The thermionic triode, a vacuum tube invented in 1907, enabled amplified radio technology and

long-distance telephony. The triode, however, was a fragile device that consumed a substantial
amount of power. In 1909, physicist William Eccles discovered the
crystal diode oscillator.[7] Physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed a patent
Transistor for a field-effect transistor (FET) in Canada in 1925,[8] which was
intended to be a solid-state replacement for the triode.[9][10] Lilienfeld
also filed identical patents in the United States in 1926[11] and
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or 1928.[12][13] However, Lilienfeld did not publish any research articles
switch electrical signals and power. The transistor is one of about his devices nor did his patents cite any specific examples of a
the basic building blocks of modern electronics.[1] It is working prototype. Because the production of high-quality
composed of semiconductor material, usually with at least semiconductor materials was still decades away, Lilienfeld's solid-state Julius Edgar
three terminals for connection to an electronic circuit. A amplifier ideas would not have found practical use in the 1920s and Lilienfeld proposed
voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's 1930s, even if such a device had been built. [14] In 1934, inventor Oskar the concept of a field-
terminals controls the current through another pair of [15] effect transistor in
Heil patented a similar device in Europe.
terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be 1925.
higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can
amplify a signal. Some transistors are packaged individually, Bipolar transistors
but many more in miniature form are found embedded in Size comparison of BJT transistor
packages, from left to right: SOT-23,
integrated circuits.
TO-92, TO-126, TO-3
Physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld proposed the concept of a
field-effect transistor in 1926, but it was not
possible to actually construct a working device
at that time.[2] The first working device to be
built was a point-contact transistor invented in
1947 by physicists John Bardeen and Walter
Brattain while working under William Shockley
at Bell Labs. The three shared the 1956 Nobel John Bardeen, William Shockley and
Prize in Physics for their achievement.[3] The Walter Brattain at Bell Labs in 1948.
most widely used type of transistor is the Bardeen and Brattain invented the
metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect point-contact transistor in 1947 and
transistor (MOSFET), which was invented by Shockley the bipolar junction
Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell transistor in 1948.
Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor A replica of the first working transistor, a point-
Labs in 1959.[4][5][6] Transistors revolutionized (MOSFET), showing gate (G), body (B), source (S) contact transistor invented in 1947
the field of electronics, and paved the way for and drain (D) terminals. The gate is separated from From November 17, 1947, to December 23,
smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and the body by an insulating layer (pink). 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at
computers, among other things. AT&T's Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey, performed experiments and observed that when
two gold point contacts were applied to a crystal of germanium, a signal was produced with the
Most transistors are made from very pure silicon, and some from germanium, but certain other
semiconductor materials are sometimes used. A transistor may have only one kind of charge output power greater than the input.[16] Solid State Physics Group leader William Shockley saw
carrier, in a field-effect transistor, or may have two kinds of charge carriers in bipolar junction the potential in this, and over the next few months worked to greatly expand the knowledge of
transistor devices. Compared with the vacuum tube, transistors are generally smaller and semiconductors. The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a contraction of the term
require less power to operate. Certain vacuum tubes have advantages over transistors at very transresistance.[17][18][19] According to Lillian Hoddeson and Vicki Daitch, Shockley had
high operating frequencies or high operating voltages. Many types of transistors are made to proposed that Bell Labs' first patent for a transistor should be based on the field-effect and that
standardized specifications by multiple manufacturers. he be named as the inventor. Having unearthed Lilienfeld's patents that went into obscurity
years earlier, lawyers at Bell Labs advised against Shockley's proposal because the idea of a
field-effect transistor that used an electric field as a "grid" was not new. Instead, what Bardeen,
History Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947 was the first point-contact transistor.[14] In
acknowledgement of this accomplishment, Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain were jointly
awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on semiconductors and their
discovery of the transistor effect".[20][21]

Shockley's research team initially attempted to build a field-effect transistor (FET), by trying to The first "prototype" pocket transistor radio was shown by INTERMETALL (a company
modulate the conductivity of a semiconductor, but was unsuccessful, mainly due to problems founded by Herbert Mataré in 1952) at the Internationale Funkausstellung Düsseldorf between
with the surface states, the dangling bond, and the germanium and copper compound materials. August 29, 1953 and September 6, 1953.[33][34] The first "production" pocket transistor radio
In the course of trying to understand the mysterious reasons behind their failure to build a was the Regency TR-1, released in October 1954.[21] Produced as a joint venture between the
working FET, this led them instead to invent the bipolar point-contact and junction Regency Division of Industrial Development Engineering Associates, I.D.E.A. and Texas
transistors.[22][23] Instruments of Dallas Texas, the TR-1 was manufactured in Indianapolis, Indiana. It was a near
pocket-sized radio featuring 4 transistors and one germanium diode. The industrial design was
In 1948, the point-contact transistor was independently invented by outsourced to the Chicago firm of Painter, Teague and Petertil. It was initially released in one of
physicists Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker while working at the six different colours: black, ivory, mandarin red, cloud grey, mahogany and olive green. Other
Compagnie des Freins et Signaux Westinghouse, a Westinghouse colours were to shortly follow.[35][36][37]
subsidiary located in Paris. Mataré had previous experience in
developing crystal rectifiers from silicon and germanium in the German The first "production" all-transistor car radio was developed by Chrysler and Philco
radar effort during World War II. Using this knowledge, he began corporations and it was announced in the April 28, 1955 edition of the Wall Street Journal.
researching the phenomenon of "interference" in 1947. By June 1948, Chrysler had made the all-transistor car radio, Mopar model 914HR, available as an option
witnessing currents flowing through point-contacts, Mataré produced starting in fall 1955 for its new line of 1956 Chrysler and Imperial cars which first hit the
consistent results using samples of germanium produced by Welker, dealership showroom floors on October 21, 1955.[38][39][40]
similar to what Bardeen and Brattain had accomplished earlier in
Herbert Mataré in December 1947. Realizing that Bell Labs' scientists had already invented The Sony TR-63, released in 1957, was the first mass-produced transistor radio, leading to the
1950. He the transistor before them, the company rushed to get its "transition" mass-market penetration of transistor radios.[41] The TR-63 went on to sell seven million units
independently into production for amplified use in France's telephone network and filed worldwide by the mid-1960s.[42] Sony's success with transistor radios led to transistors
invented a point- his first transistor patent application on August 13, 1948.[24][25][26] replacing vacuum tubes as the dominant electronic technology in the late 1950s.[43]
contact transistor in
June 1948. The first bipolar junction transistors were invented by Bell Labs' William The first working silicon transistor was developed at Bell Labs on January 26, 1954, by Morris
Shockley, which applied for patent (2,569,347) on June 26, 1948. On Tanenbaum. The first production commercial silicon transistor was announced by Texas
April 12, 1950, Bell Labs chemists Gordon Teal and Morgan Sparks had Instruments in May 1954. This was the work of Gordon Teal, an expert in growing crystals of
successfully produced a working bipolar NPN junction amplifying germanium transistor. Bell
high purity, who had previously worked at Bell Labs.[44][45][46]
Labs had announced the discovery of this new "sandwich" transistor in a press release on July 4,
1951.[27][28]
Field effect transistors
The first high-frequency transistor was the
surface-barrier germanium transistor The basic principle of the field-effect transistor (FET) was first proposed by physicist Julius
developed by Philco in 1953, capable of Edgar Lilienfeld in 1926, when he filed a patent for a device similar to MESFET and in 1928
operating at frequencies up to 60 MHz.[29] when he filed a patent for an insulated-gate field-effect transistor.[47][48] The FET concept was
These were made by etching depressions into later also theorized by engineer Oskar Heil in the 1930s and by William Shockley in the 1940s.
an n-type germanium base from both sides with
jets of Indium(III) sulfate until it was a few ten- In 1945 JFET was patented by Heinrich Welker.[49] Following Shockley's theoretical treatment
thousandths of an inch thick. Indium on JFET in 1952, a working practical JFET was made in 1953 by George C. Dacey and Ian M.
electroplated into the depressions formed the Ross.[50]
collector and emitter.[30][31]
In 1948 Bardeen patented the progenitor of MOSFET, an insulated-gate FET (IGFET) with an
AT&T first used transistors in inversion layer. Bardeen's patent as well as the concept of an inversion layer forms the basis of
telecommunications equipment in circuits of CMOS technology today.[51]
the No. 4A Toll Crossbar Switching System in
1953 for selecting trunk circuits from routing
information encoded on translator cards.[32] MOSFET (MOS transistor)
The Western Electric No. 3A phototransistor
read the mechanical encoding from punched Semiconductor companies initially focused on junction transistors in the early years of the
metal cards. semiconductor industry. The junction transistor was a relatively bulky device that was difficult
Philco surface-barrier transistor developed and to mass-produce, which limited it to several specialized applications. Field-effect transistors
produced in 1953
(FETs) were theorized as potential alternatives to junction transistors, but researchers initially The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS
could not get FETs to work properly, largely due to the troublesome surface state barrier that transistor, is by far the most widely used transistor, used in applications ranging from
prevented the external electric field from penetrating the material.[52] computers and electronics[54] to communications technology such as smartphones.[69] The
MOSFET has been considered to be the most important transistor,[70] possibly the most
In the 1950s, engineer Mohamed Atalla investigated the surface properties of silicon important invention in electronics,[71] and the birth of modern electronics.[72] The MOS
semiconductors at Bell Labs, where he proposed a transistor has been the fundamental building block of modern digital electronics since the late
new method of semiconductor device fabrication,
20th century, paving the way for the digital age.[73] The US Patent and Trademark Office calls it
coating a silicon wafer with an insulating layer of
a "groundbreaking invention that transformed life and culture around the world".[69] Its
silicon oxide so that electricity could reliably
importance in today's society rests on its ability to be mass-produced using a highly automated
penetrate to the conducting silicon below,
process (semiconductor device fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-transistor costs.
overcoming the surface states that prevented
MOSFETs are the most numerously produced artificial objects ever with more than 13 sextillion
electricity from reaching the semiconducting layer.
This is known as surface passivation, a method manufactured by 2018.[74]
that became critical to the semiconductor industry
Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known as
as it later made possible the mass-production of
discrete) MOS transistors every year,[75] the vast majority of transistors are now produced in
silicon integrated circuits.[53][54] He presented his
integrated circuits (often shortened to IC, microchips or simply chips), along with diodes,
findings in 1957.[55] Building on his surface Mohamed Atalla (left) and Dawon Kahng (right)
resistors, capacitors and other electronic components, to produce complete electronic circuits. A
passivation method, he developed the metal– invented the MOSFET (MOS transistor) at Bell
logic gate consists of up to about twenty transistors whereas an advanced microprocessor, as of
oxide–semiconductor (MOS) process. [53] He Labs in 1959.
2022, can use as many as 57 billion transistors (MOSFETs).[76]
proposed the MOS process could be used to build
the first working silicon FET, which he began The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device.
working on building with the help of his Korean colleague Dawon Kahng.[53] Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling
appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), or MOS transistor, was write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent
invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959.[4][5] The MOSFET was the first truly mechanical system to control that same function.
compact transistor that could be miniaturized and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.[52]
In a self-aligned CMOS process, a transistor is formed wherever the gate layer (polysilicon or
metal) crosses a diffusion layer.[56]: p.1 (see Fig. 1.1)  With its high scalability,[57] and much lower
Simplified operation
power consumption and higher density than bipolar junction transistors,[58] the MOSFET made
A transistor can use a small signal applied between
it possible to build high-density integrated circuits,[6] allowing the integration of more than
one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal
10,000 transistors in a single IC.[59] at another pair of terminals. This property is called
gain. It can produce a stronger output signal, a voltage
CMOS (complementary MOS) was invented by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild
or current, which is proportional to a weaker input
Semiconductor in 1963.[60] The first report of a floating-gate MOSFET was made by Dawon signal and thus, it can act as an amplifier.
Kahng and Simon Sze in 1967.[61] A double-gate MOSFET was first demonstrated in 1984 by Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn
Electrotechnical Laboratory researchers Toshihiro Sekigawa and Yutaka Hayashi.[62][63] current on or off in a circuit as an electrically
FinFET (fin field-effect transistor), a type of 3D non-planar multi-gate MOSFET, originated controlled switch, where the amount of current is
from the research of Digh Hisamoto and his team at Hitachi Central Research Laboratory in determined by other circuit elements.[77]
1989.[64][65] A Darlington transistor opened up so the
actual transistor chip (the small square) can
There are two types of transistors, which have slight
be seen inside. A Darlington transistor is
differences in how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar
Importance transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and
effectively two transistors on the same chip.
One transistor is much larger than the other,
emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is,
Transistors are the key active components in practically all modern electronics. Many thus flowing between the base and the emitter) can control
but both are large in comparison to
consider the transistor to be one of the greatest inventions of the 20th century.[66] or switch a much larger current between the collector
transistors in large-scale integration
because this particular example is intended
and emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the for power applications.
The invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009.[67] The terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a
list of IEEE Milestones also includes the inventions of the junction transistor in 1948 and the voltage at the gate can control a current between
MOSFET in 1959.[68] source and drain.[78]

The image represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. A charge will flow between emitter Transistor as an amplifier
and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Because internally the base and
emitter connections behave like a semiconductor The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a
diode, a voltage drop develops between base and small change in voltage (Vin) changes the small
emitter while the base current exists. The amount of current through the base of the transistor whose
this voltage depends on the material the transistor is current amplification combined with the properties of
made from and is referred to as VBE.[78] the circuit means that small swings in Vin produce
large changes in Vout.[78]
Transistor as a switch Various configurations of single transistor amplifiers
are possible, with some providing current gain, some
Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as
voltage gain, and some both.
electronic switches which can be either in an "on" or
"off" state, both for high-power applications such as From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of
switched-mode power supplies and for low-power products include amplifiers for sound reproduction,
applications such as logic gates. Important parameters radio transmission, and signal processing. The first
for this application include the current switched, the discrete-transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a
A simple circuit diagram to show the labels
voltage handled, and the switching speed, of an n–p–n bipolar transistor few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity
characterized by the rise and fall times.[78] gradually increased as better transistors became Amplifier circuit, common-emitter
available and amplifier architecture evolved.[78] configuration with a voltage-divider bias
In a switching circuit, the goal is to simulate, as near circuit
as possible, the ideal switch having the properties of Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few
an open circuit when off, the short circuit when on, hundred watts are common and relatively inexpensive.
and an instantaneous transition between the two
states. Parameters are chosen such that the "off"
output is limited to leakage currents too small to affect Comparison with vacuum tubes
connected circuitry, the resistance of the transistor in
the "on" state is too small to affect circuitry, and the Before transistors were developed, vacuum (electron) tubes (or in the UK "thermionic valves" or
transition between the two states is fast enough not to just "valves") were the main active components in electronic equipment.
have a detrimental effect.[78]

In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the BJT used as an electronic switch, in Advantages
light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises, grounded-emitter configuration
the emitter and collector currents rise exponentially. The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace vacuum tubes in most applications
The collector voltage drops because of reduced are
resistance from the collector to the emitter. If the voltage difference between the collector and
emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current would be limited only by the load No cathode heater (which produces the characteristic orange glow of tubes), reducing
resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage. This is called saturation because the current is power consumption, eliminating delay as tube heaters warm-up, and immune from cathode
poisoning and depletion.
flowing from collector to emitter freely. When saturated, the switch is said to be on.[79]
Very small size and weight, reducing equipment size.
The use of bipolar transistors for switching applications requires biasing the transistor so that it Large numbers of extremely small transistors can be manufactured as a single integrated
operates between its cut-off region in the off-state and the saturation region (on). This requires circuit.
sufficient base drive current. As the transistor provides current gain, it facilitates the switching Low operating voltages compatible with batteries of only a few cells.
of a relatively large current in the collector by a much smaller current into the base terminal. Circuits with greater energy efficiency are usually possible. For low-power applications (for
The ratio of these currents varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for a particular example, voltage amplification) in particular, energy consumption can be very much less
type, varies depending on the collector current. In the example of a light-switch circuit, as than for tubes.
shown, the resistor is chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the transistor is Complementary devices available, providing design flexibility including complementary-
saturated.[78] The base resistor value is calculated from the supply voltage, transistor C-E symmetry circuits, not possible with vacuum tubes.
junction voltage drop, collector current, and amplification factor beta.[80] Very low sensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, providing physical ruggedness and
virtually eliminating shock-induced spurious signals (for example, microphonics in audio
applications).
 Not susceptible to breakage of a glass envelope, leakage, outgassing, and other physical power modules (see Packaging).
damage. Amplification factor hFE, βF
(transistor beta)[82] or gm P-channel
(transconductance).
Limitations
Working temperature: Extreme
Transistors may have the following limitations: temperature transistors and
traditional temperature
They lack the higher electron mobility afforded by the vacuum of vacuum tubes, which is transistors (−55 to 150 °C (−67
to 302 °F)). Extreme temperature N-channel
desirable for high-power, high-frequency operation – such as that used in some over-the-air
television transmitters and in travelling wave tubes used as amplifiers in some satellites transistors include high-
temperature transistors (above
Transistors and other solid-state devices are susceptible to damage from very brief
150 °C (302 °F)) and low- MOSFET enh
electrical and thermal events, including electrostatic discharge in handling. Vacuum tubes MOSFET dep
temperature transistors (below
are electrically much more rugged.
−55 °C (−67 °F)). The high-
They are sensitive to radiation and cosmic rays (special radiation-hardened chips are used temperature transistors that MOSFET symbols
for spacecraft devices). operate thermally stable up to
In audio applications, transistors lack the lower-harmonic distortion – the so-called tube 250 °C (482 °F) can be developed by a general strategy of blending interpenetrating semi-
sound – which is characteristic of vacuum tubes, and is preferred by some.[81] crystalline conjugated polymers and high glass-transition temperature insulating
polymers.[83]
Types Hence, a particular transistor may be described as silicon, surface-mount, BJT, NPN, low-
power, high-frequency switch.

Classification
Mnemonics
Transistors are categorized by
Convenient mnemonic to remember the type of transistor (represented by an electrical symbol)
Structure: MOSFET (IGFET), BJT, PNP P-channel involves the direction of the arrow. For the BJT, on an n-p-n transistor symbol, the arrow will
JFET, insulated-gate bipolar transistor "Not Point iN". On a p-n-p transistor symbol, the arrow "Points iN Proudly". This however
(IGBT), other types. does not apply to MOSFET-based transistor symbols as the arrow is typically reversed (i.e. the
Semiconductor material (dopants): arrow for the n-p-n points inside).
The metalloids; germanium (first
used in 1947) and silicon (first used NPN N-channel
Field-effect transistor (FET)
in 1954)—in amorphous,
polycrystalline and monocrystalline The field-effect transistor,
form.
BJT JFET sometimes called a unipolar
The compounds gallium arsenide transistor, uses either electrons
(1966) and silicon carbide (1997). BJT and JFET symbols (in n-channel FET) or holes (in p-
The alloy silicon-germanium (1989) channel FET) for conduction. The
The allotrope of carbon graphene (research ongoing since 2004), etc. (see four terminals of the FET are
Semiconductor material). named source, gate, drain, and
Electrical polarity (positive and negative): NPN, PNP (BJTs), N-channel, P-channel (FETs). body (substrate). On most FETs,
Maximum power rating: low, medium, high. the body is connected to the source
inside the package, and this will be Operation of a FET and its Id-Vg curve. At first, when no gate
Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, radio (RF), microwave frequency (the
assumed for the following
maximum effective frequency of a transistor in a common-emitter or common-source circuit voltage is applied, there are no inversion electrons in the channel, so
description.
is denoted by the term fT, an abbreviation for transition frequency—the frequency of the device is turned off. As gate voltage increases, the inversion
transition is the frequency at which the transistor yields unity voltage gain) electron density in the channel increases, current increases, and
In a FET, the drain-to-source thus the device turns on.
Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair. current flows via a conducting
Physical packaging: through-hole metal, through-hole plastic, surface mount, ball grid array, channel that connects the source

region to the drain region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority
a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals, hence the current flowing between carriers. The bipolar junction transistor, the first type of transistor to be mass-produced, is a
the drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied between the gate and source. As the combination of two junction diodes and is formed of either a thin layer of p-type semiconductor
gate–source voltage (VGS) is increased, the drain–source current (IDS) increases exponentially sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors (an n–p–n transistor), or a thin layer of n-type
for VGS below threshold, and then at a roughly quadratic rate: (IDS ∝ (VGS − VT)2, where VT is semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors (a p–n–p transistor). This
construction produces two p–n junctions: a base-emitter junction and a base-collector junction,
the threshold voltage at which drain current begins)[84] in the "space-charge-limited" region separated by a thin region of semiconductor known as the base region. (Two junction diodes
above threshold. A quadratic behavior is not observed in modern devices, for example, at the 65 wired together without sharing an intervening semiconducting region will not make a
nm technology node.[85] transistor).
For low noise at narrow bandwidth, the higher input resistance of the FET is advantageous. BJTs have three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of semiconductor—an emitter, a
base, and a collector. They are useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and
FETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The
collector are controllable by a relatively small base current.[87] In an n–p–n transistor operating
IGFET is more commonly known as a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET (MOSFET), reflecting
in the active region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased (electrons and holes recombine
its original construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and
at the junction), and the base-collector junction is reverse biased (electrons and holes are
semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a p–n diode with the channel which lies
formed at, and move away from the junction), and electrons are injected into the base region.
between the source and drains. Functionally, this makes the n-channel JFET the solid-state
Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the reverse-biased base-
equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly, forms a diode between its grid and
collector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will
cathode. Also, both devices operate in the depletion-mode, they both have a high input
recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the base current. As well, as the
impedance, and they both conduct current under the control of an input voltage.
base is lightly doped (in comparison to the emitter and collector regions), recombination rates
Metal–semiconductor FETs (MESFETs) are JFETs in which the reverse biased p–n junction is are low, permitting more carriers to diffuse across the base region. By controlling the number of
replaced by a metal–semiconductor junction. These, and the HEMTs (high-electron-mobility electrons that can leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be
transistors, or HFETs), in which a two-dimensional electron gas with very high carrier mobility controlled.[87] Collector current is approximately β (common-emitter current gain) times the
is used for charge transport, are especially suitable for use at very high frequencies (several base current. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in
GHz). transistors designed for high-power applications.

FETs are further divided into depletion-mode and enhancement-mode types, depending on Unlike the field-effect transistor (see below), the BJT is a low-input-impedance device. Also, as
whether the channel is turned on or off with zero gate-to-source voltage. For enhancement the base-emitter voltage (VBE) is increased the base-emitter current and hence the collector-
mode, the channel is off at zero bias, and a gate potential can "enhance" the conduction. For the emitter current (ICE) increase exponentially according to the Shockley diode model and the
depletion mode, the channel is on at zero bias, and a gate potential (of the opposite polarity) can Ebers-Moll model. Because of this exponential relationship, the BJT has a higher
"deplete" the channel, reducing conduction. For either mode, a more positive gate voltage transconductance than the FET.
corresponds to a higher current for n-channel devices and a lower current for p-channel devices.
Nearly all JFETs are depletion-mode because the diode junctions would forward bias and Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct by exposure to light because the absorption of
conduct if they were enhancement-mode devices, while most IGFETs are enhancement-mode photons in the base region generates a photocurrent that acts as a base current; the collector
types. current is approximately β times the photocurrent. Devices designed for this purpose have a
transparent window in the package and are called phototransistors.

Metal–oxide–semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

Usage of MOSFETs and BJTs
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET),
also known as the metal–oxide–silicon transistor (MOS transistor, or MOS),[6] is a type of field- The MOSFET is by far the most widely used transistor for both digital circuits as well as analog
effect transistor that is fabricated by the controlled oxidation of a semiconductor, typically circuits,[88] accounting for 99.9% of all transistors in the world.[86] The bipolar junction
silicon. It has an insulated gate, whose voltage determines the conductivity of the device. This transistor (BJT) was previously the most commonly used transistor during the 1950s to 1960s.
ability to change conductivity with the amount of applied voltage can be used for amplifying or Even after MOSFETs became widely available in the 1970s, the BJT remained the transistor of
switching electronic signals. The MOSFET is by far the most common transistor, and the basic choice for many analog circuits such as amplifiers because of their greater linearity, up until
building block of most modern electronics.[73] The MOSFET accounts for 99.9% of all MOSFET devices (such as power MOSFETs, LDMOS and RF CMOS) replaced them for most
transistors in the world.[86] power electronic applications in the 1980s. In integrated circuits, the desirable properties of
MOSFETs allowed them to capture nearly all market share for digital circuits in the 1970s.
Discrete MOSFETs (typically power MOSFETs) can be applied in transistor applications,
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) including analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters, and motor drivers.
Other transistor types Heterojunction bipolar transistor, up to several hundred GHz, common in modern
ultrafast and RF circuits
Field-effect transistor (FET): Schottky transistor
Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect avalanche transistor
transistor (MOSFET), where the gate is Darlington transistors are two BJTs connected together to provide a high current gain
insulated by a shallow layer of insulator equal to the product of the current gains of the two transistors
p-type MOS (PMOS) Insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) use a medium-power IGFET, similarly
connected to a power BJT, to give a high input impedance. Power diodes are often
n-type MOS (NMOS) connected between certain terminals depending on specific use. IGBTs are particularly
complementary MOS (CMOS) suitable for heavy-duty industrial applications. The ASEA Brown Boveri (ABB)
RF CMOS, for power electronics 5SNA2400E170100 ,[89] intended for three-phase power supplies, houses three n–p–n
IGBTs in a case measuring 38 by 140 by 190 mm and weighing 1.5 kg. Each IGBT is
Multi-gate field-effect transistor rated at 1,700 volts and can handle 2,400 amperes
(MuGFET) Transistor symbol created on Portuguese
pavement in the University of Aveiro
Phototransistor.
Fin field-effect transistor (FinFET), Emitter-switched bipolar transistor (ESBT) is a monolithic configuration of a high-voltage
source/drain region shapes fins on bipolar transistor and a low-voltage power MOSFET in cascode topology. It was
the silicon surface introduced by STMicroelectronics in the 2000s,[90] and abandoned a few years later
GAAFET, Similar to FinFET but nanowires are used instead of fins, the around 2012.[91]
nanowires are stacked vertically and are surrounded on 4 sides by the gate Multiple-emitter transistor, used in transistor–transistor logic and integrated current
MBCFET, a variant of GAAFET that uses horizontal nanosheets instead of mirrors
nanowires, made by Samsung Multiple-base transistor, used to amplify very-low-level signals in noisy environments
Thin-film transistor, used in LCD and OLED displays such as the pickup of a record player or radio front ends. Effectively, it is a very large
Floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS), for non-volatile storage number of transistors in parallel where, at the output, the signal is added constructively,
Power MOSFET, for power electronics but random noise is added only stochastically.[92]
Tunnel field-effect transistor, where it switches by modulating quantum tunneling through a
lateral diffused MOS (LDMOS) barrier.
Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNFET, CNTFET), where the channel material Diffusion transistor, formed by diffusing dopants into semiconductor substrate; can be both
is replaced by a carbon nanotube BJT and FET.
Ferroelectric field-effect transistor (Fe FET), uses ferroelectric materials Unijunction transistor, can be used as simple pulse generators. It comprises the main body
Junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET), where the gate is insulated by a reverse- of either p-type or n-type semiconductor with ohmic contacts at each end (terminals Base1
biased p–n junction and Base2). A junction with the opposite semiconductor type is formed at a point along the
Metal–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MESFET), similar to JFET with a Schottky length of the body for the third terminal (Emitter).
junction instead of a p–n junction Single-electron transistors (SET), consist of a gate island between two tunneling junctions.
The tunneling current is controlled by a voltage applied to the gate through a capacitor.[93]
High-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT)
Nanofluidic transistor, controls the movement of ions through sub-microscopic, water-filled
Negative-Capacitance FET
channels.[94]
Inverted-T field-effect transistor (ITFET)
Multigate devices:
Fast-reverse epitaxial diode field-effect transistor (FREDFET)
Organic field-effect transistor (OFET), in which the semiconductor is an organic Tetrode transistor
compound Pentode transistor
Ballistic transistor (disambiguation) Trigate transistor (prototype by Intel)
FETs used to sense the environment Dual-gate field-effect transistors have a single channel with two gates in cascode, a
configuration optimized for high-frequency amplifiers, mixers, and oscillators.
Ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET), to measure ion concentrations in
solution, Junctionless nanowire transistor (JNT), uses a simple nanowire of silicon surrounded by an
electrically isolated "wedding ring" that acts to gate the flow of electrons through the wire.
Electrolyte–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (EOSFET), neurochip,
Nanoscale vacuum-channel transistor, when in 2012, NASA and the National Nanofab
Deoxyribonucleic acid field-effect transistor (DNAFET). Center in South Korea were reported to have built a prototype vacuum-channel transistor in
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT): only 150 nanometers in size, can be manufactured cheaply using standard silicon
semiconductor processing, can operate at high speeds even in hostile environments, and

could consume just as much power as a standard transistor.[95] European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association (EECA)
Organic electrochemical transistor.
Solaristor (from solar cell transistor), a two-terminal gate-less self-powered phototransistor. The European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association (EECA) uses a numbering
scheme that was inherited from Pro Electron when it merged with EECA in 1983. This scheme
begins with two letters: the first gives the semiconductor type (A for germanium, B for silicon,
Device identification and C for materials like GaAs); the second letter denotes the intended use (A for diode, C for
general-purpose transistor, etc.). A three-digit sequence number (or one letter and two digits,
Three major identification standards are used for designating transistor devices. In each, the for industrial types) follows. With early devices this indicated the case type. Suffixes may be
alphanumeric prefix provides clues to the type of the device. used, with a letter (e.g. "C" often means high hFE, such as in: BC549C[97]) or other codes may
follow to show gain (e.g. BC327-25) or voltage rating (e.g. BUK854-800A[98]). The more
common prefixes are:
Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC)
EECA transistor prefix table
The JEDEC part numbering scheme evolved in the 1960s in the United States. The JEDEC EIA-
370 transistor device numbers usually start with 2N, indicating a three-terminal device. Dual- Prefix Type and usage Example Equivalent Reference
gate field-effect transistors are four-terminal devices, and begin with 3N. The prefix is followed Germanium, small-signal AF
AC AC126 NTE102A
by a two-, three- or four-digit number with no significance as to device properties, although transistor
early devices with low numbers tend to be germanium devices. For example, 2N3055 is a silicon Germanium, AF power
n–p–n power transistor, 2N1301 is a p–n–p germanium switching transistor. A letter suffix, AD
transistor
AD133 NTE179
such as "A", is sometimes used to indicate a newer variant, but rarely gain groupings.
Germanium, small-signal RF
AF AF117 NTE160
transistor
JEDEC prefix table
Germanium, RF power
Prefix Type and usage AL ALZ10 NTE100
transistor
1N two-terminal device, such as diodes Germanium, switching
AS ASY28 NTE101
transistor
2N three-terminal device, such as transistors or single-gate field-effect transistors
Germanium, power switching
3N four-terminal device, such as dual-gate field-effect transistors AU AU103 NTE127
transistor

Silicon, small-signal transistor Datasheet (https://www.mccsemi.com/pdf/P

BC BC548 2N3904
("general purpose") roducts/2N3904(TO-92).pdf)
Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS)
Datasheet (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/
BD Silicon, power transistor BD139 NTE375
In Japan, the JIS semiconductor designation (|JIS-C-7012), labels transistor devices starting BD/BD135.pdf)

with 2S,[96] e.g., 2SD965, but sometimes the "2S" prefix is not marked on the package–a Silicon, RF (high frequency) Datasheet (http://www.onsemi.com/pub_lin
BF BF245 NTE133
2SD965 might only be marked D965 and a 2SC1815 might be listed by a supplier as simply BJT or FET k/Collateral/BF245A-D.PDF)
C1815. This series sometimes has suffixes, such as R, O, BL, standing for red, orange, blue, etc., Silicon, switching transistor Datasheet (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/
BS BS170 2N7000
to denote variants, such as tighter hFE (gain) groupings. (BJT or MOSFET) BS/BS170.pdf)

Silicon, high frequency, high Datasheet (http://www.datasheetcatalog.org

JIS transistor prefix table BL BLW60 NTE325
power (for transmitters) /datasheet/philips/BLW60.pdf)
Prefix Type and usage Silicon, high voltage (for CRT Datasheet (http://www.datasheetcatalog.org
BU BU2520A NTE2354
horizontal deflection circuits) /datasheet/philips/BU2520A.pdf)
2SA high-frequency p–n–p BJT
Gallium arsenide, small-signal Datasheet (https://web.archive.org/web/201
2SB audio-frequency p–n–p BJT
CF microwave transistor CF739 — 50109012745/http://www.kesun.com/pdf/rf
2SC high-frequency n–p–n BJT (MESFET)  %20transistor/CF739.pdf)

2SD audio-frequency n–p–n BJT Gallium arsenide, microwave Datasheet (http://www.datasheetcatalog.org

CL CLY10 —
power transistor (FET) /datasheet/siemens/CLY10.pdf)
2SJ P-channel FET (both JFET and MOSFET)

2SK N-channel FET (both JFET and MOSFET)

Proprietary
Manufacturers of devices may have their proprietary numbering system, for example CK722. Rough parameters for the most common semiconductor materials used to make transistors are
Since devices are second-sourced, a manufacturer's prefix (like "MPF" in MPF102, which given in the adjacent table. These parameters will vary with an increase in temperature, electric
originally would denote a Motorola FET) now is an unreliable indicator of who made the device. field, impurity level, strain, and sundry other factors.
Some proprietary naming schemes adopt parts of other naming schemes, for example, a
PN2222A is a (possibly Fairchild Semiconductor) 2N2222A in a plastic case (but a PN108 is a The junction forward voltage is the voltage applied to the emitter-base junction of a BJT to
plastic version of a BC108, not a 2N108, while the PN100 is unrelated to other xx100 devices). make the base conduct a specified current. The current increases exponentially as the junction
forward voltage is increased. The values given in the table are typical for a current of 1 mA (the
Military part numbers sometimes are assigned their codes, such as the British Military CV same values apply to semiconductor diodes). The lower the junction forward voltage the better,
Naming System. as this means that less power is required to "drive" the transistor. The junction forward voltage
for a given current decreases with an increase in temperature. For a typical silicon junction, the
Manufacturers buying large numbers of similar parts may have them supplied with "house change is −2.1 mV/°C.[102] In some circuits special compensating elements (sensistors) must be
numbers", identifying a particular purchasing specification and not necessarily a device with a used to compensate for such changes.
standardized registered number. For example, an HP part 1854,0053 is a (JEDEC) 2N2218
transistor[99][100] which is also assigned the CV number: CV7763[101] The density of mobile carriers in the channel of a MOSFET is a function of the electric field
forming the channel and of various other phenomena such as the impurity level in the channel.
Some impurities, called dopants, are introduced deliberately in making a MOSFET, to control
Naming problems the MOSFET electrical behavior.

With so many independent naming schemes, and the abbreviation of part numbers when The electron mobility and hole mobility columns show the average speed that electrons and
printed on the devices, ambiguity sometimes occurs. For example, two different devices may be holes diffuse through the semiconductor material with an electric field of 1  volt per meter
marked "J176" (one the J176 low-power JFET, the other the higher-powered MOSFET 2SJ176). applied across the material. In general, the higher the electron mobility the faster the transistor
can operate. The table indicates that Ge is a better material than Si in this respect. However, Ge
As older "through-hole" transistors are given surface-mount packaged counterparts, they tend has four major shortcomings compared to silicon and gallium arsenide:
to be assigned many different part numbers because manufacturers have their systems to cope
with the variety in pinout arrangements and options for dual or matched n–p–n + p–n–p 1. Its maximum temperature is limited.
devices in one pack. So even when the original device (such as a 2N3904) may have been 2. It has relatively high leakage current.
assigned by a standards authority, and well known by engineers over the years, the new versions 3. It cannot withstand high voltages.
are far from standardized in their naming.
4. It is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits.

Construction Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a
given bipolar n–p–n transistor tends to be swifter than an equivalent p–n–p transistor. GaAs
has the highest electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is for this reason that GaAs is
Semiconductor material used in high-frequency applications. A relatively recent FET development, the high-electron-
mobility transistor (HEMT), has a heterostructure (junction between different semiconductor
Semiconductor material characteristics materials) of aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has twice
Semiconductor Junction forward Electron mobility Hole mobility Max. junction the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier junction. Because of their high speed and low
material voltage @ 25 °C, V @ 25 °C, m2/(V·s) @ 25 °C, m2/(V·s) temp., °C noise, HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at frequencies around 12  GHz. HEMTs
based on gallium nitride and aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN/GaN HEMTs) provide still
Ge 0.27 0.39 0.19 70 to 100
higher electron mobility and are being developed for various applications.
Si 0.71 0.14 0.05 150 to 200
Maximum junction temperature values represent a cross-section taken from various
GaAs 1.03 0.85 0.05 150 to 200
manufacturers' datasheets. This temperature should not be exceeded or the transistor may be
Al–Si junction 0.3 — — 150 to 200 damaged.

The first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge). Silicon (Si) types currently predominate but Al–Si junction refers to the high-speed (aluminum-silicon) metal–semiconductor barrier diode,
certain advanced microwave and high-performance versions now employ the compound commonly known as a Schottky diode. This is included in the table because some silicon power
semiconductor material gallium arsenide (GaAs) and the semiconductor alloy silicon- IGFETs have a parasitic reverse Schottky diode formed between the source and drain as part of
germanium (SiGe). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is described as the fabrication process. This diode can be a nuisance, but sometimes it is used in the circuit.
elemental.

Packaging

Discrete transistors can be individually packaged transistors Semiconductor device modeling

or unpackaged transistor chips (dies). Transistor count
Transistor model
Transistors come in many different semiconductor packages Transresistance
(see image). The two main categories are through-hole (or Very Large Scale Integration
leaded), and surface-mount, also known as surface-mount
Trancitor
device (SMD). The ball grid array (BGA) is the latest
surface-mount package. It has solder "balls" on the
Assorted discrete transistors
underside in place of leads. Because they are smaller and References
have shorter interconnections, SMDs have better high-
frequency characteristics but lower power ratings. 1. "Transistor" (https://www.britannica.com/technology/transistor). Britannica. Retrieved
January 12, 2021.
Transistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic, or 2. "1926 – Field Effect Semiconductor Device Concepts Patented" (http://www.computerhistory
plastic. The package often dictates the power rating and .org/siliconengine/field-effect-semiconductor-device-concepts-patented/). Computer History
frequency characteristics. Power transistors have larger Museum. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160322023120/http://www.computerhisto
packages that can be clamped to heat sinks for enhanced ry.org/siliconengine/field-effect-semiconductor-device-concepts-patented/) from the original
cooling. Additionally, most power transistors have the on March 22, 2016. Retrieved March 25, 2016.
collector or drain physically connected to the metal Soviet KT315b transistors 3. "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956" (https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureat
enclosure. At the other extreme, some surface-mount es/1956/). Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2014121
microwave transistors are as small as grains of sand. 6204332/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1956/) from the original
on December 16, 2014. Retrieved December 7, 2014.
Often a given transistor type is available in several packages. Transistor packages are mainly 4. "1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated" (https://www.computer
standardized, but the assignment of a transistor's functions to the terminals is not: other history.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/). The
transistor types can assign other functions to the package's terminals. Even for the same Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum.
transistor type the terminal assignment can vary (normally indicated by a suffix letter to the 5. Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering (https://archive.org/details/historyse
part number, q.e. BC212L and BC212K). micondu00loje_697). Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 321 (https://archive.org/detail
s/historysemicondu00loje_697/page/n327)–3. ISBN 9783540342588.
Nowadays most transistors come in a wide range of SMT packages, in comparison, the list of
6. "Who Invented the Transistor?" (https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-tr
available through-hole packages is relatively small, here is a shortlist of the most common
ansistor/). Computer History Museum. December 4, 2013. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
through-hole transistors packages in alphabetical order: ATV, E-line, MRT, HRT, SC-43, SC-72,
TO-3, TO-18, TO-39, TO-92, TO-126, TO220, TO247, TO251, TO262, ZTX851. 7. Moavenzadeh, Fred (1990). Concise Encyclopedia of Building and Construction Materials (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=YiJaEAUj258C&q=Eccles+Oscillator+Galena&pg=PA430
). ISBN 9780262132480.
Unpackaged transistor chips (die) may be assembled into hybrid devices.[103] The IBM SLT
module of the 1960s is one example of such a hybrid circuit module using glass passivated 8. Lilienfeld, Julius Edgar (1927). Specification of electric current control mechanism patent
transistor (and diode) die. Other packaging techniques for discrete transistors as chips include application (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?FT=D&d
ate=19270719&DB=&CC=CA&NR=272437A&KC=A&locale=en_EP#).
direct chip attach (DCA) and chip-on-board (COB).[103]
9. Vardalas, John (May 2003) Twists and Turns in the Development of the Transistor (http://ww
w.todaysengineer.org/2003/May/history.asp) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2015010
Flexible transistors 8082709/http://www.todaysengineer.org/2003/May/history.asp) January 8, 2015, at the
Wayback Machine IEEE-USA Today's Engineer.
Researchers have made several kinds of flexible transistors, including organic field-effect 10. Lilienfeld, Julius Edgar, "Method and apparatus for controlling electric current" U.S. Patent
transistors.[104][105][106] Flexible transistors are useful in some kinds of flexible displays and 1,745,175 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US1745175) January 28, 1930 (filed in
other flexible electronics. Canada 1925-10-22, in US October 8, 1926).
11. "Method And Apparatus For Controlling Electric Currents" (http://www.google.com/patents?i
See also d=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false). United States Patent and
Trademark Office.
Band gap 12. "Amplifier For Electric Currents" (http://www.google.com/patents?id=jvhAAAAAEBAJ&prints
Digital electronics Electronics portal ec=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false). United States Patent and Trademark Office.
Diffused junction transistor 13. "Device For Controlling Electric Current" (http://www.google.com/patents?id=52BQAAAAEB
AJ&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false). United States Patent and Trademark Office.
Moore's law
14. "Twists and Turns in the Development of the Transistor" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150
Optical transistor
108082709/http://www.todaysengineer.org/2003/May/history.asp). Institute of Electrical and
Semiconductor device modeling Electronics Engineers, Inc. Archived from the original (http://www.todaysengineer.org/2003/
 Electronics Engineers, Inc. Archived from the original (http://www.todaysengineer.org/2003/ 29. Bradley, W.E. (December 1953). "The Surface-Barrier Transistor: Part I-Principles of the
May/history.asp) on January 8, 2015. Surface-Barrier Transistor". Proceedings of the IRE. 41 (12): 1702–1706.
15. Heil, Oskar, "Improvements in or relating to electrical amplifiers and other control doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1953.274351 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJRPROC.1953.274351).
arrangements and devices" (http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?CC=GB&NR S2CID 51652314 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51652314).
=439457&KC=&FT=E), Patent No. GB439457, European Patent Office, filed in Great Britain 30. Wall Street Journal, December 4, 1953, page 4, Article "Philco Claims Its Transistor
1934-03-02, published December 6, 1935 (originally filed in Germany March 2, 1934). Outperforms Others Now In Use"
16. "November 17 – December 23, 1947: Invention of the First Transistor" (http://www.aps.org/p 31. Electronics magazine, January 1954, Article "Electroplated Transistors Announced"
ublications/apsnews/200011/history.cfm). American Physical Society. Archived (https://web. 32. P. Mallery, Transistors and Their Circuits in the 4A Toll Crossbar Switching System, AIEE
archive.org/web/20130120065607/http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200011/history. Transactions, September 1953, p.388
cfm) from the original on January 20, 2013.
33. 1953 Foreign Commerce Weekly; Volume 49; pp.23
17. Millman, S., ed. (1983). A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System, Physical
34. "Der deutsche Erfinder des Transistors – Nachrichten Welt Print – DIE WELT" (https://www.
Science (1925–1980). AT&T Bell Laboratories. p. 102.
welt.de/welt_print/article2721871/Der-deutsche-Erfinder-des-Transistors.html). Die Welt.
18. Bodanis, David (2005). Electric Universe. Crown Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-0-7394- Welt.de. November 23, 2011. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160515182422/http://
5670-5. www.welt.de/welt_print/article2721871/Der-deutsche-Erfinder-des-Transistors.html) from the
19. "transistor". American Heritage Dictionary (3rd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1992. original on May 15, 2016. Retrieved May 1, 2016.
20. "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956" (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/195 35. "Regency TR-1 Transistor Radio History" (http://www.regencytr1.com/). Archived (https://we
6/). nobelprize.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070312091604/http://nobelprize b.archive.org/web/20041021040145/http://www.regencytr1.com/) from the original on
.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1956/) from the original on March 12, 2007. October 21, 2004. Retrieved April 10, 2006.
21. Guarnieri, M. (2017). "Seventy Years of Getting Transistorized". IEEE Industrial Electronics 36. "The Regency TR-1 Family" (http://www.ericwrobbel.com/books/regency.htm). Archived (htt
Magazine. 11 (4): 33–37. doi:10.1109/MIE.2017.2757775 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMIE.2 ps://web.archive.org/web/20170427155821/http://www.ericwrobbel.com/books/regency.htm)
017.2757775). hdl:11577/3257397 (https://hdl.handle.net/11577%2F3257397). from the original on April 27, 2017. Retrieved April 10, 2017.
S2CID 38161381 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38161381). 37. "Regency manufacturer in USA, radio technology from United St" (http://www.radiomuseum.
22. Lee, Thomas H. (2003). The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits (https:// org/dsp_hersteller_detail.cfm?company_id=3886). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
web.archive.org/web/20211021005313/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Design- 170410214244/http://www.radiomuseum.org/dsp_hersteller_detail.cfm?company_id=3886)
of-CMOS-Radio-Frequency-Integrated-Ellis/c0018d231b4960f7a6c4f581b086212d7f8b0d15 from the original on April 10, 2017. Retrieved April 10, 2017.
?p2df). Soldering & Surface Mount Technology. Vol. 16. Cambridge University Press. 38. Wall Street Journal, "Chrysler Promises Car Radio With Transistors Instead of Tubes in '56",
doi:10.1108/ssmt.2004.21916bae.002 (https://doi.org/10.1108%2Fssmt.2004.21916bae.002 April 28, 1955, page 1
). ISBN 9781139643771. S2CID 108955928 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1089
39. Hirsh, Rick. "Philco's All-Transistor Mopar Car Radio" (http://www.allpar.com/stereo/Philco/in
55928). Archived from the original (https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Design-of-C
dex.html). Allpar.com. Retrieved February 18, 2015.
MOS-Radio-Frequency-Integrated-Ellis/c0018d231b4960f7a6c4f581b086212d7f8b0d15?p2
df) on October 21, 2021. 40. "FCA North America - Historical Timeline 1950-1959" (http://www.fcanorthamerica.com/com
pany/Heritage/Pages/Chrysler-Heritage-1950.aspx). www.fcanorthamerica.com.
23. Puers, Robert; Baldi, Livio; Voorde, Marcel Van de; Nooten, Sebastiaan E. van (2017).
Nanoelectronics: Materials, Devices, Applications, 2 Volumes (https://books.google.com/boo 41. Skrabec, Quentin R. Jr. (2012). The 100 Most Significant Events in American Business: An
ks?id=JOqVDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14). John Wiley & Sons. p. 14. ISBN 9783527340538. Encyclopedia (https://books.google.com/books?id=2kc69qrid9oC&pg=PA195). ABC-CLIO.
pp. 195–7. ISBN 978-0313398636.
24. FR 1010427 (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=FR1010427) H.
F. Mataré / H. Welker / Westinghouse: "Nouveau sytème crystallin à plusieur électrodes 42. Snook, Chris J. (November 29, 2017). "The 7 Step Formula Sony Used to Get Back On Top
réalisant des relais de effects électroniques" filed on August 13, 1948 After a Lost Decade" (https://www.inc.com/chris-j-snook/sonys-7-step-formula-for-entrepren
eurial-success-business-longevity.html). Inc.
25. US 2673948 (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2673948)
H. F. Mataré / H. Welker / Westinghouse, "Crystal device for controlling electric currents by 43. Kozinsky, Sieva (January 8, 2014). "Education and the Innovator's Dilemma" (https://www.wi
means of a solid semiconductor" French priority August 13, 1948 red.com/insights/2014/01/education-innovators-dilemma/). Wired. Retrieved October 14,
2019.
26. "1948, The European Transistor Invention" (http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/ti
meline/1948-European.html). Computer History Museum. Archived (https://web.archive.org/ 44. Riordan, Michael (May 2004). "The Lost History of the Transistor" (https://spectrum.ieee.org/
web/20120929202704/http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1948-Europe biomedical/devices/the-lost-history-of-the-transistor). IEEE Spectrum: 48–49. Archived (http
an.html) from the original on September 29, 2012. s://web.archive.org/web/20150531113132/https://spectrum.ieee.org/biomedical/devices/the-l
ost-history-of-the-transistor) from the original on May 31, 2015.
27. 1951: First Grown-Junction Transistors Fabricated (http://www.computerhistory.org/siliconen
gine/first-grown-junction-transistors-fabricated/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017 45. Chelikowski, J. (2004) "Introduction: Silicon in all its Forms", p. 1 in Silicon: evolution and
0404035446/http://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/first-grown-junction-transistors-fa future of a technology. P. Siffert and E. F. Krimmel (eds.). Springer, ISBN 3-540-40546-1.
bricated/) April 4, 2017, at the Wayback Machine 46. McFarland, Grant (2006) Microprocessor design: a practical guide from design planning to
28. "A Working Junction Transistor" (https://www.pbs.org/transistor/science/info/junctw.html). manufacturing. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 10. ISBN 0-07-145951-0.
PBS. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170703002246/http://www.pbs.org/transistor/ 47. Lilienfeld, Julius Edgar, "Method and apparatus for controlling electric current" U.S. Patent
science/info/junctw.html) from the original on July 3, 2017. Retrieved September 17, 2017. 1,745,175 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US1745175) January 28, 1930 (filed in
Canada 1925-10-22, in US October 8, 1926).

1101).
Canada 1925-10-22, in US October 8, 1926).
64. "IEEE Andrew S. Grove Award Recipients" (https://www.ieee.org/about/awards/bios/grove-r
48. Lilienfeld, Julius Edgar, "Device for controlling electric current" U.S. Patent 1,900,018 (https: ecipients.html). IEEE Andrew S. Grove Award. Institute of Electrical and Electronics
//patents.google.com/patent/US1900018) March 7, 1933 (filed in US March 28, 1928). Engineers. Retrieved July 4, 2019.
49. Grundmann, Marius (2010). The Physics of Semiconductors. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3- 65. "The Breakthrough Advantage for FPGAs with Tri-Gate Technology" (https://www.intel.com/
642-13884-3. content/dam/www/programmable/us/en/pdfs/literature/wp/wp-01201-fpga-tri-gate-technolog
50. Junction Field-Effect Devices (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4684-726 y.pdf) (PDF). Intel. 2014. Retrieved July 4, 2019.
3-9_11#page-1), Semiconductor Devices for Power Conditioning, 1982. 66. "A History of the Invention of the Transistor and Where It Will Lead Us" (https://massless.inf
51. Howard R. Duff (2001). "John Bardeen and transistor physics". AIP Conference o/images/A%20history%20of%20the%20invention%20of%20the%20transistor%20and%20
Proceedings. Vol. 550. pp. 3–32. doi:10.1063/1.1354371 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1354 where%20it%20will%20lead%20us.pdf) (PDF). IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE
371). CIRCUITS Vol 32 No 12. December 1997.
52. Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology 67. "Milestones:Invention of the First Transistor at Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 1947" (http
in the 21st century (https://books.google.com/books?id=2STRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168). ://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Invention_of_the_First_Transistor_at_Bell_Tel
John Wiley & Sons. p. 168. ISBN 9780470508923. ephone_Laboratories,_Inc.,_1947). IEEE Global History Network. IEEE. Archived (https://w
53. "Martin Atalla in Inventors Hall of Fame, 2009" (https://www.invent.org/inductees/martin-john eb.archive.org/web/20111008193522/http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Inve
-m-atalla). Retrieved June 21, 2013. ntion_of_the_First_Transistor_at_Bell_Telephone_Laboratories,_Inc.,_1947) from the
54. "Dawon Kahng" (https://www.invent.org/inductees/dawon-kahng). National Inventors Hall of original on October 8, 2011. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
Fame. Retrieved June 27, 2019. 68. "List of IEEE Milestones" (http://ethw.org/Milestones:List_of_IEEE_Milestones). December
55. Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering (https://archive.org/details/historyse 9, 2020.
micondu00loje_697). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 120 (https://archive.org/details 69. "Remarks by Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference" (http
/historysemicondu00loje_697/page/n128). ISBN 9783540342588. s://www.uspto.gov/about-us/news-updates/remarks-director-iancu-2019-international-intelle
56. Mead, Carver; Conway, Lynn (1991). Introduction to VLSI systems (https://archive.org/detail ctual-property-conference). United States Patent and Trademark Office. June 10, 2019.
s/introductiontovl00mead). Addison Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-201-04358-7. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
OCLC 634332043 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/634332043). 70. Ashley, Kenneth L. (2002). Analog Electronics with LabVIEW (https://books.google.com/boo
57. Motoyoshi, M. (2009). "Through-Silicon Via (TSV)" (https://web.archive.org/web/201907191 ks?id=0qkc2f6EXnQC&pg=PA10). Prentice Hall Professional. p. 10. ISBN 9780130470652.
20523/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8a44/93b535463daa7d7317b08d8900a33b8cbaf4.p 71. Thompson, S. E.; Chau, R. S.; Ghani, T.; Mistry, K.; Tyagi, S.; Bohr, M. T. (2005). "In search
df) (PDF). Proceedings of the IEEE. 97 (1): 43–48. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2008.2007462 (http of "Forever," continued transistor scaling one new material at a time". IEEE Transactions on
s://doi.org/10.1109%2FJPROC.2008.2007462). ISSN 0018-9219 (https://www.worldcat.org/i Semiconductor Manufacturing. 18 (1): 26–36. doi:10.1109/TSM.2004.841816 (https://doi.org
ssn/0018-9219). S2CID 29105721 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29105721). /10.1109%2FTSM.2004.841816). ISSN 0894-6507 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0894-650
Archived from the original (https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8a44/93b535463daa7d7317b08 7). S2CID 25283342 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25283342). "In the field of
d8900a33b8cbaf4.pdf) (PDF) on July 19, 2019. electronics, the planar Si metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is
58. "Transistors Keep Moore's Law Alive" (https://www.eetimes.com/author.asp?section_id=36& perhaps the most important invention."
doc_id=1334068). EETimes. December 12, 2018. Retrieved July 18, 2019. 72. Kubozono, Yoshihiro; He, Xuexia; Hamao, Shino; Uesugi, Eri; Shimo, Yuma; Mikami,
59. Hittinger, William C. (1973). "Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology". Scientific American. Takahiro; Goto, Hidenori; Kambe, Takashi (2015). "Application of Organic Semiconductors
229 (2): 48–59. Bibcode:1973SciAm.229b..48H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973Sci toward Transistors" (https://books.google.com/books?id=8wdCCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA355).
Am.229b..48H). doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientifi Nanodevices for Photonics and Electronics: Advances and Applications. CRC Press. p. 355.
camerican0873-48). ISSN 0036-8733 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8733). ISBN 9789814613750.
JSTOR 24923169 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/24923169). 73. "Triumph of the MOS Transistor" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6fBEjf9WPw).
60. "1963: Complementary MOS Circuit Configuration is Invented" (https://www.computerhistory YouTube. Computer History Museum. August 6, 2010. Archived (https://ghostarchive.org/va
.org/siliconengine/complementary-mos-circuit-configuration-is-invented/). Computer History rchive/youtube/20211211/q6fBEjf9WPw) from the original on December 11, 2021. Retrieved
Museum. Retrieved July 6, 2019. July 21, 2019.
61. D. Kahng and S. M. Sze, "A floating gate and its application to memory devices", The Bell 74. "The most manufactured human artifact in history" (https://computerhistory.org/blog/13-sextil
System Technical Journal, vol. 46, no. 4, 1967, pp. 1288–1295 lion-counting-the-long-winding-road-to-the-most-frequently-manufactured-human-artifact-in-
history/?key=13-sextillion-counting-the-long-winding-road-to-the-most-frequently-manufactur
62. Colinge, J.P. (2008). FinFETs and Other Multi-Gate Transistors (https://books.google.com/b ed-human-artifact-in-history). Computer History. April 2, 2018. Retrieved January 21, 2021.
ooks?id=t1ojkCdTGEEC&pg=PA11). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 11.
ISBN 9780387717517. 75. FETs/MOSFETs: Smaller apps push up surface-mount supply (https://web.archive.org/web/
20081206043949/http://www.globalsources.com/gsol/I/FET-MOSFET/a/9000000085806.ht
63. Sekigawa, Toshihiro; Hayashi, Yutaka (August 1, 1984). "Calculated threshold-voltage m). globalsources.com (April 18, 2007)
characteristics of an XMOS transistor having an additional bottom gate". Solid-State
Electronics. 27 (8): 827–828. Bibcode:1984SSEle..27..827S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/ 76. "Introducing M1 Pro and M1 Max: the most powerful chips Apple has ever built - Apple" (htt
abs/1984SSEle..27..827S). doi:10.1016/0038-1101(84)90036-4 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F ps://www.apple.com/newsroom/2021/10/introducing-m1-pro-and-m1-max-the-most-powerful
0038-1101%2884%2990036-4). ISSN 0038-1101 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0038- -chips-apple-has-ever-built/). www.apple.com. Retrieved October 20, 2022.
1101). 77. Roland, James (August 1, 2016). How Transistors Work (https://books.google.com/books?id
=g2qsDAAAQBAJ&q=how+do+transistors+work). Lerner Publications. ISBN 978-1-5124-
 =g2qsDAAAQBAJ&q=how+do+transistors+work). Lerner Publications. ISBN 978-1-5124- eria=productId=SC1775). www.st.com. Retrieved February 17, 2019. "ST no longer offers
2146-0. these components, this web page is empty, and datasheets are obsoletes"
78. Pulfrey, David L. (January 28, 2010). Understanding Modern Transistors and Diodes (https:/ 92. Zhong Yuan Chang, Willy M. C. Sansen, Low-Noise Wide-Band Amplifiers in Bipolar and
/books.google.com/books?id=y9dYENs2SVUC&q=how+do+transistors+work). Cambridge CMOS Technologies, page 31, Springer, 1991 ISBN 0792390962.
University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-48467-1. 93. "Single Electron Transistors" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120426015942/http://snow.stan
79. Kaplan, Daniel (2003). Hands-On Electronics. pp. 47–54, 60–61. ford.edu/~shimbo/set.html). Snow.stanford.edu. Archived from the original (http://snow.stanf
Bibcode:2003hoe..book.....K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003hoe..book.....K). ord.edu/~shimbo/set.html) on April 26, 2012. Retrieved June 30, 2012.
ISBN 978-0-511-07668-8. 94. Sanders, Robert (June 28, 2005). "Nanofluidic transistor, the basis of future chemical
80. "Transistor Base Resistor Calculator" (https://kaizerpowerelectronics.dk/calculators/transisto processors" (http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2005/06/28_transistor.shtml).
r-base-resistor-calculator/). Berkeley.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120702182324/http://www.berkeley.e
81. van der Veen, M. (2005). "Universal system and output transformer for valve amplifiers" (htt du/news/media/releases/2005/06/28_transistor.shtml) from the original on July 2, 2012.
p://www.mennovanderveen.nl/nl/download/download_3.pdf) (PDF). 118th AES Convention, Retrieved June 30, 2012.
Barcelona, Spain. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20091229114846/http://www.menn 95. "The return of the vacuum tube?" (http://www.gizmag.com/nasa-vacuum-channel-transistor/
ovanderveen.nl/nl/download/download_3.pdf) (PDF) from the original on December 29, 22626/). Gizmag.com. May 28, 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201604141229
2009. 40/http://www.gizmag.com/nasa-vacuum-channel-transistor/22626/) from the original on
82. "Transistor Example" (http://www.bcae1.com/transres.htm). Archived (https://web.archive.or April 14, 2016. Retrieved May 1, 2016.
g/web/20080208150020/http://www.bcae1.com/transres.htm) from the original on February 96. "Transistor Data" (http://www.clivetec.0catch.com/Transistors.htm#JIS).
8, 2008. 071003 bcae1.com Clivetec.0catch.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160426190413/http://www.cli
83. Gumyusenge, Aristide; Tran, Dung T.; Luo, Xuyi; Pitch, Gregory M.; Zhao, Yan; Jenkins, vetec.0catch.com/Transistors.htm#JIS) from the original on April 26, 2016. Retrieved May 1,
Kaelon A.; Dunn, Tim J.; Ayzner, Alexander L.; Savoie, Brett M.; Mei, Jianguo (December 7, 2016.
2018). "Semiconducting polymer blends that exhibit stable charge transport at high 97. "Datasheet for BC549, with A, B and C gain groupings" (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/BC
temperatures" (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aau0759). Science. 362 (6419): 1131– /BC549.pdf) (PDF). Fairchild Semiconductor. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201204
1134. Bibcode:2018Sci...362.1131G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Sci...362.1131 07001013/http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/BC/BC549.pdf) (PDF) from the original on April
G). doi:10.1126/science.aau0759 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aau0759). 7, 2012. Retrieved June 30, 2012.
ISSN 0036-8075 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075). PMID 30523104 (https://pubme 98. "Datasheet for BUK854-800A (800volt IGBT)" (http://www.datasheetcatalog.org/datasheet/p
d.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30523104). hilips/BUK854-800A.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120415132635/htt
84. Horowitz, Paul; Winfield Hill (1989). The Art of Electronics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University p://www.datasheetcatalog.org/datasheet/philips/BUK854-800A.pdf) (PDF) from the original
Press. p. [115]. ISBN 978-0-521-37095-0. on April 15, 2012. Retrieved June 30, 2012.
85. Sansen, W. M. C. (2006). Analog design essentials. New York, Berlin: Springer. p. §0152, p. 99. "Richard Freeman's HP Part numbers Crossreference" (http://www.hpmuseum.org/cgi-sys/c
28. ISBN 978-0-387-25746-4. giwrap/hpmuseum/archv010.cgi?read=27258). Hpmuseum.org. Archived (https://web.archiv
86. "13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured e.org/web/20120605183505/http://www.hpmuseum.org/cgi-sys/cgiwrap/hpmuseum/archv01
Human Artifact in History" (https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/13-sextillion-counting-the 0.cgi?read=27258) from the original on June 5, 2012. Retrieved June 30, 2012.
-long-winding-road-to-the-most-frequently-manufactured-human-artifact-in-history/). 100. "Transistor–Diode Cross Reference – H.P. Part Numbers to JEDEC (pdf)" (http://www.spher
Computer History Museum. April 2, 2018. Retrieved July 28, 2019. e.bc.ca/test/hp-parts/300-hpxref.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2016050
87. Streetman, Ben (1992). Solid State Electronic Devices. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 8135527/http://www.sphere.bc.ca/test/hp-parts/300-hpxref.pdf) (PDF) from the original on
pp. 301–305. ISBN 978-0-13-822023-5. May 8, 2016. Retrieved May 1, 2016.
88. "MOSFET DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER" (http://sites.bu.edu/engcourses/files/2016/08/mosfe 101. "CV Device Cross-reference by Andy Lake" (http://www.qsl.net/g8yoa/cv_table.html).
t-differential-amplifier.pdf) (PDF). Boston University. Retrieved August 10, 2019. Qsl.net. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120121111531/http://www.qsl.net/g8yoa/cv
_table.html) from the original on January 21, 2012. Retrieved June 30, 2012.
89. "IGBT Module 5SNA 2400E170100" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120426020121/http://lib
rary.abb.com/GLOBAL/SCOT/scot256.nsf/VerityDisplay/E700072B04381DD9C12571FF002 102. Sedra, A.S. & Smith, K.C. (2004). Microelectronic circuits (https://archive.org/details/microel
D2CFE/$File/5SNA%202400E170100_5SYA1555-03Oct%2006.pdf) (PDF). Archived from ectronicc00sedr_571) (Fifth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 397 (https://archive.
the original (http://library.abb.com/GLOBAL/SCOT/scot256.nsf/VerityDisplay/E700072B0438 org/details/microelectronicc00sedr_571/page/n426) and Figure 5.17. ISBN 978-0-19-
1DD9C12571FF002D2CFE/$File/5SNA%202400E170100_5SYA1555-03Oct%2006.pdf) 514251-8.
(PDF) on April 26, 2012. Retrieved June 30, 2012. 103. Greig, William (April 24, 2007). Integrated Circuit Packaging, Assembly and
90. Buonomo, S.; Ronsisvalle, C.; Scollo, R.; STMicroelectronics; Musumeci, S.; Pagano, R.; Interconnections (https://books.google.com/books?id=g29xoTAyAMgC&q=hybrid+&pg=PA6
Raciti, A.; University of Catania Italy (October 16, 2003). IEEE (ed.). A new monolithic 3). p. 63. ISBN 9780387339139. "A hybrid circuit is defined as an assembly containing both
emitter-switching bipolar transistor (ESBT) in high-voltage converter applications. 38th IAS active semiconductor devices (packaged and unpackaged)"
annual Meeting on Conference Record of the Industry Applications Conference. Vol. 3 of 3. 104. Rojas, Jhonathan P.; Torres Sevilla, Galo A.; Hussain, Muhammad M. (2013). "Can We
Salt Lake City. pp. 1810–1817. doi:10.1109/IAS.2003.1257745 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FI Build a Truly High Performance Computer Which is Flexible and Transparent?" (https://www
AS.2003.1257745). .ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3767948). Scientific Reports. 3: 2609.
91. STMicroelectronics. "ESBTs" (https://www.st.com/en/power-transistors/esbts.html?querycrit Bibcode:2013NatSR...3E2609R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013NatSR...3E2609R).
eria=productId=SC1775). www.st.com. Retrieved February 17, 2019. "ST no longer offers doi:10.1038/srep02609 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep02609). PMC 3767948 (https://www

doi:10.1038/srep02609 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep02609). PMC 3767948 (https://www

.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3767948). PMID 24018904 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih. Bit of Wire Changed The World" (https://books.google.com/books?id=mykDAAAAMBAJ).
gov/24018904). Popular Science. 192 (6): 80–84. ISSN 0161-7370 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0161-737
0).
105. Zhang, Kan; Seo, Jung-Hun; Zhou, Weidong; Ma, Zhenqiang (2012). "Fast flexible
electronics using transferrable [sic] silicon nanomembranes" (https://semanticscholar.org/pa
Databooks
per/fa3acea94e990fc456c40b81f00bf8568619eb21). Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics.
45 (14): 143001. Bibcode:2012JPhD...45n3001Z (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012JP
Discrete Databook (https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_fairchilddldDiscreteDataBook_3512
hD...45n3001Z). doi:10.1088/0022-3727/45/14/143001 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0022-37
2751); 1985; Fairchild (now ON Semiconductor)
27%2F45%2F14%2F143001). S2CID 109292175 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID
:109292175). Small-Signal Semiconductors Databook (https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_motoroladaSm
allSignalSemiconductors_75896318/), 1987; Motorola (now ON semiconductor)
106. Sun, Dong-Ming; Timmermans, Marina Y.; Tian, Ying; Nasibulin, Albert G.; Kauppinen, Esko
I.; Kishimoto, Shigeru; Mizutani, Takashi; Ohno, Yutaka (2011). "Flexible high-performance Discrete Power Devices Databook (https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_sgsdataBooDevices
carbon nanotube integrated circuits" (https://semanticscholar.org/paper/85ac1c54477bc6bd 5ed_46325378); 1982; SGS (now STMicroelectronics)
ee2fca496470c662051657dd). Nature Nanotechnology. 6 (3): 156–61. Discrete Databook (https://archive.org/details/NationalSemiconductor-DiscreteDatabook197
Bibcode:2011NatNa...6..156S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011NatNa...6..156S). 8OCR); 1978; National Semiconductor (now Texas Instruments)
doi:10.1038/NNANO.2011.1 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2FNNANO.2011.1). PMID 21297625 (
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21297625). S2CID 205446925 (https://api.semanticscholar.
org/CorpusID:205446925). External links
BBC: Building the digital age (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7091190.stm) photo
Further reading history of transistors
The Bell Systems Memorial on Transistors (https://web.archive.org/web/20070928041118/ht
Books tp://www.porticus.org/bell/belllabs_transistor.html)
IEEE Global History Network, The Transistor and Portable Electronics (http://www.ieeeghn.o
Horowitz, Paul & Hill, Winfield (2015). The Art of Electronics (3 ed.). Cambridge University rg/wiki/index.php/The_Transistor_and_Portable_Electronics). All about the history of
Press. ISBN 978-0521809269. transistors and integrated circuits.
Amos SW, James MR (1999). Principles of Transistor Circuits. Butterworth-Heinemann. This Month in Physics History: November 17 to December 23, 1947: Invention of the First
ISBN 978-0-7506-4427-3. Transistor (http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200011/history.cfm). From the
Riordan, Michael & Hoddeson, Lillian (1998). Crystal Fire. W.W Norton & Company Limited. American Physical Society
ISBN 978-0-393-31851-7. The invention of the transistor & the birth of the information age 50 Years of the Transistor (https://web.archive.org/web/20070714010051/http://www.scienc
Warnes, Lionel (1998). Analogue and Digital Electronics. Macmillan Press Ltd. ISBN 978-0- efriday.com/pages/1997/Dec/hour1_121297.html). From Science Friday, December 12,
333-65820-8. 1997
The Power Transistor - Temperature and Heat Transfer; 1st Ed; John McWane, Dana
Roberts, Malcom Smith; McGraw-Hill; 82 pages; 1975; ISBN 978-0-07-001729-0. (archive) (h Pinouts
ttps://archive.org/details/ThePowerTransistor/)
Common transistor pinouts (https://web.archive.org/web/20141030170632/http://hamradio.l
Transistor Circuit Analysis - Theory and Solutions to 235 Problems; 2nd Ed; Alfred Gronner;
akki.iki.fi/new/Datasheets/transistor_pinouts/)
Simon and Schuster; 244 pages; 1970. (archive) (https://archive.org/details/TransistorCircuitAnalysi
s/)
Transistor Physics and Circuits; R.L. Riddle and M.P. Ristenbatt; Prentice-Hall; 1957. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transistor&oldid=1141963875"

Periodicals

Michael Riordan (2005). "How Europe Missed the Transistor" (https://web.archive.org/web/2

0080214002109/http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/print/2155). IEEE Spectrum. 42 (11): 52–57.
doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2005.1526906 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMSPEC.2005.1526906).
S2CID 34953819 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34953819). Archived from the
original (https://spectrum.ieee.org/print/2155) on February 14, 2008.
"Herbert F. Mataré, An Inventor of the Transistor has his moment" (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20090623050755/http://www.mindfully.org/Technology/2003/Transistor-Matare-Inventor2
4feb03.htm). The New York Times. February 24, 2003. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.mindfully.org/Technology/2003/Transistor-Matare-Inventor24feb03.htm) on June 23, 2009.
Bacon, W. Stevenson (1968). "The Transistor's 20th Anniversary: How Germanium And A