman, 2018).
more hospital waste. It was found to be the highest i.e., 8.4 kg/bed/day in the
United States, and lowest for Nepal i.e., 0.5 kg/bed/day. For India, the aver-
age rate of HCW was found to be 1.6 kg/bed/day (Figure 9.4).
Yenesew et al. (2012) did a study for risk factors associated with health-
care staff during handling of HCW in a health care center located in Gondar
Town in Ethiopia. It was performed during April–May 2011, where about
260 healthcare members of staff were included and random sampling was
done for the collection of data and information. The study found about 60%
of healthcare staff members had low risk perception illustrated by improper
handling of HCW. There is lack of awareness and training for the waste
FIGURE 9.4
Healthcare waste generation rate worldwide (Kenny and Priyadarshini, 2021).
management plan and the guidelines defned therein. Tomkins et al. (2012)
further reported occupational transmission of hepatitis C (HCV) in hospital
staff and associated risk factors in the United Kingdom. Ten years of expo-
sure data were analyzed for the duration of 1997 to 2007. Approximately 15
cases were documented that occurred due to percutaneous exposure from
hollow needles that were contaminated with blood fuid. Sharma et al. (2013)
aimed to investigate the awareness of HCW among health care staff in India.
The cross-sectional investigation was conducted with 144 staff members, i.e.,
doctors, nurses, technicians, cleaners, and maintenance workers in a dental
college and hospital. The study documented that about 50% of housekeepers
and maintenance workers reported at least one incident with exposure to
HCW in a year. Approximately 36% of nurses had extremely poor knowledge
about HCW management practice.
According to Asante et al. (2014), HCW is an issue for public health safety
as well as being of environmental concern because of its hazardous and
infectious nature. HCW is a recent major concern for every nation includ-
ing developing countries like (Greater Accra Region) Ghana, where there is
minimal knowledge and information about the generation of HCW and how
to manage and dispose of it. The study was conducted over more than 100
healthcare centers, where about 150 healthcare offcers and workers respon-
sible for waste management were included. The study found that ~8221 kg
HCW was produced for a total of 6,851 beds in the region. There is a lack of
regulatory policy in the region, which is a current matter of consideration
by local government in order to implement further recommendations. This
study also found that as HCW is increasing greatly, there is a requirement
for a strategic management focus at a priority level that should be at inter-
national standards. Dwivedi et al. (2009) reported that mainly big hospitals
in India had safe disposal of waste, whereas there were no proper facilities
for HCW handling in small healthcare centers and even public hospitals.
Another study by Vijaya et al. (2007) reported that HCW storage and segre-
gation bins are (a) far away from nursing stations as well as from patients; (b)
these are uncovered; because of which fies, dogs, and rats could spread the
waste and infection; (c) as these bins are not placed in a specifc designated
location for storage, random dumping of HCW was observed; (d) delays in
transport of HCW was observed; as per guidelines, bins should be emptied
or HCW transported to central facilities within 24 hours. The irregularity of
transportation of HCW was also reported in another study done by Verma
(2010). The study suggested that infected waste should be transferred with
high level of precaution and care, with separate air-conditioned chambers.
Mohankumar and Kottaiveeran (2011) reported a rise of environmental
issues due to HCW (e.g., pathological waste), which is increasing regularly in
India. The study reported there are about 38,000 small, private, and primary
health centers. HCW management costs about 8% of complete management
of waste in India and may further increase by ~20%. The study reported
that regulation for biomedical waste is made and is strict towards its imple-
mentation, but still it could be observed that many institutions, dispensaries,
clinics, chemist shops, and hospitals ignore proper handling of HCW. Such
mishandling causes exposure to infection and threats to the environment.
Shivalli and Sanklapur (2014) studied nurses’ roles in healthcare waste man-
agement. The study was conducted in a tertiary care hospital in Mangalore
city in India. The hospital had a capacity of >600 beds and generated all
types of medical waste. The total of working nurses in the hospital was 198.
A total of 100 nurses participated in the study, and the majority (82%) of them
were female. The mean age of the nurses was 26. A random survey was done.
The analysis was done using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS), which shows nurses’ attitudes towards healthcare waste manage-
ment. Out of 100 nurses, 47 had excellent knowledge (>70% score). Most (86%)
expressed the need for refresher training. Knowledge of waste management
practices was not satisfactory. There is a need for refresher training at opti-
mum intervals to ensure sustainability and further improvement that could
be provided in local language. Another study done by Das and Biswas (2016)
also reported that healthcare waste produced during treatment in hospitals
is hazardous. It can be injurious to the environment and health. Appropriate
management of HCW is the responsibility of every citizen. This study was
conducted in order to investigate awareness and observe the practice of
HCW management in West Bengal, India in healthcare centers. This study
was conducted among various healthcare workers e.g., doctors of various
departments, radiologists, and other staff. It revealed there is certain lack of
awareness among healthcare providers, and there is a need for regular com-
prehensive training for health staff. Letho et al. (2021) studied practice and
awareness HCW management in National Referral Hospitals in Bhutan for
March–April 2019 using various methods such as a demographic question-
naire, awareness questions, and an observational checklist. Their statistical
results showed that most respondents in this study were female (~54%) and
their average age was ~32. It was observed that about ~57% of them did not
receive any kind of training or education in HCW management, whereas
~74% were aware of HCW and ~98% for personal protection. It was reported
that only ~38% were aware that HCW can only be kept on a hospital site for
48 hours, and ~61% observed correct segregation according to national HCW
guidelines. Out of this, about 50% of the waste was not transported prop-
erly. Lima et al. (2017) further reported that for healthcare workers, biologi-
cal waste exposure is commonly observed. About 86% of nursing staff and
technicians were affected through this exposure, whereas 83% was due to
exposure to sharp healthcare waste materials in Brazil.
9.3 Traditional Approach for Healthcare Waste Management

Healthcare waste is collected and segregated manually based on color-coded
waste containers or bins (Figure 9.5). There are four types of containers: (a)
yellow bag for collection of human anatomical waste, (b) red bag for collec-
tion of infectious waste, (c) blue bag for plastic and glass waste, and (d) white
bag or puncture-proof bag for sharp waste (Rao, 2009). This waste is trans-
ported by vans to a central facility for waste treatment i.e., a common waste
treatment facility for medical or healthcare waste treatment. These common
treatment facilities receive a huge quantity of healthcare waste which is fur-
ther quantifed manually, helping to maintain records as well as proper pre-
treatment. The governing body regularly monitors these facilities for their
appropriate functionality. It demands annual reports from the central facili-
ties to maintain records and to analyze data (Raundale et al. 2017).
Biomedical waste should be disposed of with utmost precaution, as some
waste can be contaminated with microorganisms. The different disposal
practices are deployed based on the level of contamination (HWE, 2013;
FIGURE 9.5
Types of container and color coding for hospital waste collection (Rao, 2009).
FIGURE 9.6
Method of healthcare waste handling (Nemathaga et al., 2008).
Voudrias, 2016). (a) Autoclaving: highly contaminated waste should be auto-

claved for the complete destruction of microorganisms before being taken
to the landfll. (b) Incineration: a very large portion of the waste is gener-
ally incinerated, as it is a quick, economical, and easy method to dispose
waste, with huge volume reduction. This process occurs at high temperature
(82°C–1,093°C), thus destroying pathogens.
However, the after-treatment devices, viz. wet scrubber and electrostatic
precipitator, should be deployed to remove the emissions produced during
burning the waste. (c) Chemical disinfection: this is commonly adopted for
the sanitization of liquid biomedical waste. Chemical disinfection can also be
used for the solid waste but only after grinding the solids in order to ensure
maximum decontamination. Some recent studies have recommended micro-
waving over incineration of the waste, as it is more effcient and profoundly
lowers the volume of the waste. During the microwaving process, the water
is mixed into shredded waste and the mixture is heated for the decontami-
nation of the microorganisms. A study by Nemathaga et al. (2008) for HCW
of hospitals reported landfll (~50%) was common practice in South Africa,
whereas incineration (~15%) and recycling (~15%) were also seen (Figure 9.6).
9.4 Limitations of Traditional Approach for

Healthcare Waste Management
Although this system has been working well for decades, there are certain
faws which are potentially hazardous to human health as well as to the
environment. There are some other limitations associated with this system:
(a) weak decision making; (b) possibility of human error at each step, as
quantifcation and segregation are done by staff; (c) chances of fraud because
some hospitals could hide the facts; (d) delays in the collection of data, as it
is done by humans; (e) corruption can occur; (f) not real time, so it is not pos-
sible to get instant and actual data for a plan of action. Nowadays, to address
these limitations of various sectors, there is an advanced and real-time solu-
tion that is based on the Internet of Things (IoT).
9.5 IoT in Healthcare Waste Management

9.5.1 Definition and Application of IoT
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a revolutionary development that helps in
communication between devices based on electronics and sensors via the
internet, making things easier in our daily lives thanks to these industrial
applications. In order to give an innovative solution, there is a use of smart
equipment in IoT. This solution could fulfll the requirements of different
businesses, industries, or government organizations (Kumar et al., 2019).
Nowadays, IoT is becoming an important feature of our lives and can be
found around us, consisting of a smart framework, architecture, intelligent
equipment, and dedicated sensors. Based on 640 actual IoT projects around
the globe, the top areas of IoT application were found (Figure 9.7) to be indus-
try, smart city projects, smart energy, connected vehicles, smart agriculture,
connected buildings, connected healthcare, and retail and supply chains (IoT
FIGURE 9.7
The top ten IoT application areas based on real IoT projects (IoT AA, 2016).
AA, 2016). A high number of projects in the United States (~44%) are based on
IoT, followed by the European Union with ~34%. The variation is observed
in individual applications of IoT in the regions. North America, specifcally
the United States, is very strong in connected health as well as smart retail
i.e., about 61% and 52% respectively. On the other hand, in Europe the focus
is mainly on smart city projects i.e., about 47%. Asian regions use IoT mainly
in smart energy protection i.e., about 25% (IoT AA, 2016; Kumar et al., 2019).
With an increase in globalization around the world, there is an increase
in all types of waste, giving serious issues to each governing body, stake-
holders, etc. The world’s urban population will reach 4.3 billion in 2025 as
per the estimation of the World Bank, which will generate approximately
1.42 kg/capita/day. Similarly, there will be a rise in healthcare waste as well.
At the moment, IoT-based smart waste management is functional in many
sectors in different parts of the world for their waste management systems,
e.g., in industry, healthcare, handling of domestic waste, etc. (Ismail et al.,
2019). In other words, due to increases in population and rapid urbaniza-
tion, of great importance in every country is focusing on good health, quality
of environment, and maintaining hygiene. It has been observed that solid
waste management is one of the emerging challenges for all of us and cre-
ates environmental as well as health issues. Several steps and initiatives have
been taken towards a sustainable environment by using smart solutions
that could minimize negative impacts. IoT is one of those initiatives that is
applied in the area of solid waste management.
9.5.2 How IoT Works for Waste Management in Healthcare Systems

The framework of IoT-based healthcare waste (HCW) management contains
an overview of the different components associated with it (Figure 9.8): (a)
the sensors are hardware that is required for the measurement of waste in
FIGURE 9.8
Framework for IoT-based HCW management system (Shyam et al., 2017).
particular garbage bins, which is based on sonar, e.g., Ultrasonic Ranging

Module (HC-SR04); (b) the network interface is the part of data collection
unit, where it is further sent to the remote server using internet or wire-
less networks; (c) database systems, for example MySql, which are used for
storage of all data collected by the sensors and the trucks; (d) artifcial intel-
ligence (AI) used for forecasting level/type of waste; (e) optimization algo-
rithms that help to identify which wastebins have been emptied, and also
that the shortest path for collection is taken; (f) information adaptation and
forwarding step helps in the destination path and must be sent to the collec-
tors in understandable format (Shyam et al., 2017).
The components of an IoT devices-based smart healthcare waste manage-
ment system (Kumar et al., 2016; Raundale et al., 2017; Srikanth et al., 2019).
(a) Smart color-coded garbage bins

(b) Microcomputer/Raspberry Pi/Arduino Uno microcontroller/RFID
(c) Application server
(d) Notifcation server
(e) Local database
(f) Self-identifying disposable baggage
(g) EC05 Bluetooth module
(h) Power Supply – 230V AC changed to 12V, 5V DC
(i) HX711 Strain gauge drivers (x2)
(j) L393 comparator
(k) Smoke sensor
The expenses of IoT-based systems are mainly expressed in terms of the cost
of hardware. According to Raundale et al. (2017), it is $5 for an IoT micro-
computer, $1 for weight sensors, $1 for tilt sensor, $15 for database/central
servers, $5 for local servers, and $2 for Radio-frequency identifcation (RFID)
tags/reader.
The IoT system developed using recent technological advancements and
internet connectivity helps to automate the waste management process of
the healthcare system. Automating the system using IoT devices makes
steps easy, which is also affordable and easy to install. Commercial off-
the-shelf (COTS) components are commonly used for IoT. In this IoT-based
smart HCW management system, existing internet facilities can be used for
the transfer of real-time data. The system is generally enabled and imple-
mented at the source to the existing color-coded smart waste bins where
RFID tags are be installed that automatically index using a system. These
smart waste bins are further installed with weighing sensors, which imme-
diately measure weight when waste is put into it. This measured value of
each color-coded bin is sent by microcomputer using the internet to the
server or person authorized. These records can be checked at any time, as

they are based on real-time measurement. The instant transfer of informa-
tion helps to reduce human error as well as ensure the correct information.
This system is entirely distributed and based on real-time data; thus, it can
help government agencies and municipal corporations to analyze the data
and take appropriate actions. Some other techniques like big data could be
further useful for the classifcation of collected data. The collected data can
be stored in centralized or decentralized servers, based on the requirement
(Kumar et al., 2016; Raundale et al., 2017; Srikanth et al., 2019). An Indian
study by Gade and Aithal (2021) looked at information and communications
technology (ICT) and IoT-based solutions for managing waste smartly. The
device was named ismartWMS. It was built with IoT sensors along with a
cloud server that provided a graphical user interface. Pardini et al. (2019)
suggested in their study that there are tremendous issues related to the pro-
duction and handling of waste, including HCW. The role of automated sys-
tems using IoT and cloud computing is changing the performance of waste
management.
9.5.3 Advantages of IoT-Based Healthcare Waste

Management over Traditional Approach
As discussed earlier, the traditional system of HCW management is moni-
tored manually, and in many cases, municipal workers do not know if the
garbage bin is full or empty. Sometimes due to excess fll, the garbage spills
over around and causes inconvenience to people, as they are exposed to bad
odors as well as infections. In addition, when we see automated IoT-based
HCW management systems, they have multiple benefts as follows (Malini
and Hemalatha, 2019).
The HCW gets stored in color-coded garbage bins with self-identifed
objects and QR code marked. This helps in contactless source segregation.
(a) It is well developed and integrated through an internet network,

making it easy to share information/data of waste produced at any
time, as it is based on real-time measurement
(b) These smart garbage bins could be monitored automatically
(c) The bin senses when it is raining and closes the door/cover of the
garbage bin automatically, helping to restrict leachate or prevent the
spread of odors around it
(d) Alarm indicator to the authorities when the garbage bin is flled
(e) Fast and well-organized database because it is a human-less system,
easy to analyze
(f) Timely and fast collection and transport of HCW to the treatment
site
(g) As it is an automated system, there are no or fewer chances of expo-

sure to disease that leads to occupational safety of staff
(h) Helps to reduce the chances of fraud/mismanagement or manipula-
tion of records
9.6 Conclusions
The healthcare system is of high priority in the world. It is strongly infuenced
by economic circumstances as well. Large healthcare infrastructures and
treatment facilities produce a huge quantity of healthcare waste. Its proper
management is of vital importance at the moment. Technological develop-
ment occurs in every sector of our lives. Thus, a developed automated sys-
tem or IoT-based system offers an advanced and affordable healthcare waste
management system and plays a pivotal role in managing it intelligently, in a
timely manner, and with minimal risks to human health or the environment.
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10
A Fast Garbage Classifcation
Model Based on Deep Learning
Rampavan Medipelly and Earnest Paul Ijjina
CONTENTS
10.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 171
10.2 Existing Work........................................................................................... 172
10.3 Proposed Approach ................................................................................ 173
10.3.1 Pre-Trained DNN for Convnet Feature Extraction.............. 174
10.3.2 Classifer..................................................................................... 174
10.4 Experimental Evaluation........................................................................ 175
10.4.1 Dataset........................................................................................ 175
10.4.2 Results and Analysis................................................................ 175
10.5 Conclusions and Future Work............................................................... 179
References............................................................................................................. 179
10.1 Introduction
Rapid growth in population and urbanization have led to a point where gar-
bage disposal has become a major cause of concern. Throughout the world,
billions of tons of waste is produced, particularly in urban areas and in
highly populated areas. According to a World Bank report released in 2018,
the worldwide waste generated annually across countries will increase to 3.4
billion tons in the next 30 years. By 2050, if nothing is done, the amount of
garbage will increase by 70% [1].
The accumulation of huge volumes of garbage causes problems to the envi-
ronment and to the community. In the places where there is no proper waste
management, the garbage is either buried or burned after it is collected for
disposal. If it is buried, it will pollute the soil. When it is burned, it releases
toxic gases into the air, resulting in air pollution, which can lead to diseases
such as cancer and asthma. When it is dumped in open spaces, it emits bad
smells and spread diseases. When the rains come, it enters water resources
and pollutes the water.
Garbage can be broadly classifed into two groups: biodegradable and non-
biodegradable. With the help of bacteria, temperature, oxygen, and other
DOI: 10.1201/9781003184096-10 171

factors, biodegradable waste can be decomposed and reused as manure with-

out causing any pollution. The waste products of fruits, vegetables, paper,
animals, plants etc., belong to biodegradable waste. Non-biodegradable
waste, on the other hand, is any substance that cannot be decomposed easily
(generally, it is not naturally available), and causes pollution by remaining
in the environment for longer periods. Rubber, plastic, metal, glass, cement
products, ceramic tiles, bricks, etc. are examples of non-biodegradable waste.
Most developing countries lack proper waste management systems.
Garbage collection and disposal is done manually in these countries. This
has many disadvantages. It is tedious, labour intensive, and harmful to the
workers. The recent addition of e-waste and biomedical waste necessitated
the need to investigate safe garbage management systems.
There is a need for effcient garbage management systems that can effec-
tively recognize garbage and classify them into biodegradable and non-
biodegradable garbage. Then non-biodegradable material is further divided
into reusable, recyclable, combustible, and inert material, for further utili-
zation. This will help in minimizing manual workforce, cutting expenses,
increasing effciency, and decreasing pollution. Although developed coun-
tries such as the United States, China, and countries in Europe have diverse
waste management systems, there is a need for a better system. To process
the enormous amounts of visual data generated from various places, the
system should have a) an end-to-end model to process the large amount of
visual data generated from different locations and b) real-time data storage
and processing power.
The reminder of this chapter is organized as follows. Section 10.2 presents
the existing related literature, Section 10.3 discusses the proposed approach.
The details of the experimental study in Section 10.4. The conclusions and
future work are given in Section 10.5.
10.2 Existing Work

Waste management is essentially a two-step process, where the frst step
is to detect and collect the garbage. The second step is sorting/classify-
ing the waste into their respective categories for further processing. Many
approaches for garbage detection have been proposed in the literature. To
localize and categorize objects, Mohammad Saeed Rad et al. [2] suggested
a GoogleNet [3] based architecture. Mittal et al. [4] suggested the Garbnet
model, which uses Alexnet [5] as its backbone to detect and localize gar-
bage. Bansal et al. [6] proposed a fully automatic system to detect and col-
lect garbage. They used CNN for detecting garbage along with proportional
integral and derivative control algorithms for fnding the location of garbage
from the camera image. Wang et al. [7] proposed a Faster RCNN [8] based
A Fast Garbage Classifcation Model 173
garbage detection model. Zhihong et al. [9] used Region Proposal Generation
(RPN) with VGG-16 model for garbage recognition. Lui et al. [10] proposed
improved YOLOv2 [11] architecture for garbage detection and classifcation.
This technique outperforms Faster RCNN-based approaches. The YOLOv3
[12] trashnet model introduced by Carolis et al. [13] detects garbage dumps
and garbage bins. Panwar et al. [14] developed an aqua vision model for
detecting garbage on water using deep transfer learning, which was evalu-
ated on the AquaTrash dataset.
Those based on garbage classifcation differ from methods based on detec-
tion. The goal of these methods is to use image data collected from various
garbage sites to separate the various classes. Kang et al. [15] used ResNet34
to classify different types of garbage and introduced multiple types of archi-
tectures for the trashnet dataset. Adedeji et al. [16] proposed waste classi-
fcation system on trash dataset. They used ResNet50 pre-trained model
for feature extraction and SVM for classifcation. Yang et al. [17] proposed
a neural network-based WasNet architecture, which achieved better results
on multiple garbage related datasets. Rabano et al. [18] proposed mobilenet-
based architecture that is tested on trashnet dataset, which can be deployed
on an Android mobile phone for detecting plastic material. Vo et al. [19] used
DNN-TC, a ResNext-based model for classifying trash, which was evaluated
on trashnet and VN-trashnet datasets. In Aral et al. [20] and Bircanoğlu et al.
[21], several deep learning-based models such as Densenet121, DenseNet169,
InceptionResnetV2, MobileNet, and Xception are evaluated on trashnet, for
garbage classifcation.
Other waste-segregation systems based on sensors are also proposed.
To separate garbage, Chandramohan et al. and Sharanya et al. [22, 23] used
metal detectors, wet detectors, and dry detectors. For garbage separation,
Gundupalli et al. [24] employed a thermal imaging camera, a proximity sen-
sor, and a robotic arm. Huang et al. [25] used an optical sensor to identify
the size, location, color, and shape of the garbage as part of an indirect gar-
bage sorting process, through a mechanical separation that is controlled by a
computer. A recycling robot in Davidson et al. [26] sorts and classifes waste
comprised of plastic, glass, and other materials by using a weight-activated
detector and a switch. Pan et al. [27] and Kanta et al. [28] proposed IoT-based
systems to detect and classify waste using microcontrollers and multiple
sensors.
10.3 Proposed Approach

In this work we propose an approach for garbage detection using deep learn-
ing. We explore deep learning for features extraction and visual recognition
due to its effectiveness for visual recognition. To minimize the recognition
time, we consider the use of standard pre-trained DNN models for feature
extraction, due to the availability of hardware implementations of these
models. The ConvNet features extracted by the DNN model are used by a
classifer for identifying the category of the garbage. The block diagram of
the proposed workfow is shown in Figure 10.1.
10.3.1 Pre-Trained DNN for Convnet Feature Extraction

As mentioned in the previous sections, in this work we explore the use of
Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) for visual recognition through the
use of the extracted ConvNet features. A CNN can be used for a visual clas-
sifcation task in three different ways, as given below.
1. Defne the CNN architecture and train it from the scratch

2. Train a classifer on ConvNet features extracted by a pre-trained
CNN
3. Train a pre-trained CNN for the new task (transfer learning)
In the above three approaches, transfer learning-based approach and train-

ing from scratch need signifcant training for good results. Compared to
the frst and third approaches, the second approach of using a pre-trained
CNN for ConvNet feature extraction doesn’t involve the training of a CNN,
thereby only the classifer needs to be trained. The other advantage of the
second approach is the availability of hardware implementation of these
standard pre-trained models, which reduce the prediction time signifcantly
when compared to software-based computation/extraction of ConvNet fea-
tures. The next section explains the use of these ConvNet features by a clas-
sifer for the recognition task.
10.3.2 Classifier
As explained in the previous section, we used a classifer to identify the
garbage category from the images, using the ConvNet features extracted by
a pre-trained CNN. To achieve real-time garbage categorization with opti-
mum performance, we have evaluated various linear-classifers for catego-
rization. The next section explains the experimental study of the proposed
approach.
FIGURE 10.1
Block diagram of the proposed workfow.
10.4 Experimental Evaluation

In this section, we discuss the evaluation of the proposed approach on
Kaggle’s Non and Biodegradable materials dataset. The experimental study
was conducted in Matlab R2021a. The next sub-section explains the imple-
mentation details of the proposed approach for evaluation on the dataset.
10.4.1 Dataset
This work was evaluated on the recent garbage classifcation dataset on
Kaggle, the Non and Biodegradable materials dataset created by Rayhan
Zamzamy [29]. The dataset consists of approximately 156 thousand JPEG
images of various image sizes of items which are biodegradable and non-bio-
degradable in nature. Here, biodegradable items refer to the materials which
can be decomposed naturally by microorganisms, such as food and plant
products. Non-biodegradable items refer to materials that cannot be decom-
posed naturally, such as inorganic elements, metals, glass, cement, and plas-
tic. This dataset includes images from Food-101, Waster Classifcation data v1
and v2, waste pictures, and the Fruit & Vegetable image recognition datasets.
The number of images for each category in this dataset for training and test-
ing is shown in Table 10.1.
10.4.2 Results and Analysis

The proposed approach explores the use of pre-trained CNN for ConvNet
feature extraction. In this study, we explore the use of AlexNet and ResNet18
for feature extraction. The size of the feature, the time taken for feature
extraction, and the performance with linear discriminant analysis for these
pre-trained models are shown in Table 10.2.
From the results in Table 10.3, it can be concluded that the best perfor-
mance of 95.7% is achieved with Quadratic Discriminant Analysis (QDA)
classifer. The associated confusion matrix and AUC plots, are shown in
Figure 10.2 and Figure 10.3 respectively. The computation of TPR & FNR and
PPV & FDR for the proposed model are shown in Figure 10.4 and Figure 10.5
TABLE 10.1
The Number of Observations for Each Category in Train and Test Data of
Kaggle’s Non- and Biodegradable Materials Dataset
Non- and Biodegradable
Materials Dataset Biodegradable Non-Biodegradable Total # of Images
Training Data 119,772 25,569 145,341
Testing Data 2,539 8,259 10,798
TABLE 10.2
The Details of Feature Extraction Using Pre-Trained CNN Models
Feature Extraction Time
Accuracy using Linear
ConvNet Total Time Per Image in Discriminant Analysis in
Model Feature Size in Sec MSec Percentage
AlexNet 9216 392 2.7 92.8
ResNet18 512 1915 13.18 93.5
TABLE 10.3
Evaluation of Various Classifers with ResNet18 ConvNet Features
Validation Test Prediction Speed
Model Type Accuracy Accuracy (in Obs/Sec)
Tree Fine 94.80 87.00 130,000
Medium 93.70 83.80 130,000
Coarse 92.00 80.30 130,000
Discriminant Linear 97.60 93.50 66,000
Analysis Quadratic 96.90 95.70 67,000
FIGURE 10.2
Confusion matrix of the proposed approach with ResNet18 and QDA Classifer.
FIGURE 10.3
The ROC and AUC of the proposed approach with ResNet18 and QDA Classifer.
FIGURE 10.4
The True Positive Rate (TPR) and False Negative Rate (FNR) of the proposed approach.
FIGURE 10.5
The Positive Predictive Values (PPV) and False Discovery Rates (FDR) of the proposed
approach.
respectively. With a prediction rate of 67,000 images per second, the label of
an image is estimated/predicted in 0.0149 msec.
Hence, with ResNet18 feature extraction and QDA classifer as the pro-
posed approach, an image can be classifed in approximately 14 milliseconds
(13.18+0.0149). This suggests that the proposed approach can classify around
72 images per second. Since the normal frame-rate of video is 24 frames per
second, the proposed approach can classify all the frames in the video in
real-time.
10.5 Conclusions and Future Work

In this work, we proposed a CNN-based approach to address the prob-
lem of garbage classifcation. The discriminative feature learning capabil-
ity of CNN and the effective hardware implementation of CNN models are
exploited in this work to design an effective real-time garbage classifca-
tion system using visual data. Various classifers were analyzed to identify
the classifer that achieves optimum results for real-time classifcation. The
experimental study suggests the effectiveness of the proposed approach and
confrms the development of a fast garbage classifcation model. With the
hardware implementation of CNN and the low-complexity of the classifer,
the proposed approach can be implemented in an IoT environment for real-
time operation. The experimental study also suggests the effectiveness of
the proposed approach. Future work can explore other DNN architectures
and training/optimization strategies to develop a more optimal classifca-
tion model. The various hardware implementations of the entire workfow
can also be explored to create an end-to-end system.
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Index
A Environmental issue, 160

E-waste disposal, 13–14
AlexNet, 172, 175–176
E-waste management, 1, 4–5, 7, 9, 11,
Arduino, 87, 99, 103, 107–109, 111–112,
13–15, 101
114–115, 119, 144, 146–147
E-waste rules, 1, 9
Artifcial intelligence, 38, 42, 55, 64–65,
68–73, 84, 165
Automated system, 166–167 F
Feature extraction, 171, 173–176, 178
B Food loss, 63, 65
Food waste, 64–65, 67
Biodegradable materials, 175
Biomedical waste, 156, 160–162
Biomedical waste management, 156 G
Business layer, 90 Garbage classifcation, 171, 173, 175, 179
Gas sensors, 143
C Global positioning system (GPS), 47–48,
50–52, 55, 58, 85, 88, 91–92, 94
Carcinogenic effects, 157 Global warming, 5–6
Chemical disinfection, 162
Classifer, 171, 174–179
Consumer analytics, 72 H
Consumers, 2–4, 6, 9, 11, 15, 64–65, Harvest, 63–67, 69–71, 73–74
68–69, 71–73 Harvesting robots, 73
Crop monitoring, 64, 68 Hazardous material, 19, 25, 27–28
Crop yield prediction, 70–71 Hazardous waste, 4, 157
Cyber warming, 5 Healthcare waste, 155–157, 160–167
Health impact, 19, 24
D Health issue, 164
Humidity sensors, 37, 45–46, 48–49, 103,
Data analytics, 40–41 105–106, 112, 115, 143
Dataset, 171, 173, 175
Deep learning, 171, 173
I
Disease detection, 69–70
Disposal, 1, 3–6, 8–10, 12–14, 19, 20, Infrared, 37, 44, 48–49
23–27, 30–31, 33 Infrared (IR) thermal sensor, 37, 49
DNN, 171, 173–174, 179 Internet of Things (IoT), 38, 39, 41–44,
83–95, 99, 101–103, 111–113,
116, 122–124, 129–131, 135–136,
E
139–141, 144
Enforcement, 1, 11 IoT applications, 83, 85, 92
Environmental impact, 19, 23 IoT architecture, 139
183
184 Index
M S
Machine learning, 46, 51, 55, 84 Sensing module, 121, 131
Microcontroller, 102, 106, 109–110, 112, Sensors, 99, 101–103, 106–109, 111–112,
115, 130–133, 135 114–115, 142–147, 150
Microsoft Azure, 146–147 Serverless IoT, 139–140, 143, 146, 150–151
Municipal solid waste management, Shareholders, 1, 9, 12, 15
83–84 Smart bin, 43, 48, 52–53, 55–56, 58
Municipal waste, 121–127, 130 Smart dustbins, 99–103, 118
Municipal waste management, 123, Smart recycling, 38–39
127, 130 Smart waste bin, 48, 58, 86–87
Smart waste management, 38, 40–42, 46,
139–140, 144–145
N
Societal impact, 19, 24
Non and biodegradable materials, 175 Solid waste, 121–130, 135–136, 139–140
Nutrient management, 69–70 Solid waste management, 83–88, 90–91,
94–95
Strategies, 19–20, 26–29
O
Support vector machine, 37, 46–47, 51, 55
Organic waste, 139
T
P
Threats, 1, 7, 10, 12
Pathological waste, 156–157, 160
Policy, 1, 7, 10–13, 15, 20
U
Pressure sensors, 143
Proximity sensors, 143 Ultrasonic sensors, 99, 102–103, 112, 114
Public awareness, 1, 13, 15, 26 Urbanization and industrial
development, 83
R
W
Radio frequency identifcation (RFID)
tags, 38, 92, 135 Waste composition, 125
Raspberry Pi, 144, 146–147 Waste disposal, 4
Real time vehicle tracking system Waste generation, 139–140
(RTVTS), 93 Waste management, 38–44, 46, 58, 100,
Recovery, 19, 25, 27, 29–30 103, 111, 113–114, 119, 122–123,
Recycle, 20–21, 29, 31–33 125–130, 135–136, 139–141,
Recycling, 3–10, 13–14 143–145
Reduce food waste, 64, 67 Waste minimization, 19, 27–28
Regulation, 1, 6–7, 9–13 Waste prevention, 19–23, 25–33
ResNet18, 175–178 Weather prediction, 69, 72
Reuse, 19–22, 27–29, 31–33 Wi-Fi module, 99, 103, 106, 112, 114
Robots, 73 World Health Organization (WHO), 5

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IoT-Based Smart

For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.routledge.com/

Biswaranjan Acharya, Satarupa Dey,

First edition published 2022

and by CRC Press

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Acharya, Biswa Ranjan, editor. | Dey, Satarupa, editor. | Zidan,

ISBN: 978-1-032-01391-6 (hbk)

1 E-Waste Management ....................................................................................1

2 Waste Prevention: Its Impact and Analysis............................................. 19

4 Artifcial Intelligence and Reducing Food Waste during Harvest

5 IoT-Enabled Services for Sustainable Municipal Solid Waste

6 IoT-Enabled Smart Dustbin........................................................................ 99

7 IoT-Based Smart Waste Management for Smart Cities....................... 121

8 Serverless IoT Architecture for Smart Waste Management

9 IoT in Hospital Solid Waste Generation and Management ............... 155

10 A Fast Garbage Classifcation Model Based on Deep Learning ....... 171

Environmental sustainability is a vital topic that emphasizes the protec-

and management of e-waste. As there is no concrete policy or initiatives

The MathWorks, Inc.

Biswaranjan Acharya is an academic currently associated with Kalinga

Satarupa Dey is assistant professor in the Department of Botany, University

Ibrahim A. Abouelsaad Alok Narayan

Hrishikesh Chandra Gautam Arjyadhara Pradhan

Earnest Paul Ijjina

Rampavan Medipelly Jitendra Kumar Rout

Bholanath Roy Rahul Singh

Chandrima Roy Vipin Singh

Babita Panda, Gyanendra Kumar Panda, and Arjyadhara Pradhan

Number of phone used (in Million)

Number of phone used (in Million)

1.2 What Is E-Waste?

1.3 Problems of E-Waste

1.4 Generation of E-Waste

1.5 Identification of E-Waste Issues

1.6 Environmental Impact of E-Waste

• Intake of the toxic fumes

1.7 Proper Disposal of E-Waste

if electronics devices are thrown into landfll. E-waste recycling provides

1.8 E-Waste Management

• Extended producer responsibility (EPR) and e-waste

1.8.1 Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) and E-Waste

• Economic responsibility: for proper disposal of their product, the

• Liability regulation: this indicates the fnancial accountability for

1.8.2 Public Schemes for E-Waste Management

1.8.2.1 Main Highlights of the E-Waste Rules

• As per the new rules reformed in 2018, the assembly, repository,

1.8.2.2 Duties of Different Shareholders

• The producers taking a part of the burden

Despite all these developments, management of e-waste is a still great chal-

1.8.3 Problems and Threats for Policy Execution

1.8.3.2 Informal Organizations’ E-Waste Management Practices

1.8.3.3 Poor Regulation and Enforcement

1.8.4 Designing of a Powerful E-Waste Management System

regulations. In addition, the government may have to show relevant perfor-

1.8.4.1 Informal Sector

1.8.4.2 Policy Reformation under EPR