1 Environmental Science 1

Unit 1: Ecosystems and Human

1.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students will be able to:

a. Distinguish environmental science from related fields such as environmental studies, ecology,
and geography;
b. Illustrate how abiotic and biotic factors interact with each other in the ecosystem; and
c. Explain how environmental stressors and disturbances can affect species and ecosystems.

1.1 Introduction

Everyone in the world depends completely on Earth’s ecosystems and the services they
provide, such as food, water, disease management, climate regulation, spiritual fulfillment, and
aesthetic enjoyment. All living species cannot survive without them and everyone took part as
component of the ecosystem that provides the means of subsistence.

As the human population has grown and increasingly dominated available resources,
“ecosystem Earth” has begun to show increasing signs of stress. Loss of biodiversity, environmental
degradation, and conflict over resources among the dominant species are typical signs that a
biological system is nearing a state change, which could range from collapse of the dominant species,
to development of alternative biological communities, to collapse of the entire system.
Environmental stressors and disturbances have always been an important, natural context for life on
Earth. So, too, have been the resulting ecological responses, including changes in species and the
dynamics of their communities and ecosystems.

This unit deals on the context of environmental science, types of ecosystems and its
components, how it works, how humans affect it and and why.

Direction: Answer briefly the following questions that will lead your
understanding in this module. Submit your answer to our official class google
drive.
1. Why environmental studies so significant?
2. Why it is important to understand the energy flow and processes in
an ecosystem?

1.2 Topic/Discussion

1.2.1. Environmental Science: Definition, Components and Importance

The word environment describes living and nonliving surroundings relevant to organisms. It
incorporates physical, chemical and biological factors and processes that determine the growth and
survival of organisms, populations, and communities. All these components fit within the ecosystem

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 Environmental Science 2

concept as a way to organize all of the factors and processes that make up the environment. The
ecosystem includes organisms and their environment within a specific area.
Environmental Science is the study of interrelationships between human activities and the
environment. It studies all aspects of the environment in an interdisciplinary way (Figure 2.1). This
means that it requires the knowledge of various other subjects including biology, chemistry, physics,
statistics, microbiology, biochemistry, geology, economics, law, sociology, etc. It is a relatively new
field of study that has evolved from integrated use of many disciplines. Environmental engineering
is one of the fastest growing and most complex disciplines of engineering. Environmental engineers
solve problems and design systems using knowledge of environmental concepts and ecology, thereby
providing solutions to various environmental problems. Environmentalism, in contrast, is a social
movement through which citizens are involved in activism to further the protection of environmental
landmarks and natural resources. This is not a field of science, but incorporates some aspects of
environmental knowledge to advance conservation and sustainability efforts.

Figure 2.1. Environmental science has an interdisciplinary character. All scientific disciplines are relevant to the
identification and resolution of environmental issues. (source:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/trentenvironmental/chapter/chapter-1-2/

Of all of the academic disciplines, ecology is the most relevant to environmental science, and
in fact the terms are often confused. Ecology may be defined simply as the study of the relationships
of organisms with their environment. Ecology is itself a highly interdisciplinary field of study – it
mostly involves biology, but knowledge of chemistry, computer science, mathematics, physics,
geology, and other fields is also important. Geography is another interdisciplinary field that is
central to environmental science. Geography can be simply defined as the study of natural features
of Earth’s surface, including climate, soil, topography, and vegetation, as well as intersections with
the human economy. Obviously, ecology and geography are closely related fields.

Increasing numbers of scientists are studying human (or anthropogenic) influences on

ecosystems, occurring as a result of pollution, disturbances, and other stressors. Examples of the
major subject areas are:

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 1 Environmental Science 3

1. The extraction, processing, and use of non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels and
metals, in ways that do not cause unacceptable environmental damage, while also moderating
their depletion to some possible degree (for example, by re-cycling certain materials)
2. The harvesting and management of biological resources, such as those in agriculture, fisheries,
and forestry, in ways that allow them to fully regenerate so their stocks can be sustained into
the future
3. The growth of renewable sources of energy, such as the various forms of solar energy
(including biomass fuels, hydroelectricity, photovoltaics, and wind), as a way of replacing
non-renewable fossil fuels and thereby making the energy economy more sustainable
4. The prevention and repair of ecological damages, such as those related to endangered
biodiversity, degraded land or water, and the management of greenhouse gases

An environmental scientist is a generalist who uses science-related knowledge relevant to

environmental quality, such as air or water chemistry, climate modelling, or the ecological effects of
pollution. Environmentalists, is also involved with these sorts of issues, especially in the sense of
advocacy. This involves taking a strong public stance on a particular environmental issue, in terms
of the need to address the problem.

Life on Earth occupies intermediate levels of this hierarchy. The realm of ecology encompasses
the following levels:

1. individual organisms, which are living entities that are genetically and physically discrete
2. populations, or individuals of the same species that occur together in time and space
3. communities, or populations of various species, also co-occurring at the same time and place
4. landscapes and seascapes (collectively, these are ecoscapes), which are spatial integrations of
various communities over large areas
5. and the biosphere in its entirety, which is composed of all life and ecosystems on Earth

An important ecological principle is that all species are sustained by environmental resources:
the “goods and services” that are provided by their ecosystem. All organisms require specific
necessities of life, such as inorganic nutrients, food, and habitat with particular biological and
physical qualities. Green plants, for example, need access to an adequate supply of moisture,
inorganic nutrients (such as nitrate and phosphate), sunlight, and space. Animals require suitable
foods of plant or animal biomass (organic matter), along with habitat requirements that differ for each
species.

It is important to understand that humans are no different in this respect from other species.
Although this dependence may not always seem to be immediately apparent as we live our daily
lives, we nevertheless depend on environmental resources such as food, energy, shelter, and water to
sustain ourselves and our larger economies.

The human species is labelled by the scientific term Homo sapiens, a two-word name (or
binomial) that is Latin for “wise man.” Indeed, humans are the most intelligent of all the species, with
an enormous cognitive ability (that is, an aptitude for solving problems). When humans and their
societies perceive an environmental constraint, such as a scarcity of resources, they often have been
able to understand the limiting factors and to then use insight and tools to manipulate the
environment accordingly. The clever solutions have generally involved management of the
environment or other species to the benefit of humans, or the development of social systems and
technologies that allow a more efficient exploitation of natural resources.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 Environmental Science 4

Components of Environmental Science

1. Ecology - the study of organisms and the environment interacting with one another.
Ecologists, who make up a part of environmental scientists, try to find relations between the
status of the environment and the population of a particular species within that environment,
and if there are any correlations to be drawn between the two.
2. Geoscience- concerns the study of geology, soil science, volcanoes, and the Earth’s crust as
they relate to the environment. As an example, scientists may study the erosion of the Earth’s
surface in a particular area. Soil scientists, physicists, biologists, and geomorphologists would
all take part in the study.
3. Atmospheric Science - the study of the Earth’s atmosphere. It analyzes the relation of the
Earth’s atmosphere to the atmospheres of other systems. This encompasses a wide variety of
scientific studies relating to space, astrology, and the Earth’s atmosphere: meteorology,
pollution, gas emissions, and airborne contaminants.
4. Environmental Chemistry - the study of the changes chemicals makes in the environment,
such as contamination of the soil, pollution of the water, degradation of chemicals, and the
transport of chemicals upon the plants and animals of the immediate environment.

Environmental science is an active and growing part of the scientific world accelerated by the
need to address problems with the Earth’s environment. It encompasses multiple scientific fields and
sciences to see how all interchange and relate with one another in any of the above four components.

Importance of Environmental Science

1. To Realize That Environmental Problems are Global. Environmental science lets you
recognize that environmental problems such as climate change, global warming, ozone layer
depletion, acid rains, and impacts on biodiversity and marine life are not just national
problems, but global problems as well.
2. To Understand the Impacts of Development on the Environment. Environmental science seeks
to teach the general population about the need for decentralization of industries to reduce
congestion in urban areas. Decentralization means many people will move out of urban
centers to reduce pollution resulting from overpopulation.
3. To Discover Sustainable Ways of Living. Environmental science is more concerned with
discovering ways to live more sustainably. This means utilizing present resources in a manner
that conserves their supplies for the future. This includes minimizing household energy
consumption, using disposals to dispose of waste, eating locally, recycling more, growing
your own food, drinking from the tap, conserving household water, and driving your car less.
4. To Utilize Natural Resources Efficiently. Natural resources bring a whole lot of benefits to a
country. A country’s natural resources may not be utilized efficiently because of low-level
training and a lack of management skills. Environmental science teaches us to use natural
resources efficiently by:

Appropriately putting into practice environmental conservation methods

Using the right tools to explore resources
Adding value to our resources
Making sure machines are maintained appropriately
Thorough training of human resources
Provision of effective and efficient supervision
Using the right techniques to minimize exploitation

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 1 Environmental Science 5

To understand the behavior of organisms under natural conditions

5. To Shed Light on Contemporary Concepts Such as How to Conserve Biodiversity.

Biodiversity is the variety of life on earth. The present rate of biodiversity loss is at an all-time
high. Environmental science aims to teach people how to reverse this trend by:
Using sustainable wood products
Using organic foods
Embracing the 3R’s, reduce, reuse, and recycle
Purchasing sustainable seafood
Supporting conservation campaigns at local levels
Conserving power
Minimizing the consumption of meat
Utilizing eco-friendly cleaning products
To understand the interrelationship between organisms in population and
communities

6. Learn and Create Awareness About Environmental Problems at Local, National and
International Levels. Environmental problems at local, national, and international levels
mostly occur due to lack of awareness. Environmental science aims to educate and equip
learners with the necessary environmental skills to pass to the community in order to create
awareness.

For additional readings, please browse on the following:

https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-environmental-science-definition-and-scope-of-the-
field.html

1.2.2. Types of Ecosystems, Component and Function

The simplest definition of an ecosystem is that it is a community or group of living organisms

that live in and interact with each other in a specific environment. It is the structural and functional
unit of ecology which refers to a chain of interaction between organisms and their environment. The
term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.

Figure 2.2. Ecosystems (a) Aquatic (b) Terrestrial

https://wallpapersafari.com/w/vzau1r
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/topics/resource-library-terrestrial-ecosystem/?q=&page=1&per_page=25

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Classification of
Ecosystem

Natural Artificial

Terrestrial Cropland
Aquatic Ecosystem
Ecosystem Ecosystem

Forest Grassland Desert Tundra Pond Ocean Estuaries

Figure 2.3. Structure of Ecosystem

Classification of Ecosystem:

1. Natural ecosystems. Totally dependent on solar radiation- e.g. forests, grasslands, oceans, lakes,
rivers and deserts. They provide food, fuel, fodder and medicines.
➢ Ecosystems dependent on solar radiation and energy subsidies (alternative sources) such as
wind, rain and tides. e.g tropical rain forests, tidal estuaries and coral reefs.

2. Man- made ecosystems :

➢ Dependent on solar energy-e.g. Agricultural fields and aquaculture ponds.
➢ Dependent on fossil fuel e.g. urban and industrial ecosystems.
➢ An aquarium; a garden or a lawn etc. in your neighborhood are man-made ecosystem.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands
of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

1. Terrestrial Ecosystem - are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of
terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:

1.1. Forest Ecosystem. A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and
microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests
help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.

1.2. Grassland Ecosystems. In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses

and herbs. Temperate grasslands, savanna grasslands are some of the examples of grassland
ecosystems.

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 1 Environmental Science 7

1.3. Tundra Ecosystems. Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates
or where rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. The ecosystem
in the Arctic or mountain tops is tundra type.

1.4. Desert Ecosystem. Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with very
little rainfall. The days are hot and the nights are cold.

2. Aquatic Ecosystem. Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These
can be further divided into two types, namely:

2.1. Freshwater Ecosystem. The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes
lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the
marine ecosystem.

2.2. Marine Ecosystem. The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more
substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Components of Ecosystem
The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of certain processes that link the living,
or biotic, components to the non-living, or abiotic, components. The two main processes that
ecosystem scientists’ study are Energy transformations and biogeochemical cycling.
There are ecosystems in different sizes; some may be as large as a forest and others as small
as those formed under a rock. Besides the size, an ecosystem can be distinguished from another by
the weather and climate or the type of organisms that are living in its environment. However,
regardless of size, climate or type of organisms, ecosystems have a common factor: the exchange of
matter and energy.

Components of
Ecosystem

Abiotic Biotic
(Non-living) (Living)

Climatic Factors Edaphic Factors Producers Consumers

Decomposers
(Rain, Temperature, (Soils, pH, (green plants (Primary, secondary,
Minerals, tertiary , Quaternary (Bacteria & Fungi
Light, wind) autotrophs) Hertotrophs)
Topography) Hertotrophs

Figure 2.4 Components of an Ecosystem

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 1 Environmental Science 8

Abiotic components (Nonliving): The abiotic component can be grouped into following three
categories:
1. Physical factors: Sun light, temperature, rainfall, humidity and pressure. They sustain and limit
the growth of organisms in an ecosystem.
2. Inorganic substances: Carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, water, rock, soil and
other minerals.
3. Organic compounds: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and humic substances. They are the building
blocks of living systems and therefore, make a link between the biotic and abiotic components.

Biotic components (Living): The biotic component can be grouped into following three categories:

1. Producers. The green plants

manufacture food for the entire
ecosystem through the process of
photosynthesis.
Green plants are called autotrophs, as they
absorb water and nutrients from the soil,
carbon dioxide from the air, and
capture solar energy for this process.
2. Consumers. They are called
heterotrophs and they consume food
synthesized by the autotrophs.
Based on food preferences they can be grouped into three broad categories.
➢ Herbivores - (e.g. cow, deer and rabbit etc.) feed directly on plants,
➢ carnivores - are animals which eat other animals (eg. lion, cat, dog etc.) and
➢ omnivores - organisms feeding upon both plants and animals e.g. human, pigs and
sparrow.
3. Decomposers. Also called saprotrophs.
These are mostly bacteria and fungi that feed on dead decomposed and the dead organic
matter of plants and animals by secreting enzymes outside their body on the decaying matter.
They play a very important role in recycling of nutrients.
They are also called detrivores or detritus feeders.

According to the way in which all living creatures get energy,

it can be grouped into three categories:

1. Producers are those who can make their own food,

whether terrestrial or aquatic. Because of this feature,
producers are called autotrophs.
2. Consumers include all animals, that being unable to produce their own food. They have to get
into the environment to feed themselves. Depending on the type of food, consumers can be
categorized as:
2.1. Primary consumers: Includes herbivores, animals that eat plants.
2.2. Secondary consumers are carnivores, which are the animals that eat herbivores
2.3. Tertiary Consumers are animals that eat both herbivores and carnivores.

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 1 Environmental Science 9

The animal who seeks and attacks another to feed itself, called predator , and the animal
to be eaten called as prey .
3. Decomposers are the organisms those take advantage of dead and decaying organisms and
thus contributing to the recomposition process of the nature by returning the materials to the
environment, such as fungi and bacteria.

Note: Both consumers and decomposers are organisms heterotrophic.

The energy is transferred within the ecosystem constantly between living beings and the
environment:

From the Sun to the producers.

From producers to consumers.
From the producers or consumers to decomposers.
From decomposers to the environment.

For additional readings, please browse on the following:

https://byjus.com/biology/food-web/
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/ecology-ap/energy-flow-through-
ecosystems/a/food-chains-food-webs
BIOMES:
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1XqdDQFx3XPk52_1hruZL0GfqXqlJbrFX/edit?usp=sharin
g&ouid=101606377733883541737&rtpof=true&sd=true

Function of Ecosystem

The functional attributes of the ecosystem keep the components running together. Ecosystem
functions are natural processes or exchange of energy that take place in various plant and animal
communities of different biomes of the world. For instance, green leaves prepare food and roots
absorb nutrients from the soil, herbivores feed on the leaves and the roots and in turn serve as food
for the carnivores. Decomposers execute the functions of breaking down complex organic materials
into simple inorganic products, which are used by the producers.
Fundamentally, ecosystem functions are exchange of energy and nutrients in the food chain.
These exchanges sustain plant and animal life on the planet as well as the decomposition of organic
matter and the production of biomass.
All these functions of the ecosystem take place through delicately balanced and controlled processes.
Ecosystems are complex dynamic system. They perform certain functions. These are:
1. Energy flow through food chain
2. Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
3. Ecological succession or ecosystem development
4. Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback control mechanisms

Understanding the food chain helps us know the feeding

interrelationship and interaction between an organism and the
ecosystem. It also enables us to know the mechanism of energy flow in
an ecosystem.

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 1 Environmental Science 10

1.2.3. Environmental Stresses and Responses

Environmental stressors are factors whose influence is to constrain productivity, reproductive

success, and ecosystem development. To some degree, stressors affect all organisms as well as their
populations, communities, and ecoscapes (landscapes and seascapes).

Natural Stressor is being associated with such environmental influences as:

1. competition, predation, disease, and other interactions among organisms
2. constraints related to climate or to inadequate or excessive nutrients, moisture, or space
3. disturbances such as wildfire and windstorms

The effects of natural stressors are not always negative. Some individuals, populations, and
communities may benefit from the effects of natural stress, even while others suffer a degree of
damage. Increasingly, however, stressors associated with human activities are the most critical
influence on species and ecosystems. In too many cases, anthropogenic stressors are causing
important damage to resources that are needed to sustain people and their economy, and also to
natural biodiversity and ecosystems.

Kinds of Stressors

The diverse kinds of environmental stressors are grouped into classes, although they are not
entirely exclusive.
1. Physical stress is a disturbance in which there is an intense exposure to kinetic energy, which
causes damage to habitats and ecosystems. Examples include such disruptive events as a
hurricane or tornado, a seismic sea wave (tsunami), the blast of a volcanic eruption, an
explosion, or trampling by heavy machinery or hikers.
2. Wildfire is another disturbance, which involves the uncontrolled combustion of the biomass
of an ecosystem. A wildfire can be ignited by people, or naturally by lightning. A severe fire
consumes much of the biomass of an ecosystem, but even a less-severe wildfire may kill many
organisms by scorching and poisoning by toxic gases.
3. Chemical pollution occurs when one or more substances occur in a concentration high enough
to elicit physiological responses in organisms, potentially causing toxicity and ecological
change. Chemical stressors include pesticides, gases such as ozone and sulphur dioxide, and
toxic elements such as arsenic and mercury. Pollution may also be caused by excessive
nutrients, which can distort productivity and other ecological functions. Note that the mere
presence of a potentially toxic agent does not necessarily cause pollution. (The distinction
between contamination and pollution is examined later in this chapter.)
4. Thermal pollution is caused by the release of heat (thermal energy) into the environment,
which results in ecological stress because species vary in their tolerance of temperature
extremes. Thermal stress may occur at natural springs and submarine vents where
geologically heated water is emitted. It is also associated with discharges of hot water from
power plants.
5. Radiation stress is caused by excessive exposure to ionizing energy. The radiation may be
emitted by nuclear waste or explosions, or it can be diagnostic X-rays or solar ultraviolet
energy.
6. Climatic stress is associated with insufficient or excessive regimes of temperature, moisture,
solar radiation, wind, or combinations of these.
7. Biological stressors are associated with interactions occurring among organisms, such as
competition, herbivory, predation, parasitism, and disease. For example, individuals of the

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 1 Environmental Science 11

same or different species may compete for essential resources that are limited in supply.
Herbivory, predation, parasitism, and disease are trophic interactions, in which one species
exploits another. Exploitation can be anthropogenic, as when humans harvest wild animals
or trees, or it can be natural, perhaps associated with defoliating insects or disease-causing
pathogens.
8. Biological pollution occurs when people release organisms beyond their natural range. This
might involve the introduction of alien species that invade and alter natural habitats, or it may
be the release of pathogens into the environment through discharges of raw sewage.

Human activities are environmental Stressors. Anthropogenic influences have become the
most important constraining influence on the productivity of species and on ecosystems more
generally. These direct and indirect influences have intensified enormously in modern times.
Humans affect ecosystems and species in three direct ways: (a) by harvesting valuable biomass, such
as trees and hunted animals; (b) by causing damage through pollution; and (c) by converting natural
ecosystems to into land-uses for the purposes of agriculture, industry, or urbanization.

For additional readings, please browse on the following:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KVUA_7GF3RA

Ecological Responses

An ecosystem that has been affected by a disturbance typically suffers mortality among its
species, along with damage to its structural properties (such as species composition and biomass
distribution) and functional attributes (such as productivity and nutrient cycling). Once the
disturbance event is over, a process of recovery through succession begins. If the succession proceeds
for a long enough time, it will restore another mature ecosystem, perhaps one similar to that existing
before the disturbance.

Chronic stressors operate over longer periods of time (rather than as events), and they include
climatic factors and many kinds of chemical and thermal pollution. Depending on the intensity of
exposure, organisms may suffer acute toxicity resulting in tissue damage or even death, or a less-
obvious chronic damage that results in decreased productivity.

Exposure to a higher intensity of environmental stressors can result in evolutionary changes

if individual organisms vary in their tolerance and those differences are genetically based. Under
such conditions, natural selection in favor of tolerant individuals will eventually result in increased
tolerance at the population level. At the community level, relatively vulnerable species will be
reduced or eliminated from the habitat if the intensity of stress increases markedly. The niches of
those species may then be occupied by more tolerant members of the community, or by invading
species that are capable of exploiting a stressful but weakly competitive habitat.

A prolonged intensification of stress will cause longer-term ecological change to occur.

Consider, for example, a case in which a new metal smelter is constructed in a forested landscape. If

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 Environmental Science 12

the smelter emits toxic sulphur dioxide gas, the toxic stress will damage the tree-sized plants of the
forest and eventually cause them to give way to shrub-sized and herbaceous vegetation. If the long-
term stress is extremely severe, the landscape could entirely lose its vegetation.

This kind of ecological damage involve changes in the composition and dominance of species
in communities, in the spatial distribution of biomass, and in functions such as productivity, litter
decomposition, and nutrient cycling. Because a smelter is a discrete point source of environmental
stress, the ecological responses eventually stabilize as gradients of community change that radiate
outward, in a downwind or downstream direction from the source of pollution.

The intensity of a stressor may also decrease in time and space. When this happens, the
ecological responses are, in many respects, the reverse of the damage that occurs when the stress
intensifies. These changes represent a process of recovery through succession.

Shape Up Your Mind!

1. Identify the key environmental stressors that may be affecting an
ecosystem in your area (e.g., a local park). Make sure that you
consider both natural and anthropogenic stressors.
2. Describe how you are connected with ecosystems, both through the
resources that you consume (food, energy, and materials) and
through your recreational activities. Which of these connections could
you do without?

Post-Assessment Note: Please input your responses in our official google drive together with the
pre-assessment.

SUMMATIVE TEST: The summative test is in google form. The link will be provided during the
scheduled online class.

1.3 References
o Vigniere, S., Uppenbrink J.F. (2017). Ecosystem Earth. Science 21, Vol. 356, Issue 6335.
Retrieved from DOI: 10.1126/science.356.6335.258
o https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/what-is-environmental-science-and-its-
components.php
o https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/trentenvironmental/chapter/chapter-1-2/
o https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-environmental-science-definition-and-scope-
of-the-field.html
o https://wallpapersafari.com/w/vzau1r
o https://www.nationalgeographic.org/topics/resource-library-terrestrial-
ecosystem/?q=&page=1&per_page=25
o https://byjus.com/biology/ecosystem/
o https://byjus.com/biology/food-web/
o https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/ecology-ap/energy-flow-through-
ecosystems/a/food-chains-food-webs

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 Environmental Science 13

o BIOMES:
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1XqdDQFx3XPk52_1hruZL0GfqXqlJbrFX/edit?usp
=sharing&ouid=101606377733883541737&rtpof=true&sd=true
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KVUA_7GF3RA

1.4 Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay