WHAT ARE COMPUTERS?

Computers have been around since the Chinese Abacus. They are here to stay. There is a certain feel and flow to the logic that directs their activities. Electronically, all computers work about the same. Computers vary widely in size and use. However all computers are similar in what the hardware does. Socalledmicrocomputers (like your desktop Personal Computer (PC)) are designed for personal use, relatively low price, and modest data processing tasks. Minicomputers are moderate sized (a small refrigerator size) and perform more complex tasks with larger amounts of data. Minicomputers might be used in a small engineering office or a local bank branch to send transaction data to a head office computer. Mainframe computers are large, expensive and process billions of characters of data rapidly and fill entire rooms. Finally, supercomputers are built to minimize distance between circuit boards and operate at very high speed for complex uses such as designing airplanes, animating complex movie sequences graphically or solving complex engineering formulas having billions of steps mathematically. Supercomputers are built for raw speed. Supercomputers are the main servers in the Internet System. Some terms apply to all computers. INPUT i s how data gets into a computer. The keyboard and mouse are familiar INPUT devices. OUTPUT re ferences how data is provided from the computer. A Monitor or printer are good examples of OUTPUT devices. PRIMARY STORAGE or MEMORY is the computers immediate data storage area usually this is in small integrated circuit chips which hold data ONLY while power is supplied. This PRIMARY STORAGE area is thus temporary. More permanent SECONDARY STORAGE is used when computer power is

off or when data overflows primary storage. This is usually floppy or hard disk drives but can include paper tapes, punch cards, or even non-volatile magnetic bubble memories. A computer system includes computer hardware, software and people. A computer is a device capable of solving problems or manipulating data by accepting data, performing prescribed operations on the data, and displaying the results in the desired form. The computer is a useful tool for data (or Information) Input, storage, processing and output. Page Top

HISTORY -HOW, WHERE, WHEN DID IT ALL START?

The first computational device was the abacus. This has been in continuous use for thousands of years. During the 1600's the Pascal adding machine was developed. This was a mechanical device that laid the groundwork for today's odometers and gas meters. The 1800's saw many machines developed that were controlled by punch cards - weaving looms. The theoretical basis for electronic circuitry was developed in the mid 1800's. In 1947, just after the first electronic computer was built, the transistor was invented, enabling the birth of vastly less expensive, more reliable computers. Even with transistors, computers were still too complex and costly for widespread use until the advent of the integrated circuit (IC) in 1961 made truly inexpensive computers possible at last. From this point forth there were many firsts as computers became less mechanical, smaller, faster and cheaper. In 1971, IC technology progressed to a point where a complete central processing unit - the heart of the computer - could be integrated on a single piece off silicon, giving birth to the microprocessor. The microprocessor led to the personal computer. The Personal Computer is distinguished by its size, cost, and applications for small business and the home. The first one appeared in January 1975 and was the Altair 8800 kit. Only hobbyists bought these. Then the Radio Shack TRS 80 and Apple computers hit the market as the first pre-assembled microcomputers. Market growth remained sluggish until two business students - Dan Bricklin and Dan Fylstra - developed a program to run on Apple computers to handle the tedious recalculations in their school assignments. This program was called VisiCalc and is the forerunner to the spreadsheet program Lotus 123. With VisiCalc as a useful tool, Apple sales took off. Apple became the standard because all programs were written for Apple. Today in the US, Apple still dominates the school market. In 1981 IBM introduced its PC. IBMs legacy still dominates the industry today. The PC was unable to run Apple software. Unlike Apple or other IBM products, the IBM PC had an open architecture. This means the technical details of how it operated were published with the product's introduction. This permitted hundreds of companies to write software (programs) for the IBM PC and a variety of hardware accessories. Adding IBM's sterling reputation, the open architecture did enable rapid market penetration. The microcomputer was no longer a toy, it was a business tool. The open architecture also allowed for the generation of a host of lower cost compatible computers. IBM had traded quick initial market entry for eventual erosion of market share.

In both instances, the consumers' benefit. In the early 90s Computers were applied variously in the fields of Science, Technology and Space exploration. Initially, PCs revolutionized how businesses are run, but today, computers deepest impact are felt in the merging of Communications and Information. The emergence of the World Wide Web and the explosion of Internet usage is having far-reaching effects on all aspects of society. Success and progress in all spheres of life, is now driven by Information and Technology. The future is bright, but it is up to every user of the technology to see that it is used to positive effect. Lets go back to basics:

WHY DO WE USE COMPUTERS?

This similar to asking why do we use cars? But too many people and organizations purchase and use Computers for the wrong reasons. Computers are practical tools to be used in helping you get results. Computers are needed where: 1. There is a need for a more accurate and cost effective knowledge to assist decision making. Success and progress is now being determined by your access to information and how you use that information to get results. 2. It is impossible to get results due to either time constraint or sheer magnitude of work involved. 3. It will reduce the mental and physical effort in tackling certain tasks. 4.There is intense competition and there is a need for cost efficiency through the elimination and reduction of inefficient practices. 5.There is a need to assist in enhancing Customer service. 6.There is a need for correct forecasting of market trends to ensure business survival. Page Top

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
Due to technological developments, Computers are now used in virtually all spheres of life. Here are a few of the application areas: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (S&T)

Computers are used in S&T to promote advances that could be useful to mankind, i.e. discovering better and more efficient ways of doing things. They are especially useful for humanly intractable calculations and simulation experiments. This is especially critical in situations where it would be too risky or expensive to directly carry out the required operation. For example, in Space exploration, underwater exploration, testing of new drugs, etc. Computers enable S&T professionals can carry out their practical procedures using faster, more accurate and safer methods. EDUCATION

Computers are useful for promoting learning experiences. From the toddler to the full grown adult, educational Computer tools are available. Computers are useful for learning about Computers and learning about other subjects, i.e. using Computer Assisted Learning software. Learning is usually interactive and can be reinforced over and over. For children, the advent of Multimedia, has made learning fun. They often dont realize it when theyre playing that they are also learning. BANKING & FINANCE Computers are very useful for handling financial transactions, most especially the storage and processing of huge amounts of information kept by financial institutions. Computers enhances Customer service, through the provision of uptodate and timely information for their Customers. Computers additionally assist with the monitoring of operational costs, to ensure cost effectiveness and profitability of operations. In some financial institutions, Computers are used to identify trends and provide timely information for present and future management decision making. RECREATION On your average PC, you can play a variety of games. You know what they say about Jack. All work and no play, makes Jack a ...... With the games, you could be the sole player, play against the Computer or you and a friend could play against each other. SECURITY Computers are useful for storing information about crimes, criminals and suspects. This can be very useful in Crime detection and prevention. Such systems can be interfaced with photograph capturing and fingerprint systems. They can also be linked to mobile radio communication systems over a wide area to enable in the fast and efficient sharing of information on Criminal activities. Such systems would possess enquiry facility for historical and analytic purposes.

There so many other areas where the impact of the Computer is being felt such as Medicine, Law, Sports, Entertainment, Media, Building, Construction, etc. In every situation the Computer performs different functions relating to Information storage, input, output and processing. It is no wonder that productive Computer based activity is referred to popularly as Information Technology. What are Computers? A computer system includes computer hardware, software and people. Page Top

HARDWARE versus SOFTWARE

What is the difference between computer hardware and software? HARDWARE In simplest terms, hardware is the physical parts associated with a computer - the electronic, magnetic, and mechanical devices (monitor, keyboard, printer, micro chip boards, floppy drives, cables and physical pieces of a system. These INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES allow the operator to interact with the computer. SOFTWARE Sets of programs (stored sets of instructions) that govern the operation of the computer system and make the hardware perform. These programs (instructions) tell the hardware how to do a particular task such as word processing, games, database management, etc. Although these instructions are usually stored inside a piece of hardware (e.g., software instructions stored inside a circuit chip or floppy drive) but they are nevertheless software. In a way, Software refers to the instructions that enable an otherwise dead machine to understand your inputs and transform them into desired outputs. Computer hardware by itself lacks personality; this is determined by the software. Word processing software turns the computer into a word processor, accounting software turns the computer into an accounting tool, etc. Lets discuss a bit about Software before we go back to Hardware. There are two major types of software: Operating system software and Applications software. Operating system software (like DOS, UNIX or Windows 95) performs very elemental housekeeping instructions (e.g., where is the monitor, how can I keep track of what data is on which track or sector of a floppy drive, whether more than user can work on the system at the same time e.g. UNIX.) The operating system that all IBM and compatible PC's use is called DOS (sounds like floss). DOS is software that allows the terminal, printer, computer and mass storage systems (floppy disks) to work together as a unit, and controls the execution of programs. It also allows you to do housekeeping chores regarding managing disks and files.

Applications programs perform tasks on a higher level (e.g., word processing Spreadsheet, Games, Database Management, Accounting, Payroll programs are applications.) Generally an application software package uses the lower level operating system (DOS) to do routine tasks (e.g., your word processing application uses the lower level DOS operating system frequently to write and store data on a disk. And what is a Database? A database is a collection of information that is organized for ease of reference. For example, your address book is a database, just as an inventory of goods, a list of all churches in your state or your staff list. Before Electronic processing of information, databases had to be maintained on paper stored in file folders that were kept in filing cabinets. With Electronic DataBase Management Systems (DBMS), information stored electronically and be recalled instantly and accurately. And now lets go back to Hardware:

HARDWARE
CENTRAL PROCESSOR UNIT (CPU) Heart of the PC - it contains the microprocessor. The CPU is a set of miniaturized circuits that does all the "thinking". It controls the interpretation (arithmetic-logic unit) and execution (control unit) of instructions. The CPU in conjunction with Random Access Memory (RAM) comprise the computer's "brain". The CPU does the "thinking / calculating" while RAM contains the instructions or "memories". It is the CPU that largely determines the operating speed of the computer. The type of processor on your PC will determine the nature of functions it can carry out and the speed at which instructions are carried out. For example, while a 286 processor would struggle to load Windows 3.1, a 486 processor loads it easily. Additionally, a 286 processor is obviously incapable of running most new software. Pentium processor are now as fast as 200 MHz. Now the good stuff. Lets read on and want delve into great complexity. Now its time to delve deeper into the heart of the computer. The central processing unit or CPU is the "brains" of every computer. On the PC, the CPU is simply a tiny integrated circuit. It is the control center and contains two circuit elements to perform tasks plus several special locations or memory areas called registers which hold instructions. Registers, located within the CPU chip are temporary storage locations which hold instructions. Secondly, the arithmetic logic unit or ALU is the location within the CPU where basic math and logic operations take place (such as addition and subtraction.) Finally, the control unit is a portion of the CPU which directs all elements of the computer. It does not add or subtract like the ALU, it only directs the activity.

Despite this seeming complexity, a basic fact remains: all digital computers can only add and subtract two numbers: zero and one! Lets back up a bit. For purposes of digital computer electronics, internally a computer can only respond to two things: on and off just like a light switch. These electronic states of being might actually be a positive and negative voltage or a high and low voltage stored in a series of transistors etched in silicon on a chip, but to the computer the logic is on or off. Two conditions, that is all. Back in the human world we can represent these as one and zero (1 and 0). A special branch of mathematics deals with calculations of numbers represented by 1 and 0 which is called binary arithmetic. We rarely think of 0 as a number since we consider it NOTHING.) To computers ZERO is always a number!!! To a computer these binary numbers march together in a long string, one after another. Remember, the CPU has only two numbers to work with: 1 and 0. Human Decimal Computer Binary 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 3 11 4 100 5 101 6 110 7 111 8 1000 9 1001 10 1 0 1 0 11 1 0 1 1 12 1 1 0 0

These eccentricities appear odd, but to the computer they are shortcuts which simplify calculations and keep things to 1s and 0s. It is this simple system of on and off (like light switches) which make computers and their odd binary system so FAST! WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A BIT AND A BYTE? The IBM PC and its clones generally use 8 bits (electrical pulses) to make up a byte (computer word.) A ninth "odd bit" is used for error checking (parity testing) to make sure the other eight bits are not accidentally erased or lost during storage or use by the computer. Bits are like alphabet characters and bytes are like the words made up from alphabet characters. Bits and Bytes are used to measure information by the computer. BIT Smallest unit of information recognized by the computer. BIT is short for Binary Digit. A Binary Digit can be either a 0 or a 1. Several bits make up a byte. BYTE

A group of 8 BITS. This grouping of adjacent binary digits (bits) is operated on by the computer as a unit. Computers use 1 BYTE to represent 1 character such as a letter of the alphabet, a number, a punctuation mark, a space, etc. A BYTE is also a unit of measure since it represents 1 character. For example, when the letter "A" is pressed, the keyboard actually sends the following to RAM: 10000001 - a set of 8 bits. Page Top

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS (WHAT ARE COMPUTERS? (1)

1. State 5 areas where computers are used and describe how they are used in these areas 2. What do you understand by Input and Output? How do they go hand in hand? 3. State 5 specific situations where it is necessary to use computers, and state why. The phenomenal Development in the Applications of Computers in all facets of life has been due more to Hardware Advancements than Software Developments. COMMENT. 4. What do you understand by binary arithmetic? 5. Of what value are bits and bytes in the computer world? Give 3 practical examples.

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ESSON 2: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING (2)

WHAT ARE COMPUTERS ?(2)

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

Think of a computer as a human brain. Your brain is a memory sponge. It contains a lifetime of memories that cause us to act or react based on inputs. Inputs come through our 5 senses. If you see and smell hot suya burning on the grill (inputs) you know how to react based on previous experiences (memory - " I HAVE TO EAT O!). A set of miniaturized circuits which represents the working memory of the computer. This is where application programs (software) can be loaded from the outside and then executed. The larger the RAM the better. A typical single user computer system may contain approximately 8,000,000 bytes of RAM. (This is often abbreviated as 8MB RAM.) The computer's brain consists of the RAM and the CPU. The CPU and RAM work together as the computer's "brain". Each day when we start up the computer one of the first tasks will be to fill RAM with instructions to give it an ability to do work. This work may be in the creation of documents or tracking accounting data. You control which instructions will go into the computer's brain. You control the sets of experiences you will provide the computer. Once in RAM, the computer will evaluate inputs from many devices and react. The most typical input device is a keyboard. As you type commands, the computer evaluates them. Based on the set of instructions within its RAM, it will follow some action: print a document, calculate, send information over a telephone line, etc. At some later point you may empty the computer's brain and install a different set of instructions, thus giving it a different ability. The RAM is emptied when the computer is turned off - thus it is often called "volatile" memory. WHAT YOU SEE ON YOUR COMPUTER MONITOR IS ACTUALLY IN RAM ONLY - a temporary storage location. To make it permanent we "save" it or "write" it to a floppy disk or hard drive. These devices are non volatile storage - they do not require electricity. Each time the computer is turned off, all information within RAM is lost. RAM is called volatile memory because of the electricity requirement. READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM) This is a special section of memory that contains instructions which are activated each time the computer is turned on. These instructions are set at the factory and cannot be changed - thus, they can only be "read", not written to. ROM instructions perform equipment checks and initialization of the computer prior to each use. Page Top DISKS Think of disks as cassettes. You can record information on a cassette that can be replayed indefinitely and if desired, recorded over. Floppy and Hard Disks operate in a similar fashion. We record (Save) something we have created - like a document - onto the disk. Then, hours, days, or months later we can play back (Retrieve) the document into the computer to alter or print out. The magnetic disk used to store information works in a manner similar to a tape recorder -

magnetic impressions are placed on the tape and can be later replayed. A magnetic computer disk works in the same fashion but spins in a circle like a music record rather than moving in a straight line like recording tape. Magnetic computer disks are available in two basic types: floppy and hard disks. Just like cassettes, the Floppy and Hard Disks do not require electricity to retain their information. Hard Disks and Floppy Disks are similar. However, Hard Drives have a larger capacity for file storage, are faster and are less likely to fail due to the protected environment from within which they operate. Floppy and Hard Disks are nonvolatile in nature because they will retain their information without the aid of electricity. A hard disk can hold considerably more information than a floppy disk - frequently billions and millions of computer words (or "bytes") while a floppy disk holds less than a million in many cases. However what the floppy disk loses in capacity in gains in the advantage of portability since it can easily be removed from the PC and stored which is not true of the hard disk. When you format a disk you ask the computer to inspect the magnetic surface of the disk for any errors, prepare it for use by future data and create an index "file allocation table (FAT)" which is like a card index for a large library of books. Formatting a disk is a little like taking a blank piece of paper and using a pencil and ruler to turn it into graph paper with both horizontal and vertical lines. What was blank before now has little cells or file drawers which can hold information. DISK DRIVE The port in which a floppy disk is inserted. This device "reads data from a magnetic disk, and copies data into the computer's memory (RAM) so it can be used by the computer, and that "writes" data from the computer's memory onto a disk so it can be stored for later use. Each Disk Drive is labeled A,B,C, etc. because we often must tell the computer which drive has the disk with the information or where to send the information. A Disk Drive reads and writes on a 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch floppy disk. FLOPPY DISKS The most commonly used mass storage device. Allows entering programs to RAM and saving data from RAM. Will hold data even after the computer is turned off. Data on these disks is stored in concentric rings called tracks. The Disk surface is a thin piece of mylar and is coated with a magnetized material similar to audio or video tape. The read/write heads can magnetize and demagnetize the coated surface repeatedly. Therefore, the Disk can be used, erased, and reused indefinitely. Floppy disks are also available as double density and high density format. A standard floppy diskette is either 5D inches or 3A inches square. Obviously the high density of 3A" diskette contains more information than the 3A" double density diskette. A 5D" Doublesided, Double density disk holds approximately 360k worth of information (250 double spaced pages of text). The smaller 3.5 inch Double density disks which hold at least twice as much - 720k. Working with floppy diskettes.

To insert a floppy diskette into your computer drive, first remove it from the paper or plastic slipcover if one protects it. The proper way to insert a floppy diskette in most drives is as follows. For larger 5 - 1/4 inch floppies, turn the printed label side up and locate the TWO VERY TINY notches along one edge. Near the notches will be a jelly bean shaped hole about one inch long cut into the plastic surface of the diskette. This oblong hole is the read/write opening. Insert the diskette into the drive with the label side up and the two tiny notches FIRST into the drive opening then close the drive locking handle. Along one edge of the diskette you will also see a SINGLE square shaped hole which is the write protect notch. If this write protect notch is UNCOVERED you can BOTH read and write data to the diskette. If the write protect notch is covered with a piece of tape, then you can READ information from the diskette but you CANNOT write information to the diskette. This is a safeguard feature you may wish to use from time to time. Keep fragile diskettes away from smoke, hair, dirt and ESPECIALLY sources of magnetism such as motors, loudspeakers or even children's magnetic toys which may ERASE your data! For smaller 3 - 1/2 inch size diskettes, turn the label side up and locate the metal "shutter". Insert the diskette into the drive with the label up and the shutter FIRST into the drive. The write protect notch or opening is a small square hole with a SLIDING PLASTIC TAB which is slid CLOSED (cannot see an open hole) to enable BOTH reading and writing to the diskette. The sliding tab is placed OPEN (visible open hole) to enable reading but NOT writing. FIXED DISK DRIVE Usually named disk drive C. It is essentially a very large floppy disk. This Fixed Disk (commonly called a Hard Drive) is secured within the machine and cannot be seen or transported. The storage capacity is so large it is measured in megabytes (1M = 1K squared = 1,048,576 bytes). Fixed Disks are available from 5M on up. The main advantages are that it has enough space to meet most users' total storage needs, operates much faster than a floppy (5-10 times faster), and is less likely to fail since it "lives" within the protected computer. Page Top INPUT DEVICES Since we have covered data storage lets move to data input. (a) PRIMARY INPUT DEVICES Two primary input devices are key to getting data into a PC. The keyboard and the mouse. (i) KEYBOARD Input device that lets you enter data into the computer. The layout is similar to the standard QWERTY typewriter keyboard. However, there are many extra special keys that are defined by the software you are running. (ii) MOUSE

Hand operated pointing and selection device which serves as alternate input to the keyboard. It is very useful for Graphical User Interface (GUI) Applications such as Windows, etc., which is rolled or moved across the desktop to position a cursor or pointer on the computer screen. The mouse also contains several buttons to help select items on data on the monitor screen. A mouse was initially an optional device, but it is becoming difficult to work without it, with the spread of Windows based systems. (b) SPECIALTY INPUT DEVICES Lets move on to the specialty input devices like the scanner and the Digital camera. (i) SCANNER A scanner converts text and images to digital information. This text and images can be from a variety of sources such as magazines, photographs, articles, scientific diagrams, etc. The scanner creates a digital image from your photograph or drawing, for use in graphics, DeskTop Publishing or Presentation applications. There are different types of scanners like Hand scanner, flatbed scanner and the multifunction scanner/fax/printer/copier. The flatbed scanner provides a larger scanning area than the other scanners and is the usually more expensive. (ii) DIGITAL CAMERA The Digital Camera produces the same result as a Scanner. Any pictures taken are transferred straight to the computer, i.e. in the form of a graphics image suitable for image editing or DeskTop Publishing applications. It eliminates the need for film. Page Top OUTPUT DEVICES Another introductory topic is that of output devices such as a monitor, printer or plotter. (i) PLOTTER A plotter is a device which uses a motor to move pens or drawing implements in tightly controlled horizontal and vertical motions on a piece of paper or film. The computer can control a plotter to combine on one piece of paper differing pen colors and text and pictures stored within the computer. Computer plotter can be purchased with flat table or flat bed configurations or in models which move the pen(s) back and forth with gears that also drive the paper movement at the same time.

(ii) PRINTER The printer is probably the most common and useful output device attached to your computer. There are many types of modern computer printer with differing speeds and capabilities. The most common printer is the Dot matrix printer which provides characters made up from tiny dots of ink on paper. Line printers (usually with Mainframe computers or Minicomputers) print entire lines of text in one sweep then move to the next line and are thus very fast. Ink jet printers produce characters made from individual dots of ink sprayed onto the paper.

The ink jet printer squirts individual dots of ink onto the paper to form letters or other characters. A high quality paper is necessary since the wet ink can smear if not carefully handled. Although with the most recent models, ordinary paper can also be used. The Colour print facility is also now standard with most inkjet printer. Finally, laser printers use a rapidly scanning laser to sensitize a polished drum with an entire page of information quickly and look and work roughly like an office copier. The first two printers are classified as impact printers since something strikes the paper while the later two are non impact printers. The laser and ink jet printers are becoming more popular due to rapid speed of printing and quiet mode of operation. The laser printer is used for quickly producing one page of text at a time. In operation, the laser scans a polished drum with an image which is then dusted with dark toner particles which stick to the exposed areas made sensitive by the laser. Paper is then placed in contact with the drum and the toner is transferred to the page and is finally fused with heat to "fix" or seal the toner particles to the page. Of the Microcomputer printers, the Laser is the most expensive in terms of purchase price, maintenance cost and consumable cost. Dot matrix printers are common and affordable alternatives for many small offices, home computer hobbyists or organizations with voluminous printing requirements (e.g. statements of accounts for banks). The Dot matrix is additionally designed for use with continuous flow paper, as well as typical single sheet paper. Dot matrix usually operates in varying modes of draft and letter quality. In draft mode, the printer speed is faster, with draft quality. Letter quality is slower with higher quality. Dot matrix printers produce letters via small pins which strike the ink ribbon and paper to produce print which can be jagged looking. Nine pin dot matrix printers produce somewhat rough looking letters while 24 pin dot matrix printers produce crisper, fully-formed letters. The Dot matrix printer strikes the paper through a ribbon to transfer ink to the printed page. Connecting a printer via a cable to the computer is always done through one of two plugs (or interfaces) on the back of the computer. One type of interface (computer plug) is serial, the other called parallel. The most commonly used interface for printers today is the parallel interface but serial interface printers do exist. What is the difference? Recall that there are eight bits (computer dots and dashes) to a byte (or computer word). The serial interface has each bit sent one at a time to the printer - like men in single file at the supermarket checkout counter. The parallel interface sends all eight bits at once - like eight men all entering eight supermarket counters at once. Each interface is different, the printer manufacturer will tell you which interface to use, i.e. serial or parallel. Frequently, modems or mouse devices use the serial interface leaving the printer to the parallel interface. (iii) MONITORS We have talked about output to paper, next let's briefly discuss output to a monitor or screen. The monitor is a television like device that the computer uses to communicate with you. The monitor or video display works much like your television - some older home computers still use a TV. An old term for a monitor is the cathode ray tube or CRT.

Monitors differ in the sharpness or resolution they can display. On the low end of the resolution spectrum is the monochrome (single color) monitor frequently available in either green or amber screens. Next is the color RGB monitor (RGB stands for Red, Green and Blue) which displays low resolution color dots to make up an image. Higher resolution is obtained with an EGA monitor (Enhanced Graphics Adapter) and still higher with a VGA (Video Graphics Array) Monitor and even higher with an SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array) Monitor. Each monitor is matched to work with a circuit card located within the body of the computer. One way to upgrade a computer is to switch both the monitor and display/graphics circuit card to produce a sharper, more colorful image. The dots which make up all images on the monitor screen are called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the higher and sharper the image resolution. Typically the monitor displays 80 columns (characters) by 25 rows (lines) of information. The initial SVGA cards could only display 16 colours. And then 256 colours. Now some SVGA card can display millions of colours. INPUT & OUTPUT DEVICES Certain devices can act as both input and output devices to the computer. Typical devices mentioned earlier are the disks (floppy and hard). (i) MODEM Short for Modulator/Demodulator. A device to send and receive computer output over telephone lines. Page Top THE COMPUTER DEVICES & RELATIONSHIPS CASING & MOTHERBOARD Where is your CPU kept? Don't look for RAM near your mouse. Most of the components are internal, and kept inside a casing. This casing model can be Tower, minitower or desktop. Inside the casing, there is a power supply unit that takes in the power supplied from the public power supply and steps it down to supply the computer's needs. Also inside the casing is the motherboard, which is a large printed circuit board that all expansion boards plug into. The motherboard contains the most essential parts of the computer such as the CPU, RAM, ROM, keyboard, speaker and power connections, and other assortment of important parts. The expansion boards contain special circuits for the monitor (monitor card), disk drives and mouse (multi Input/Output card) and other options such as modem and scanner. TUTORIAL QUESTIONS (WHAT ARE COMPUTERS? (2)) 1. RAM is usually more powerful than ROM. COMMENT. 2. What are the differences between the floppy disk and the hard disk? In which situation is the floppy preferable to the hard disk? 3. It is possible to make a Floppy Drive Read Only. COMMENT.

4. What does the message "MEMORY FULL" indicate? 5. Why are certain devices called specialty input devices? What makes them different from the usual input devices? 6. Can printers and monitors be described as Input/Output devices? Explain.

LESSON 3: DOS FOR BEGINNERS DOS stands for Disk Operating System. DOS is the Operating System, on most PCs, that controls the primary input and output of your computer while you use an application program such as your word processor or database. DOS performs 2 functions: 1. Links the Hardware; 2. Allows for file management First, it enables the hardware devices to properly communicate with each other. It is a set of instructions so that the computer's brain understands how its arms and legs operate (keyboard, monitor, printers, etc.). We take this ability for granted. It is like starting a car - many complex systems must work in unison for it to work, yet we take it for granted that it will start. The second function of DOS is also important. We must have a means to manage the files that we save on our Floppy Disks or Hard Drives. There are times when we wish to copy these files from one disk to another, erase them, or determine which files are on a disk. These tasks are performed often and the software required to do so is DOS. USING DOS When you access DOS, you will see the lonesome C:\> prompt on your hard drive. This symbol signals 3 things: 1. DOS has been properly loaded into RAM 2. "C" is the DEFAULT drive 3. DOS is awaiting your next DOS file management command Each disk drive and hard disk has a letter associated with it. If a drive is considered the DEFAULT drive, then the computer will always assume that the information needed is in that drive, OR if something you have created is saved, it will be saved to that drive UNLESS you tell the computer otherwise. All types of disks contain files. We use DOS as a software tool to manage these files. We not only tell the computer which file we want to erase or copy but also which drive it is currently in. If A:\> is on the screen it is the DOS prompt and in this case the A: drive is the DEFAULT floppy drive which will be searched for information if you issue a command and ask DOS to execute it. You can CHANGE the default drive simply. Let's try switching drives.

At C:\> try the following example: (Example) A: <press enter key> The result on screen is now A:\> The computer now pays attention to A: (A drive). Hopefully there is a disk in A: drive or DOS gets confused and will give you an error message. Since you have a hard drive (which is usually the C: drive,) you can try switching back and forth between your A: drive and C: in a similar manner. Try switching around between drives, go back and forth a few times. Switching drives is a VERY IMPORTANT SKILL, since DOS pays attention to the default drive whose letter is displayed on your screen. FILENAMES & EXTENSIONS A filename consists of the name and its extension. Files can be typed in upper or lower case, DOS doesn't care! The file extension frequently gives a clue as to the nature of the file. Examples of filenames. LOOK CAREFULLY AT THE THREE DIGIT EXTENSIONS: 123.EXE The program 123, an "executable" file. Think of as a program that can be started and "run" to do something. GO.BAT A Batch file (bat). Like an exe file. Contains plain english DOS commands and can be viewed with the DOS "type" command. VIEW.COM Unknown file, but a "command" type, similar to an exe file. 783.WKS A worksheet file from lotus possibly from July of 1983 (7/83) ME.TXT Probably a text file in plain english. Can be read and viewed with the DOS command: TYPE XVC.DBF Unknown file, but we might guess a database program database file. CONFIG.SYS A PC system file. Helps "configure" your computer for specific hookups, and equipment. SUBDIRECTORIES - LITTLE BOXES IN THE DISK DRIVE Floppy disks have a relatively limited capacity to store files - limited in comparison to the seemingly expansive space on a hard drive. To find a necessary file name on a floppy, just use the DIR or directory command. However, on a hard disk things get a little out of hand with hundreds of files all listed on the same screen. A solution is obtained by adding subdirectories and pathnames to manage the location and organization of file storage. A path is nothing more than a "trail" or "direction post" which helps DOS find a particular file out of the hundreds which may be located on a hard drive. This pathname is facilitated by the use of multiple directories (called subdirectories) on a single disk. In this fashion you sort files into groups in a specific place on the drive. By the way, a subdirectory is itself a small file and does occupy space on the disk. You could compare a hard or floppy disk to a department store. The store might sell toys, books and clothes. Similar items go in the same department or area. A disk also has the capacity for many separate areas in which to place files. DOS refers to these with a main central directory (root directory) and subdirectories branching below it. You can create a subdirectory named TEXT which contains all your word processing documents. Computer utilities could be in a subdirectory called UTIL, and so on.

WILDCARDS - ? and * - DOS can use "wildcards" in many operations (? *). Simply stated, these wildcards take the place of letters and numbers. Use the question mark as any SINGLE character. Use the * as any GROUP of ANY LENGTH of characters. Think of them as shortcuts to get the job done! Very powerful and useful! Frequently used with the COPY and DEL commands which are discussed in a few paragraphs. Example: C>dir A:*.wks Means provide a directory listing of any files on the A: drive ending in WKS and beginning with ANY characters of ANY length from 1 to eight digits. Files such as MY.WKS or NUMBERS.WKS or NAMES.WKS would fit this description. Example: B>copy ???.dat A: Means copy any files to A: drive ending in DAT and having any characters in the filename AND ONLY filenames exactly three digits long. The often used *.* means ANY FILE NAME and ANY extension regardless of length. For instance: Example: C>copy *.* A: (means copy ALL files from the existing default C: into the A: drive) C>copy A:*.* B: (means copy ALL files from A: to B:) A>del finance.* (delete files from the A: drive which begin with finance and have ANY file extension size or character type.) A>Copy *.DOC B: (All files with the extension DOC) A>Del S*.* (Any file that begins with the letter S) A>Del B:*.* (ALL files from the B drive - be careful!) A>Dir B:*.COM (A list of all files with an extension of COM on the B drive) INTERNAL & EXTERNAL COMMANDS Many of the DOS commands once loaded stay inside the machine. These commands stay resident (stay put) and are called INTERNAL commands. DIR is an example of an INTERNAL COMMAND - it lives inside the computer once DOS is loaded. EXTERNAL COMMANDS only live on disk (Hard or Floppy) and can be copied to other disks (example: FORMAT.COM). They load TEMPORARILY into the computer memory, do their job and then are gone. EXTERNAL DOS COMMANDS MUST HAVE A DOS DISK OR DIRECTORY (OR COPY) of that command in a disk directory or drive when you need them. The following are examples of some useful DOS commands: - DIR - (Internal) means "directory" (a list of files or programs on the disk.)You get a listing of files in the drive (hopefully a disk is in the drive.) Notice that we added /p to the end of a command. C> Dir (List all files) C> Dir A: (List on files on diskette) C>dir/p <enter> Show a list of all files and "pause after each screenful." - COPY - (Internal) copies one or several files to a disk or directory. Copy can duplicate a file onto

another disk or into a subdirectory (more on subdirectories later). Copy is a very flexible and powerful DOS commands. Use the copy command with the wildcards seen above for even more flexibility. Example: B>copy zip.doc A: (copy zip.doc from B: drive to A: drive.) Example: A>copy C:why.com B: (copy why.com from C: drive to B: drive.) Example: C>copy C:fuss.txt B:whine.txt (copy fuss.txt from C: drive to B: drive and rename it whine.txt) Remember, if the computer is not told differently, it will assume the DEFAULT drive: A>COPY A:sample.wk1 B: is the same as: A>COPY sample.wk1 B: The "A:" in the first example is redundant. - DATE and TIME - (Internal) A calendar and clock exist within DOS. On some computers it automatically is updated and kept current. Date and time data is important to DOS since it is attached to all files to keep track of when they were created so you can determine which file is most recent. Example: B>time Example: A>date - DEL or ERASE - (Internal) deletes files or groups of files. Use DEL*.* to erase all files from a disk. See our previous mention of wildcards (* and ?). Deleting old files is a necessary operation, though, which frees up space on a disk. Example: A>del whine.txt Example: B>del 784.jid Example: A>del *.jid (notice the use of the * wildcard we mentioned earlier!) Example: A>del old.* (notice the use of the * wildcard we mentioned earlier!) - DISKCOPY - (External) copies entire contents of one floppy to another. Diskcopy is a wise idea since disks wear out after several hundred hours of operation. All information on the target disk will be destroyed and over-written with the new information, so be careful! Example: A>diskcopy A: B: (copy the contents of A: floppy to B: floppy) - CLS - (Internal) clears the screen and puts the cursor in the home (upper left) position. Useful. Try it! Example: A>cls - CD or CHDIR - (Internal) changes the current (active) subdirectory or directory. CD\ brings you to the root (main directory) no matter where you are. C> CD\WINDOWS (Change to Windows directory) C> CD\ (Change to the root directory) - FORMAT - (External) Prepares a blank floppy to receive data. Format erases any old files on a disk -

be careful! Format prepares the tracks and sectors which will receive the data. All disks must first be formatted prior to use. Example: B>format A: (format floppy in A: drive) Example:C>format A:/s (format floppy in A: AND add system files) Tip:DANGER! If you enter any of these commands, your files are off to Computer Heaven, never to be seen again. A>format C: wipes out your hard drive! Also C> del *.* wipes out hard drive. - SCANDISK - (External) This is an advanced disk utility. It will check the disk and highlight any problem areas. It uses a Graphical User Interface. PRACTICE: FREQUENTLY USED DOS COMMANDS B>rd\letters\financial (removes financial subdirectory below letters subdirectory and root directory) A>md data (make directory data) Example: A>cd\ (change to the root or uppermost directory) Example: C>cd\data (change to subdirectory named data below the root) A>DIR B: A>DIR B:/P - Displays list of files one screen at a time A>DIR B:/W - Displays list of files using the entire width of the screen A>COPY A:filename.ext B: - To copy one file from Disk A to Disk B A>DEL B:filename.ext - To remove the specified file from the specified drive. A>DISKCOPY A: B: - Making an exact copy of the diskette in Drive A onto the diskette in Drive B. (Follow on-screen directions)

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS (DOS FOR BEGINNERS) 1. State the uses of 5 Internal commands and 5 external commands. 2. What is the difference between Internal and External commands? 3. Explain the following: Directories, Format, Rename, Path, Full pathname. 4. Give 5 specific and original examples of the use of wildcards. 5. Name the 5 most important DOS commands and state why they are important.

Training Objectives
Computers are generally acknowledged as facilitators of modern civilization. Today, there is no field of activity that is not being made easier with the use of computers. From the highest industrial and commercial boardroom to the kitchen at home, the influence of the computer is but pervasive. Computers, no doubt, have become an indispensable tool to all and sundry. Little wonder it is being held that within the next few years, any person that is not computer literate will be cut off guide.

This training program is designed to bring extra value and skill building in computer appreciation to readers. It is a beginners study program. However, computer users at any level will also find each topic useful, especially in enhancing skills in computer applications. The program equips the readers with the techniques required to meet the challenges of an emerging world that is computer dependent. Authored by a seasoned IT professional that understands and cares about computer operating needs of readers.

It is a product of several years of experience drawn from IT training development program. It is divided into Lessons, starting with Computer Operations and Usage, which is considered fundamental to building a sound IT career.