Unit -1

Introduction

Characteristics of the Database Approach

 1.    Manages Information
A database manages all the information in their required fields (according to column definition
and ids).

 2.    Easy Operation Implementation

All the operations like insert, delete, update, search, etc. by SQL queries. It is a flexible and easy
way. For this user required information of column name and appropriate value. Queries make it
more powerful.

 3.    Multiple Views of Database

A view is a subset of the database or interface. It is defined according to user requirements.
Different users of the system may have different views of the same system. Every view contains
only the data of interest to a user or a group of users.

 4.    Data for Specific Purpose

A database is designed for a specific purpose according to the group of user and application
interests. For example, a database of the student management systems is designed to maintain the
record of students’ marks, fees, and attendance, etc. This data has the specific purpose of
maintaining student records. For example, the library system has three types of users, 1. official
administration of the college, 2. librarian, and 3. students.

 5.    Represent Real World Applications

A database represents real-world applications. If any change in the real world then it is reflected
in the database. Example: - railway reservation system - Maintaining records of passengers,
waiting list, train arrival and departure time, certain day, etc. related to each train.

 6.    Logical Relationship Between Records and Data

A database maintains a logical relationship between records and data. So a user can access
various records according to various logical conditions by a single query from the database.

 7.    Insulation Between Program and Data

In the database approach, the data structure is stored in the system catalog, not in the programs.
If we want to change the structure of a file then no need to change the program. This feature is
called program-data independence.It is not found in the file-based system.

 8.     Self-describing nature of a database system

A database system is referred to as self-describing by metadata. Metadata defines and describes
the data and relationships between tables in the database.This information is used by the DBMS
software or database users if needed.This type of nature is not found in file-based systems.
 9.    Sharing of data and multiuser system
Current database systems can access by multiple users at the same time. This feature is called
concurrency control strategies. These strategies ensure that the data accessed are always correct
and integrated.

 10. Control of data redundancy

In the database approach, each data item is stored in only one place in the database. So single
data does not repeat more than one time. This feature improves system performance.Redundancy
is controlled by application programming and minimized when designing the database.

 11. Enforcement of integrity constraints

database approach provides the ability to define and enforce certain constraints to ensure that
users enter valid information and maintain data integrity.A database constraint is a restriction or
rule that dictates what can be entered or edited in a table such as a postal code using a certain
format or adding a valid city in the City field.

 12. Restriction of unauthorized access

A database approach should provide security to create and control different types of user
accounts and restrict unauthorized access.It provides privileges to access or use data from a
database these are read-only access (i.e., the ability to read a file but not make changes), and read
and write privileges, (both read and modify a file).

 13. Transaction processing

A database approach supports a concurrency control subsystem that ensures that data remains
consistent and valid during transaction processing even if several users update the same
information.

 14. Backup and recovery facilities

Backup and recovery are methods that are used to protect your data from loss.  Backup means
storing database copy to another drive or place. If a hard drive fails or is not accessible then it
recovers the database from backup places.If a computer system fails in a complex update
process, the recovery method is accessed and restored to its original state.

Advantages
1.    Controlling data redundancy.
Redundancy means storing the same type of data on the different parts DBA avoids unnecessary
duplication of data and reduces the storage space.Redundancy leads to several problems:-
duplication of efforts, storage space waste, and inconsistent data.

 2.      Minimise data inconsistency

 Inconsistency means different versions of the same data appear in different places. data
consistency is obtained if a data item appears only once.  Any update to its value has to be
performed only once.
3.    Restricting unauthorized access
 Data is stored centrally so enforcing forcibly Security constraints is easier.
The system does not provide to accessing same privileges to all users.
Provides a security subsystem to create and control the user accounts such as user ID and
password.
 Different checks can be established for each type of access as addition modification deletion
 To each piece of information in the database.

4.      Improve data access 

DBMS provides quick answers to queries for data manipulation.

5.    Support multiple views of data

A view is a subset of a database that contains virtual data derived from the database file but it
does not exist in physical form.
Accessed by any user and have different viewpoints for use of data.
Users may not need to be aware of how and where the data they refer to is stored.

6.    Enforcing integrity constraint

 Various integrity constraints are identified by database design during database design.
 these data integrity constraints can be and forced automatically by the DBMS and others may
have to be checked by the application programs.

7.    Providing backup and recovery

 Recovering from hardware and software failure such as power failure, software error.
 saving the data to some other machine periodically is known as backup data.
 DBMS recover subsystem either revert back up revert back the database to the state which exists
prior to the start of a transaction or resume the transaction from the point it was interesting so
that it's completely a fact can be recorded in the database 

8.    Integration of data

 Data in the database is stored in the table.
 A single database contains multiple tables and the relationship can be created between the
tables.  It makes it easy to retrieve and update data.

9.    Concurrent access and crash recovery

 Data is accessed by only one user at a time.
 DBMS protects users from the effects of some system failures
 Concurrency control software to ensure that several users are trying to update the same data at
the same time.
 It should be maintained in a controlled manner

10. Reduced application development time

 Develop the application program according to the user's needs.
 Other issues like concurrent access security data integrity etc. are handled by the DBMS itself so
application development time is reduced.

11. Better service to the user

 It improves service data can be shared and the techniques easier to respond to expected
information requests.
12. Standard can be enforced
 Standards are easier to enforce.
 It may be related to the naming of data, the format of data, the structure of data, etc.
 It is usually desirable for the purpose of data interchange for migration between systems. 

13. Data model must be developed 

Building an overall view of an organization’s data is usually cost-effective in the long term.
14. Data sharing
 Data is shared among multiple users or application programs.
 New applications can be developed to use the same store data.
 Satisfy the data requirements of a new application without having to create any additional data
or with minimal modification.

15. Data independence.

The system data descriptions are separated from the application programs so if any changes in
the data structure are not reflected in the application program.
16. Transaction processing.
The DBMS includes a concurrency control subsystem to ensure that several users trying to
update the same data do so in a controlled manner so that the result of the update is correct.

17. Providing data security.

Unauthorized persons must not access such confidential data.
The DBA (Database Administrator) is the controller of the database.
He ensures that the proper access procedures are followed.
Performs some checks before permitting access to sensitive data,
Different levels of security according to the significance of various types of data.
For example, a manager in the company can access only the salary structure of employees in
his/her department but cannot access the medical history of any employee.
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Disadvantage of DBMS

  1.     Cost of hardware and software

A processor with the highest speed of data processing and memory of large size is required to
run the DBMS software.DBMS software is also very costly.
2. Cost of data conversion
 For this, we have to higher a database and database designer to convert data from one format to
another format.A lot of money and developing software’s are required
3. Cost of staff training

Complex systems required training for users.Training is required at all levels including
programming application development, database administration, and database design. For this lot
of amount for the training of staff is required
4. Appointing technical staff
Train technical person such as database administrator, application programmer, database
designer, and data entry operators are required to handle the DBMS software of organization and
these salaries are very high.
5. Database damage
All data is integrated into a single database.If the database is damaged due to electronic failures
or the database is corrupt on the storage media then our valuable data may be lost forever.
 6. Privacy and security is reduced
In a database information is stored centrally but it is available to the remote users then it is
possible to the destruction of data.So, required technical administrative, and legal measures.

Data Model
Data Model gives us an idea that how the final system will look like after its complete
implementation. It defines the data elements and the relationships between the data elements.
Data Models are used to show how data is stored, connected, accessed and updated in the
database management system. Here, we use a set of symbols and text to represent the
information so that members of the organisation can communicate and understand it. Though
there are many data models being used nowadays but the Relational model is the most widely
used model. Apart from the Relational model, there are many other types of data models about
which we will study in details in this blog. Some of the Data Models in DBMS are:

1. Hierarchical Model
2. Network Model
3. Entity-Relationship Model
4. Relational Model
5. Object-Oriented Data Model
6. Object-Relational Data Model
7. Flat Data Model
8. Semi-Structured Data Model
9. Associative Data Model
10. Context Data Model

Hierarchical Model
Hierarchical Model was the first DBMS model. This model organises the data in the
hierarchical tree structure. The hierarchy starts from the root which has root data and then it
expands in the form of a tree adding child node to the parent node. This model easily
represents some of the real-world relationships like food recipes, sitemap of a website
etc. Example: We can represent the relationship between the shoes present on a shopping
website in the following way:

Features of a Hierarchical Model

1. One-to-many relationship: The data here is organised in a tree-like structure where the

one-to-many relationship is between the datatypes. Also, there can be only one path
from parent to any node. Example: In the above example, if we want to go to the
node sneakers we only have one path to reach there i.e through men's shoes node.
2. Parent-Child Relationship: Each child node has a parent node but a parent node can
have more than one child node. Multiple parents are not allowed.
3. Deletion Problem: If a parent node is deleted then the child node is automatically
deleted.
4. Pointers: Pointers are used to link the parent node with the child node and are used to
navigate between the stored data. Example: In the above example the 'shoes' node
points to the two other nodes 'women shoes' node and 'men's shoes' node.
Advantages of Hierarchical Model
 It is very simple and fast to traverse through a tree-like structure.
 Any change in the parent node is automatically reflected in the child node so, the
integrity of data is maintained.
Disadvantages of Hierarchical Model
 Complex relationships are not supported.
 As it does not support more than one parent of the child node so if we have some
complex relationship where a child node needs to have two parent node then that can't
be represented using this model.
 If a parent node is deleted then the child node is automatically deleted.
Network Model
This model is an extension of the hierarchical model. It was the most popular model before the
relational model. This model is the same as the hierarchical model, the only difference is that a
record can have more than one parent. It replaces the hierarchical tree with a
graph. Example: In the example below we can see that node student has two parents i.e. CSE
Department and Library. This was earlier not possible in the hierarchical model.

Features of a Network Model

1. Ability to Merge more Relationships:  In this model, as there are more relationships so
data is more related. This model has the ability to manage one-to-one relationships as
well as many-to-many relationships.
2. Many paths:  As there are more relationships so there can be more than one path to the
same record. This makes data access fast and simple.
3. Circular Linked List:  The operations on the network model are done with the help of
the circular linked list. The current position is maintained with the help of a program
and this position navigates through the records according to the relationship.
Advantages of Network Model
 The data can be accessed faster as compared to the hierarchical model. This is because
the data is more related in the network model and there can be more than one path to
reach a particular node. So the data can be accessed in many ways.
 As there is a parent-child relationship so data integrity is present. Any change in parent
record is reflected in the child record.
Disadvantages of Network Model
 As more and more relationships need to be handled the system might get complex. So, a
user must be having detailed knowledge of the model to work with the model.
 Any change like updation, deletion, insertion is very complex.
Entity-Relationship Model
Entity-Relationship Model or simply ER Model is a high-level data model diagram. In this
model, we represent the real-world problem in the pictorial form to make it easy for the
stakeholders to understand. It is also very easy for the developers to understand the system by
just looking at the ER diagram. We use the ER diagram as a visual tool to represent an ER
Model. ER diagram has the following three components:

 Entities: Entity is a real-world thing. It can be a person, place, or even a

concept. Example: Teachers, Students, Course, Building, Department, etc are some of
the entities of a School Management System.
 Attributes: An entity contains a real-world property called attribute. This is the
characteristics of that attribute. Example: The entity teacher has the property like
teacher id, salary, age, etc.
 Relationship: Relationship tells how two attributes are related. Example: Teacher
works for a department.

In the above diagram, the entities are Teacher and Department. The attributes
of Teacher entity are Teacher_Name, Teacher_id, Age, Salary, Mobile_Number. The
attributes of entity Department entity are Dept_id, Dept_name. The two entities are connected
using the relationship. Here, each teacher works for a department.

Features of ER Model

 Graphical Representation for Better Understanding: It is very easy and simple to

understand so it can be used by the developers to communicate with the stakeholders.
 ER Diagram: ER diagram is used as a visual tool for representing the model.
 Database Design: This model helps the database designers to build the database and is
widely used in database design.
Advantages of ER Model
  Simple: Conceptually ER Model is very easy to build. If we know the relationship
between the attributes and the entities we can easily build the ER Diagram for the
model.
 Effective Communication Tool: This model is used widely by the database designers
for communicating their ideas.
 Easy Conversion to any Model: This model maps well to the relational model and can
be easily converted relational model by converting the ER model to the table. This
model can also be converted to any other model like network model, hierarchical model
etc.
Disadvatages of ER Model
 No industry standard for notation: There is no industry standard for developing an ER
model. So one developer might use notations which are not understood by other
developers.
 Hidden information: Some information might be lost or hidden in the ER model. As it
is a high-level view so there are chances that some details of information might be
hidden.

Relational Model
Relational Model is the most widely used model. In this model, the data is maintained in the
form of a two-dimensional table. All the information is stored in the form of row and columns.
The basic structure of a relational model is tables. So, the tables are also called  relations in the
relational model. Example:  In this example, we have an Employee table.

Features of Relational Model

 Tuples: Each row in the table is called tuple. A row contains all the information about
any instance of the object. In the above example, each row has all the information about
any specific individual like the first row has information about John.
  Attribute or field: Attributes are the property which defines the table or relation. The
values of the attribute should be from the same domain. In the above example, we have
different attributes of the employee like Salary, Mobile_no, etc.
Advnatages of Relational Model
 Simple: This model is more simple as compared to the network and hierarchical model.
 Scalable:  This model can be easily scaled as we can add as many rows and columns we
want.
 Structural Independence: We can make changes in database structure without
changing the way to access the data. When we can make changes to the database
structure without affecting the capability to DBMS to access the data we can say that
structural independence has been achieved.
Disadvantages of Relatinal Model
 Hardware Overheads:  For hiding the complexities and making things easier for the
user this model requires more powerful hardware computers and data storage devices.
 Bad Design: As the relational model is very easy to design and use. So the users don't
need to know how the data is stored in order to access it. This ease of design can lead to
the development of a poor database which would slow down if the database grows.
But all these disadvantages are minor as compared to the advantages of the relational model.
These problems can be avoided with the help of proper implementation and organisation.

Object-Oriented Data Model

The real-world problems are more closely represented through the object-oriented data model.
In this model, both the data and relationship are present in a single structure known as an
object. We can store audio, video, images, etc in the database which was not possible in the
relational model(although you can store audio and video in relational database, it is adviced not
to store in the relational database). In this model, two are more objects are connected through
links. We use this link to relate one object to other objects. This can be understood by the
example given below.
In the above example, we have two objects Employee and Department. All the data and
relationships of each object are contained as a single unit. The attributes like Name, Job_title
of the employee and the methods which will be performed by that object are stored as a single
object. The two objects are connected through a common attribute i.e the Department_id and
the communication between these two will be done with the help of this common id.

Object-Relational Model
As the name suggests it is a combination of both the relational model and the object-oriented
model. This model was built to fill the gap between object-oriented model and the relational
model. We can have many advanced features like we can make complex data types according
to our requirements using the existing data types. The problem with this model is that this can
get complex and difficult to handle. So, proper understanding of this model is required.

Flat Data Model

It is a simple model in which the database is represented as a table consisting of rows and
columns. To access any data, the computer has to read the entire table. This makes the modes
slow and inefficient.

Semi-Structured Model
Semi-structured model is an evolved form of the relational model. We cannot differentiate
between data and schema in this model. Example: Web-Based data sources which we can't
differentiate between the schema and data of the website. In this model, some entities may
have missing attributes while others may have an extra attribute. This model gives flexibility in
storing the data. It also gives flexibility to the attributes. Example: If we are storing any value
in any attribute then that value can be either atomic value or a collection of values.

Associative Data Model

Associative Data Model is a model in which the data is divided into two parts. Everything
which has independent existence is called as an entity and the relationship among these entities
are called association. The data divided into two parts are called items and links.

 Item: Items contain the name and the identifier(some numeric value).
 Links: Links contain the identifier, source, verb and subject.
Example: Let us say we have a statement "The world cup is being hosted by London from 30
May 2020". In this data two links need to be stored:

1. The world cup is being hosted by London. The source here is 'the world cup', the verb
'is being' and the target is 'London'.
 2. ...from 30 May 2020. The source here is the previous link, the verb is 'from' and the
target is '30 May 2020'.
This is represented using the table as follows:

Context Data Model

Context Data Model is a collection of several models. This consists of models like network
model, relational models etc. Using this model we can do various types of tasks which are not
possible using any model alone.

DBMS Architecture
o The DBMS design depends upon its architecture. The basic client/server architecture is
used to deal with a large number of PCs, web servers, database servers and other
components that are connected with networks.
o The client/server architecture consists of many PCs and a workstation which are
connected via the network.
o DBMS architecture depends upon how users are connected to the database to get their
request done.
Types of DBMS Architecture

Database architecture can be seen as a single tier or multi-tier. But logically, database
architecture is of two types like: 2-tier architecture and 3-tier architecture.

1-Tier Architecture
o In this architecture, the database is directly available to the user. It means the user can
directly sit on the DBMS and uses it.
o Any changes done here will directly be done on the database itself. It doesn't provide a
handy tool for end users.
o The 1-Tier architecture is used for development of the local application, where
programmers can directly communicate with the database for the quick response.

2-Tier Architecture
o The 2-Tier architecture is same as basic client-server. In the two-tier architecture,
applications on the client end can directly communicate with the database at the server
side. For this interaction, API's like: ODBC, JDBC are used.
o The user interfaces and application programs are run on the client-side.
o The server side is responsible to provide the functionalities like: query processing and
transaction management.
o To communicate with the DBMS, client-side application establishes a connection with the
server side.
3-Tier Architecture
o The 3-Tier architecture contains another layer between the client and server. In this
architecture, client can't directly communicate with the server.
o The application on the client-end interacts with an application server which further
communicates with the database system.
o End user has no idea about the existence of the database beyond the application server.
The database also has no idea about any other user beyond the application.
o The 3-Tier architecture is used in case of large web application.

Three schema Architecture

 o The three schema architecture is also called ANSI/SPARC architecture or three-level
architecture.
o This framework is used to describe the structure of a specific database system.
o The three schema architecture is also used to separate the user applications and physical
database.
o The three schema architecture contains three-levels. It breaks the database down into
three different categories.

o It shows the DBMS architecture.

o Mapping is used to transform the request and response between various database levels
of architecture.
o Mapping is not good for small DBMS because it takes more time.
o In External / Conceptual mapping, it is necessary to transform the request from external
level to conceptual schema.
o In Conceptual / Internal mapping, DBMS transform the request from the conceptual to
internal level.

Objectives of Three schema Architecture

The main objective of three level architecture is to enable multiple users to access the same data
with a personalized view while storing the underlying data only once. Thus it separates the
user's view from the physical structure of the database. This separation is desirable for the
following reasons:
o Different users need different views of the same data.
o The approach in which a particular user needs to see the data may change over time.
 o The users of the database should not worry about the physical implementation and
internal workings of the database such as data compression and encryption techniques,
hashing, optimization of the internal structures etc.
o All users should be able to access the same data according to their requirements.
o DBA should be able to change the conceptual structure of the database without
affecting the user's
o Internal structure of the database should be unaffected by changes to physical aspects of
the storage.

1. Internal Level

o The internal level has an internal schema which describes the physical storage structure
of the database.
o The internal schema is also known as a physical schema.
o It uses the physical data model. It is used to define that how the data will be stored in a
block.
o The physical level is used to describe complex low-level data structures in detail.
The internal level is generally is concerned with the following activities:
o Storage space allocations.
For Example: B-Trees, Hashing etc.
o Access paths.
For Example: Specification of primary and secondary keys, indexes, pointers and
sequencing.
o Data compression and encryption techniques.
o Optimization of internal structures.
o Representation of stored fields.
2. Conceptual Level

o The conceptual schema describes the design of a database at the conceptual level.
Conceptual level is also known as logical level.
o The conceptual schema describes the structure of the whole database.
o The conceptual level describes what data are to be stored in the database and also
describes what relationship exists among those data.
o In the conceptual level, internal details such as an implementation of the data structure
are hidden.
o Programmers and database administrators work at this level.

3. External Level

o At the external level, a database contains several schemas that sometimes called as
subschema. The subschema is used to describe the different view of the database.
o An external schema is also known as view schema.
o Each view schema describes the database part that a particular user group is interested
and hides the remaining database from that user group.
o The view schema describes the end user interaction with database systems.

Mapping between Views

The three levels of DBMS architecture don't exist independently of each other. There must be
correspondence between the three levels i.e. how they actually correspond with each other.
DBMS is responsible for correspondence between the three types of schema. This
correspondence is called Mapping.
There are basically two types of mapping in the database architecture:
o Conceptual/ Internal Mapping
o External / Conceptual Mapping
Conceptual/ Internal Mapping
The Conceptual/ Internal Mapping lies between the conceptual level and the internal level. Its
role is to define the correspondence between the records and fields of the conceptual level and
files and data structures of the internal level.
External/ Conceptual Mapping
The external/Conceptual Mapping lies between the external level and the Conceptual level. Its
role is to define the correspondence between a particular external and the conceptual view.

Data Independence
o Data independence can be explained using the three-schema architecture.
o Data independence refers characteristic of being able to modify the schema at one level
of the database system without altering the schema at the next higher level.

1. Logical Data Independence

o Logical data independence refers characteristic of being able to change the conceptual
schema without having to change the external schema.
o Logical data independence is used to separate the external level from the conceptual
view.
o If we do any changes in the conceptual view of the data, then the user view of the data
would not be affected.
o Logical data independence occurs at the user interface level.

2. Physical Data Independence

o Physical data independence can be defined as the capacity to change the internal
schema without having to change the conceptual schema.
o If we do any changes in the storage size of the database system server, then the
Conceptual structure of the database will not be affected.
o Physical data independence is used to separate conceptual levels from the internal levels.
o Physical data independence occurs at the logical interface level.
there are two types of data independence: