UNIT-1

Semiconductor Diodes and

Applications
 Topics
• p-n junction diode
• Diode Equivalent circuit
• Rectifiers: Half wave rectifier, Full wave
rectifier, Bridge rectifier
• Rectifiers with capacitor and choke filter
• Zener diode and Zener diode as a voltage
regulator
• 78XX based Fixed IC voltage regulator.
 p-n junction diode
• Formed when N-type material is fused
together with a P-type
• It is a two terminal device.
• Circuit Symbol of the diode
 Depletion Layer
• When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor
materials are joined together a very large density, gradient
exists between both sides.
• The result is that some of the free electrons from the N-
side begin to move across this newly formed junction to
recombine with holes in the P-side.
• Similarly holes from the P-side begin to move across the
junction to recombine with electrons in the N-side.
 Barrier voltage of pn junction
• When the electrons move across the PN junction from the N-type silicon
to the P-type silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor ions ( ND )
• When the holes move from the P-type silicon to the N-type silicon, they
leave behind negatively charged acceptor ions ( NA )
• The potential difference existing near the junction due to donor charge
density ND and acceptor charge density NA give rise to barrier voltage VB .
• VB is 0.7 V for Si diode and 0.3 V for Ge diode
 Diode Biasing
Types: Forward Bias and Reverse Bias
Forward bias
• Positive terminal is connected to the P-type and negative to the
N-type material of the diode
• Depletion region width decreases, hence barrier height reduces.
• When applied forward bias voltage is greater than barrier voltage,
diode conducts
Reverse bias
• Negative terminal is connected to the P-type and positive to the
N-type material of the diode
• Depletion region width increases, hence barrier height increases and
diode is not conducting current.
• A very small leakage current flows through the junction due to the
minority carriers , the reverse saturation current, in μA for Ge
and nA for Si.
 Static V-I Characteristics
Some of the parameters of PN diode are
• Maximum Forward Current
• Forward Voltage Drop/ Knee Voltage
• Reverse breakdown voltage
• Reverse saturation current
• Dynamic resistance
 Diode Equivalent circuits
• Diode is two terminal non-linear device whose V-I
characteristics are dependent on the polarity of the applied
voltage.
• To analyze the circuits with diodes, diode models or diode
equivalent circuits are used.
DC load line analysis
A DC load line is a straight line drawn on the diode forward characteristics that
describes all the dc conditions that exist in the operation of the circuit.

Here IF is the current through the diode and VF is the voltage across the diode.
Applying KVL to the circuit we get,

For IF = 0, VF = V. Hence when IF = 0, VF = V is one of the points on load line at point A.

when VF= 0,

is the second point on the DC load line at point B.

Join the points A and B to get the DC load line. We can

see that the DC load line intersects the diode characteristics at a point Q which
corresponds to and . This can be shown by applying KVL to the circuit as or

The DC load line is drawn on the diode

forward characteristics as shown
 Diode Rectifiers

A rectifier is a circuit which converts the

Alternating Current (AC) input power into a
Direct Current (DC) output power. The input
power supply may be either a single-phase or a
multi-phase supply.
 Half wave rectifier
Only one half cycle of input is converted to DC.
 Half wave Rectifier parameters
Derivation of VDC
DC Average current 𝑰𝑫𝑪
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 1 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
= 2𝜋 0 𝑚
𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡

1 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 2𝜋 0 𝑚
𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋 𝑚
𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡

1 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 0 𝑚
𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋
0𝑑𝜔𝑡 since 𝐼𝐿 =0, 𝜋 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
2𝜋

𝜋
1
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 0

𝐼𝑚 𝜋 −𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 2𝜋
[−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡]0= 2𝜋
[-1-1] = 𝜋
Derivation of Vrms
Root mean square load current, 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔
1 2𝜋 2 1 2𝜋 2 2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2𝜋 0
𝐼𝐿 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = 2𝜋 0
𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛

1 𝜋 2 2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡 2𝜋 2 2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡]
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2𝜋
[ 0
𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝜋
𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛

1 𝜋 2 2
= 2𝜋 0
𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 since 𝐼𝐿 =0, 𝜋 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

𝐼𝑚 2 𝜋 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡 𝐼𝑚 2 1 𝜋 1 𝜋
= 2𝜋 0 2
𝑑𝜔𝑡 = 2𝜋
[2 0
𝑑𝜔𝑡 − 2 0
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡]

𝐼𝑚 2 1 𝜋 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜔𝑡 𝜋
= 2𝜋
[2 𝜔𝑡 0 −2[ 2
]0 𝑑𝜔𝑡]

𝐼𝑚 2 𝜋 𝑰𝒎
= [2 − 0] =
2𝜋 𝟐
Derivation of Ripple factor
The ripple factor is the measure of conversion from AC to DC of the rectifier is

𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑎𝑐

𝑟= = ----(1)
𝑑𝐶 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑑𝑐

2 2 2
Where 𝐼𝑎𝑐 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝐼𝑑𝑐

Substituting in (1),

2 −𝐼 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼𝑎𝑐 𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝑟= = = −1
𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐

𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Substitute, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = & 𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
2 𝜋

𝐼𝑚 2
2
We get, 𝑟= 𝐼𝑚 − 1 = 1.21
𝜋
Derivation of Rectification Efficiency
The efficiency of the rectifier is

𝑑𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑑𝑐

𝜂= =
𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑃𝑎𝑐

DC output power 𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝑰𝒅𝒄 𝟐 𝑅𝐿

AC input power 𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿 )

𝑰𝒅𝒄 𝟐 𝑅𝐿
𝜂=
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿 )

𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Substitute, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = & 𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
2 𝜋

𝐼𝑚 𝟐
(𝜋 ) 𝑅𝐿
⸫𝜂= 𝐼
(𝑚 2
)𝟐 (𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑠 +𝑅𝐿 )

If 𝑅𝐿 >> 𝑅𝑓 , the efficiency 𝜂 = 40.6 %

 Full wave rectifier
Center tapped Transformer full wave rectifier
Bridge Rectifier

Equivalent circuit for Positive half cycle input Equivalent circuit for negative half cycle input
Full wave Rectifier parameters
Derivation of VDC
DC Average current 𝑰𝑫𝑪

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 2𝜋

1
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = = 0 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 2𝜋

1 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 2𝜋 0 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡

1 𝜋 1𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 2𝜋
2 0 𝑚
𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋 0 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡

𝐼𝑚 𝜋 −𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 𝜋
[−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡]0 = 2𝜋
[-1-1] = 𝜋
Derivation of Vrms
Root mean square load current, 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔

1 2𝜋 2 1 2𝜋 2 2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2𝜋 0 𝐿 2𝜋 0 𝑚

1 𝜋 2 2 2𝜋 2 2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡]
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2𝜋
[ 0
𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋
𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛

1 𝜋 2 2 𝜔𝑡
= 2𝜋
2 0
𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝜔𝑡

𝐼𝑚 2 𝜋 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡 𝐼𝑚 2 1 𝜋 1 𝜋
= 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = [ 0 𝑑𝜔𝑡 − 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡]
𝜋 0 2 𝜋 2 2

𝐼𝑚 2 1 𝜋 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 𝐼𝑚 2 𝜋 𝑰𝒎
= [2 𝜔𝑡 0 − 2 [ 2 ]𝜋0 𝑑𝜔𝑡] = [2 − 0] =
𝜋 𝜋 𝟐
Derivation of Ripple factor
The ripple factor, the measure of conversion from AC to DC of the full wave rectifier is

𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑎𝑐

𝑟= =
𝑑𝐶 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑑𝑐

2 2 2
where 𝐼𝑎𝑐 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝐼𝑑𝑐

2 −𝐼 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼𝑎𝑐 𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝑟= = = −1
𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐

𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚
Substitute, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = & 𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
2 𝜋

𝐼𝑚 2
2
We get, 𝑟= 2𝐼𝑚 −1 = 0.482
𝜋
Derivation of Rectification Efficiency
The efficiency of the full wave rectifier is

𝑑𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑑𝑐

%𝜂 = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100
𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑃𝑎𝑐

DC output power 𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝑰𝒅𝒄 𝟐 𝑅𝐿

AC input power 𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿 )

𝑰𝒅𝒄 𝟐 𝑅𝐿
𝜂=
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿 )

𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚
Substitute, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = & 𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
2 𝜋

2𝐼
( 𝜋𝑚 )𝟐 𝑅𝐿
we get 𝜂 = 𝐼 = 0.812 = 81.2 %
( 𝑚 )𝟐 (𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑠 +𝑅𝐿 )
2
Full Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter
Choke Filter

• It consists of an inductor connected in series with rectifier output circuit and a

capacitor connected in parallel with the load resistor RL as in figure.
• The inductor efficiently removes AC ripples, a small percentage of AC ripples is
still present in the filtered signal.
• These ripples are then removed by the capacitor connected in parallel to the load
resistor.
• Hence, the DC output signal is free from AC components, and this regulated DC
can be used in any application.
 Zener Diode
• Zener diode is used in reverse bias mode
• In the breakdown region zener current
remains between IZ(min) and the maximum
curent rating IZ(max)
• In the breakdown region, voltage across the
zener is constant at VZ
Zener Diode V-I Characteristics
 Zener Diode Voltage Regulator
Zener Diode can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output
with low ripple under varying load current conditions. By passing
a small current through the diode from a voltage source, via a
suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will
conduct sufficient current to maintain a voltage drop of Vout.
When no load is connected ((IL = 0 ):
• With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, (IL = 0 ), and all
the circuit current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its
maximum power.
• The small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when
the load resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase the power
dissipation requirement of the diode
• The value of series resistance should be selected in such a way that the zener’s
maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance
condition.
When the load RL is connected across the diode:
• The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is
always the same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ).
• There is a minimum zener current for which the stabilization of the voltage is
effective and the zener current must stay above this value operating under load
within its breakdown region at all times.
• The upper limit of current is of course dependant upon the power rating of the
device. The supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.
Voltage regulation can be done through two techniques:
1. Line regulation: In this case, series resistor Rs and load resistor RL are kept
constant. It is assumed that all the variations in voltage arise due to
fluctuations in input power supply. The regulated output voltage is achieved for
input voltage above certain minimum level.

% regulation is given by

2. Load regulation: In this case, the input voltage is fixed, while the load resistance
is varied. The constant output voltage is obtained as long as the load resistance
RL is maintained above a minimum value.

% regulation is given by
 Fixed IC voltage regulator
• The integrated circuits used for the regulation
of voltage are termed as voltage regulator ICs.
• The 78XX family of linear voltage regulators
produce a regulated output.
• It is a fixed linear voltage regulator.
• The “xx” represent the value of the fixed
output voltage that the particular IC provides.
Voltage regulator Circuit using IC 7805
 Applications of IC 78xx
• Current regulator
• Regulated dual supply
• Building circuits for Phone charger, UPS power
supply circuits, portable CD player etc
• Fixed output regulator
• Adjustable output regulator etc.
 IC Voltage Regulators
• Regulation circuits in integrated circuit form are widely used.
• Their operation is no different but they are treated as a single
device with associated components.
• These are generally three terminal devices that provide a
positive or negative output.
• Some types have variable voltage outputs.
• A typical 7800 series voltage regulator is used for positive
voltages.
• These voltage regulators when used with heat sinks can safely
produce current values of 1A and greater.
• The capacitors act as line filtration.
 IC Voltage Regulators
• Several types of both linear (series and shunt) and switching
regulators are available in integrated circuit (IC) form.
• Single IC regulators contain the circuitry for:
(1) reference source
(2) comparator amplifier
(3) control device
(4) overload protection
• Generally, the linear regulators are three-terminal devices
that provides either positive or negative output voltages that
can be either fixed or adjustable.
 Fixed Voltage Regulator
• The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input
voltage Vi applied to one input terminal, a regulated output
dc voltage Vo from a second terminal, and the third terminal
connected to ground.
Fixed-Positive Voltage Regulator
• The series 78XX regulators are the three-terminal devices that
provide a fixed positive output voltage.
 Fixed Voltage Regulator
• An unregulated input
voltage Vi is filtered by a
capacitor C1 and connected
to the IC’s IN terminal.
• The IC’s OUT terminal
provides a regulated +12 V,
which is filtered by
capacitor C2.
• The third IC terminal is
connected to ground (GND)
 Series Regulator Circuit
• Control element in series
with load between input
and output.
• Output sample circuit
senses a change in output
voltage.
• Error detector compares
sample voltage with
reference voltage → causes
control element to
compensate in order to
maintain a constant output
voltage.
• The resistor R1 and R2 sense a change in the output voltage and
provide a feedback voltage.
• The error detector compares the feedback voltage with a Zener
diode reference voltage.
• The resulting difference voltage causes the transistor Q1 controls
the conduction to compensate the variation of the output voltage.
• The output voltage will be maintained at a constant value of:

Control
Element

 R1  VREF
Vo  1  VZ
 R2 
Sample
Error Detector Circuit
 Fixed Voltage Regulator
Positive-Voltage Regulators in the 78XX Series

IC Part Output Voltage (V) Minimum Vi (V)

7805 +5 +7.3
7806 +6 +8.3
7808 +8 +10.5
7810 +10 +12.5
7812 +12 +14.5
7815 +15 +17.7
7818 +18 +21.0
7824 +24 +27.1
 PHOTO DIODE
• It is a PN junction or PIN semiconductor device that
converts light into electric current.

• Light controls diode current

• It operates in reverse bias.

• Construction and working is almost similar to the

normal PN junction diode.

• PIN structure provides fast response time.

45
• The reverse saturation current Iλ (µA) is limited by the

availability of thermally generated minority carrier

• As light is made to impinge on the junction, the light

photons impart energy to the valence electrons causing

more electron-hole pairs to be released.

• As a result, the concentration of the minority carriers

increases which in turn increases the reverse

saturation current Iλ .
46
The symbol and circuit for photo diode are shown
below

SYMBOL

47
VI Characteristics of Photodiode

48
• Almost equal spacing between the curves
indicates that an increase in light intensity results
in a similar increase in reverse current.

• Dark current is the one when no light is applied.

• The current becomes zero when a small positive

bias voltage VT is applied across the photodiode.

49
Applications of photodiodes:
• Optical communication systems
• Automotive devices
• Solar cell panels
• Consumer electronics like CD players, TV and remote
controls
• Measurement of light intensity
• Camera light meters and street lights
• Photo detection circuits
• Logic circuits and analysers
50
 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
• Electroluminescence, is the phenomenon where light is
emitted from a PN junction semiconductor under the
influence of an electric field.

• Recombination of electrons and holes in a forward

biased PN junction is always associated with the release
of energy either in the form of heat or light.

• Electrons dissipate energy in the form of heat in the case

of Si and Ge.
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• In the case of gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium
phosphide (GaP), electrons dissipate energy in the
form of light.
• Thus, the PN junction becomes the source of light
and hence it is called Light Emitting Diode (LED).
• When the junction is reverse biased the LED
produces no light.
• GaAs emit infrared (IR) radiation which is invisible.
• GaAsP emits either red or yellow visible light.
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Symbol and light emission of LED are shown below

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• Colour of the emitted light (wavelength) depends on the
impurities and the level of doping while fabricating.

• Typical value of forward bias voltage across the LED is

1.2V to 3.2V.

• The light output is directly proportional to the forward

current.

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Advantages of LED
• Lower energy consumption

• Longer life time

• Improved physical robustness

• Smaller size

• Faster switching

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Applications of LED
• 7- segment display
• Automotive head lamps
• Traffic signals
• General lighting
• Camera flashes
• Medical devices
• LED TV’s etc.
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 PHOTOCOUPLER

• Transformers provides “electrical isolation” between the primary

input voltage from the secondary output voltage using
electromagnetic coupling and this is achieved using the magnetic
flux circulating within their laminated iron core.
• But we can also provide electrical isolation between an input
source and an output load using just light by using a very
common and valuable electronic component called
an Photocoupler.
• It consists of an farward biased LED that produces infra-red light
and a semiconductor photo-sensitive diode that is used to detect
the emitted infra-red beam.
 PHOTOCOUPLER

• It is a package of an LED and photodiode where as circuit is

electrically isolated as shown in Figure
• Output is available across Resistor R2.
 PHOTOCOUPLER
Advantage:
• Provides the required electrical isolation between a lower
voltage control signal and a much higher voltage or mains
current output signal.
• Used to detect the operation of the switch or another type of
digital input signal.
Application:
• Microprocessor input/output switching, DC and AC power
control, PC communications, signal isolation and power supply
regulation which suffer from current ground loops, etc.