Sinusoids and

Phasors
Electrical Circuits II

Prepared by Engr. Arlene C. Patricio, MST

Chapter Objectives:
▪ Understand the concepts of sinusoids and phasors.
▪ Apply phasors to circuit elements.
▪ Introduce the concepts of impedance and admittance.
▪ Learn about impedance combinations.
▪ Apply what is learnt to phase-shifters and AC bridges.
 Alternating (AC) Waveforms
▪ The term alternating indicates only that the waveform alternates between two prescribed levels in a set
time sequence.
▪ Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time; denoted by the
lowercase letters (v1, v2).
▪ Peak amplitude: The maximum value of the waveform as measured from its average (or mean) value,
▪ denoted by the uppercase letters Vm.
▪ Period (T): The time interval between successive repetitions of a periodic waveform.
▪ Cycle: The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time.
▪ Frequency: (Hertz) the number of cycles that occur in 1s,

▪ The sinusoidal waveform is the only alternating waveform whose shape

is unaffected by the response characteristics of R, L, and C elements.

T
 Sinusoids
▪ The sinusoidal wave form can be derived from the length of the vertical projection of a radius
vector rotating in a uniform circular motion about a fixed point.

▪ The velocity with which the radius vector rotates about the center, called the angular velocity, can
be determined from the following equation:

▪ The angular velocity ( ) is:

▪ Since ( ) is typically provided in radians per second, the angle α obtained using α = t is usually in
radians.
▪ The time required to complete one revolution is equal to the period (T) of the sinusoidal waveform.
The radians subtended in this time interval are 2π.
▪ The basic mathematical format for the sinusoidal waveform is:
▪ Vm is the peak value of the waveform and α is the unit of measure for the horizontal axis.

▪ The equation α = t states that the angle α through which the rotating vector will pass is determined by
▪ the angular velocity of the rotating vector and the length of time the vector rotates.
▪ For a particular angular velocity (fixed ), the longer the radius vector is permitted to rotate (that is, the
greater the value of t ), the greater will be the number of degrees or radians through which the vector will
pass. The general format of a sine wave can also be as:
➢ A SINUSOID is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.
➢ The sinusoidal current is referred to as AC. Circuits driven by AC sources are referred to as AC Circuits.

➢ Sketch of

(a) As a function of (b) As a function of t .

• Vm is the AMPLITUDE of the sinusoid.

• is the ANGULAR FREQUENCY in radians/s.
• f is the FREQUENCY in Hertz. 2 f and f 1
T
• T is the period in seconds.
 Phase of Sinusoids
A periodic function is one that satisfies v(t) = v(t + nT), for all t and for all integers n.

• Only two sinusoidal values with the same frequency can be compared by their
amplitude and phase difference.
• If phase difference is zero, they are in phase; if phase difference is not zero, they are out of
phase.
▪ The terms lead and lag are used to indicate the relationship between two
▪ sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency plotted on the same set of axes.
▪ The cosine curve is said to lead the sine curve by 90 .
▪ The sine curve is said to lag the cosine curve by 90 .
▪ 90 is referred to as the phase angle between the two waveforms.
▪ When determining the phase measurement we first note that each sinusoidal function
has the same frequency, permitting the use of either waveform to determine the period.
Consider the sinusoidal voltage having phase φ,

v2 LEADS v1 by phase φ.
v1 LAGS v2 by phase φ.
v1 and v2 are out of phase.
 (120 V at 60 Hz) vs (220 V at 50 Hz) AC
▪ In North and South America the most common available ac supply is 120 V at 60 Hz, while
▪ in Europe and the Eastern countries it is 220 V at 50 Hz.
▪ Technically there is no noticeable difference between 50 and 60 cycles per second (Hz).
▪ The effect of frequency on the size of transformers and the role it plays in the generation and distribution
of power was also a factor.
▪ The fundamental equation for transformer design is that the size of the transformer is inversely
proportional to frequency.
▪ A 50 HZ transformer must be larger than a 60 Hz (17% larger) sinusoidal voltage having phase φ.
▪ Higher frequencies result in concerns about arcing, increased losses in the transformer core due to eddy
current and hysteresis losses, and skin effect phenomena.
▪ Larger voltages (such as 220 V) raise safety issues beyond those of 120 V.
▪ Higher voltages result in lower current for the same demand, permitting the use of smaller conductors.
▪ Motors and power supplies, found in common home appliances and throughout the industrial
community, can be smaller in size if supplied with a higher voltage.
 Review: Trigonometric Identities
Sine and cosine form conversions:
EXERCISE:
1. Voltage and current are out of phase by 40°, and voltage lags. Using current
as the reference, sketch the phasor diagram and the corresponding
waveforms.
2. Sketch the phasor diagram of voltage and current wherein current leads by
60°. Use current as the reference.
 Complex Numbers
A complex number may be written in RECTANGULAR FORM as:
RECTANGULAR FORM
z = x+ jy j= -1, x=Re ( z ) , y=Im(z)
A second way of representing the complex number is by specifying the MAGNITUDE
and r and the ANGLE θ in POLAR form.
POLAR FORM
z = x+ jy= z  =r 
The third way of representing the complex number is the EXPONENTIAL form.
EXPONENTIAL FORM
z = x+ jy= z  =re j
where:
x is the REAL part.
y is the IMAGINARY part.
r is the MAGNITUDE.
φ is the ANGLE.
A complex number may be written in RECTANGULAR FORM as:

z = x+ jy j= -1 RECTANGULAR FORM
x = r cos  y = r sin 

z= r POLAR FORM

y
r = x2 + y 2  =tan -1
x

z= re j EXPONENTIAL FORM
y
r = x2 + y 2  =tan -1
x

z = x + jy= r  = re j

e j =cos +jsin Euler's Identity

cos = Re e j  Real part
sin = Im e j  Imaginary part
We need to convert COMPLEX numbers from one form to the other form.
z = x + jy = r = re− j =r (cos + j sin  )

z = x + jy = r = re− j =r (cos + j sin  )

y
r = x 2 + y 2 ,  = tan −1 Rectangular to Polar
x
x = rcos , y = r sin  Polar to Rectangular
 Mathematical Operations of Complex Numbers

*Mathematical operations ADDITION: z1 + z 2 =(x1 + x 2 )+j(y1 + y2 )

on complex numbers may
SUBTRACTION: z1 - z 2 =(x1 -x 2 )+j(y1 - y2 )
require conversions from
one form to other form.
MULTIPLICATION: z1z 2 = r1 r2 1 +2
z1 r1
DIVISION: = 1 -2
z 2 r2

1 1
RECIPROCAL: = -
z r
SQUARE ROOT: z = r  
2

COMPLEX CONJUGATE: z = x − jy = r  −  = re− j

Example:
 Phasors
A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
Phasor is the mathematical equivalent of a sinusoid with time variable dropped.
Phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity.
e j =cos  jsin Euler's Identity
cos = Re e j  Real part
sin = Im e j  Imaginary part
Given a sinusoid

v(t ) = Vm cos(t +  ) = Re(Vme j (t + ) ) = Re(Vme j e jt ) = Re(Ve jt )

V = Vm e j = Vm = PHASOR REP.
v(t ) = Vm cos(t +  )  V = Vm 
(Time Domain Re pr.) (Phasor Domain Re presentation)
v(t ) = Re{Ve jt } (Converting Phasor back to time)
Given the sinusoids i(t)=Imcos(ωt+φI) and v(t)=Vmcos(ωt+ φV),
we can obtain the phasor forms as:
Amplitude and phase difference are two principal concerns in the study of voltage and
current sinusoids.
Phasor will be defined from the cosine function in all our proceeding study. If a voltage or
current expression is in the form of a sine, it will be changed to a cosine by subtracting
from the phase.

Example
Transform the following sinusoids to phasors:
a. i = 6cos(50t – 40o) A
b. v = –4sin(30t + 50o) V

Solution:
a. I = 6 − 40 A
b. Since –sin(A) = cos(A+90o);
v(t) = 4cos (30t+50o+90o) = 4cos(30t+140o) V
Transform to phasor => V V = 4140 
Example

• Transform the sinusoids corresponding to

phasors:
a) V = − 10 30  V
b) I = j(5 − j12) A

Solution:
a) v(t) = 10cos(wt + 210o) V
5
b) Since I = 12 + j5 = 122 + 52  tan −1 ( ) = 13 22.62
12
i(t) = 13cos(wt + 22.62o) A
Phasor as Rotating Vectors

v(t ) = Vm cos(t +  )
v(t ) = Re Vm e( jt + ) 
v(t ) = Re Vm ( jt +  )
Rotating Phasor
Phasor Diagrams

Time Domain Re presentation Phasor Domain Re p.

Vm cos(t +  ) Vm 
Vm sin(t +  ) Vm  − 90
I m cos(t +  ) I m 
I m sin(t +  ) I m  − 90
Time Domain Versus Phasor Domain
 Differentiation and Integration in Phasor Domain
Differentiating a sinusoid is equivalent to multiplying its corresponding phasor by jω.
v(t ) = Vm cos(t +  ) = Re  Ve jt 
dv(t )
= −Vm sin(t +  ) = −Vm cos(t +  + 90)
dt
dv
= Re  j Ve jt   JV
dt
Integrating a sinusoid is equivalent to dividing its corresponding phasor by jω.
(Time Domain) (Phasor Domain)
v(t ) = Vm cos(t +  )  V = Vm 
v(t ) = Vm sin(t +  )  V = Vm  − 90
dv
 J V
dt
V
 vdt 
J
 Adding Phasors Graphically

Adding sinusoids of the same frequency is equivalent to adding

their corresponding phasors.
V=V1+V2
Example
Example
 Solving AC Circuits
We can derive the differential equations for the following circuit in order to
solve for vo(t) in phase domain Vo.

d 2vo 5 dv0 400

2
+ + 20v0 = − sin(4t − 15o
)
dt 3 dt 3

Is there any quicker and more systematic methods to do it?

Instead of first deriving the differential equation and then transforming it into phasor to solve
for Vo, we can transform all the RLC components into phasor first, then apply the KCL laws and
other theorems to set up a phasor equation involving Vo directly.