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UNIT-II
ENTITY RELATIONSHIP MODEL, RELATIONAL MODEL

Database Design and ER Diagrams:

 Database Design:
The database design process can be divided into six steps.
Requirements Analysis: The very first step in designing a database applications is to understand what data
is to be stored in the database, what applications must be built on the database and what operations must be
performed on the database.
Conceptual Database Design: The information which is gathered from requirement analysis step is used to
develop a high-level description of the data to be stored in the database along with the conditions. The goal
is to create a description of the data that matches to how both users and developers think of the data. This
facilitates all the people involved in the design process ie. Developers and as well as users who have no
technical background. Thus, the conceptual database design phase is used in drawing ER model.
Logical Database Design: This step converts the conceptual database design into a database schema in the
data model of the DBMS. It means, convert the ER model diagrams into a relational database schema.
Schema Refinement: This step is used to analyze the collection of relations (tables) in our relational
database schema to identify the future problems and to refine (clear) it.
Physical Database Design: This step involve for building indexes on some tables and clustering some
tables or it may involve redesign of parts of the database schema obtained from the earlier design steps.
Application and Security Design: Any software project that involves a DBMS must consider applications
that involve processes and identify the entities. Examples: users, user groups, departments etc.

E-R diagrams: The following diagrams are using to construct or build the ER models.

Strong entity Weak entity

Relationship Identifying relationship

Single Attribute Multivalve attributes

Derived attribute Associative entity

Key Attribute
aaaaaa
a_-----
aaa

C_Title
Date_of Course_id
Fee
Sno Sname Course_id

_birth
Course_id

Complete
STUDENT COURSE
s
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Beyond ER (Entity-Relationship) Design: The Entity-Relationship (ER) data model allows us to describe
the data involved in real-world enterprises in terms of objects (entities) and their relationships and is widely
used to develop an initial database design.
The important role of ER model in database design is to provide a useful concept that allows
changing the detailed and informal description of what users want to implement in DBMS. The E-R
diagram is built up from the following components,

1. Rectangles: Which represent entity sets.

2. Diamonds: Which represent relationship among entity sets that are connected to the rectangles by lines.
3. Ellipses : Which represent attributes and are connected to the entities or relationship by lines.
4. Lines : Which link attributes to entity sets and entity sets to relationships.

Dept_name
Date_of depart_id
Title budget
emp_id ename
_join Course_id
Course_id

Works_in
employee department

E-R MODEL[Entity Relationship Model]:

A logical representation of the data for an organization (or) for a business area is called E-R Model.

E-R MODEL CONSTRUCTS: The basic constructs of the entity-relationship model are entities,
relationships, and attributes.
Entities : An entity is a thing, person, place, object, event, or concept in the user environment about which
the organization wishes to maintain data.
Person : EMPLOYEE, STUDENT, PATIENT
Place : STORE, WAREHOUSE, STATE
Object : MACHINE, BUILDING, AUTOMOBILE
Event : SALE, REGISTRATION, RENEWAL
Concept: ACCOUNT, COURSE, WORK CENTER

Entity type: A collection of entities that share common properties or characteristics(attributes). Each entity
type in an E-R model is given a name. The name represents a collection of items and is always singular.

Entity Instance : A single occurrence of an entity type .

Relationship type: The Relationship type is a meaningful association between entity types. An association
between entity instances where each relationship instance includes exactly one entity from each participating
entity type is called relationship instance.
Attribute: An attribute is a property or characteristic of an entity type that is of interest to the organization.

ENTITIES, ATTRIBUTES AND ENTITY SETS:

Entity: An entity is an object in the real world that is distinguishable from other objects”. For examples
Building, room, chair, transaction, course, machine, department, employee etc.

Entities are the basic units used in modeling classes. Entities can have constitute ideas or concepts.

Entity Set: An entity set is a collection of similar entities or objects which maintains the data. Example, job
details, course details, staff details manager details, flight details etc.

Entity Types: Entities are two types. They are 1. Strong entity 2. Weak entity.

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Strong entity : An entity that exists independently of other entity types is called Strong entity. Eg:
STUDENT, EMPLOYEE, AUTOMOBILE, and COURSE.
Sname
Course
Sno Course

Fee
STUDENT
Weak entity : An entity type whose existence depends on some other entity type is called Weak entity and
which does not have a primary key. Middle
First Name
Name Last
Name
Dept_No
Dept_Nam Date_of_join

e
DEPARTMENT

Attribute: An entity is represented by an ellipse symbol. An attribute is a property or characteristic of an

“entity type” of an organization. For example, employee entity has its own attributes such emp_number,
ename, salary etc.
Types:

Single valued attribute: The attributes that have a single value for a particular entity is known as single
valued attribute. For example, emp_number can be only a single value for a particular employee.

Dept_No

Multivalued valued Attribute: An attribute that may take on more than one value for a given entity instance.
Eg:
Addres
s

Street Name
City District Pin Code

Derived attribute: An attribute whose values can be calculated from related attribute values.

Years_Employed
Dept
Ename
Emp_No

EMPLOYEE
In this, the attribute “year employed” calculated from join date and present date.

Composite attribute: An attribute that can be broken down into component parts.

Null Attributes: A null attribute is an attribute that uses a null value when a entity does not have a value for
an attribute.

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Relationship and Relationship Sets: The Relationship is an association between two or more entities.
This relation is denoted by a diamond symbol that containing the name of the relationship.

C_Title
Date_of Course_id
Fee
Sno Sname Course_id

_birth
Course_id

Completes
STUDENT COURSE

Relationship instances: It is an association between among entity instances which establish the relationship
with more than one instance. For example, A student may taken more than one course at the same time. I.e.

Student course
PRADEEP C
SEENU C++
RAJA JAVA
YUGANDAR ORACLE

Identifying Relationship : The relationship between strong entity type and weak entity type is called
“Identifying Relationship”
C_Title
Date_of Course_id
Fee
Sno Sname Course_id

_birth
Course_id

Completes
STUDENT COURSE
course

In the above example in student entity property „sno‟ is primary key and course entity property „course_id‟
is discriminator key

Associative entity: An entity type that associates the instances of one or more entity types and contains
attributes that are peculiar to the relationship between those entity instances.

Certificat_no C_Title

Sname Course_id Course_id

Sno Fee

Course_id

Certifica
STUDENT te COURSE

TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS
Unary relationship: A unary relationship exists when an association is maintained within a single entity.
For example boss and worker distinguish the two employees participating in the manage association

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Binary relationship: A binary relationship exists when two entities are associated. For example the book,
publisher relationship shown below.

Ternary Relationship: A ternary relationship exists when there are three entities associated for example,
the entities teacher, subject and student are related using ternary relationship called „teaches‟.

Quaternary relationship: A quaternary relationship exists when there are four entities associated. An
example of quaternary relationship is „studies‟ where four entities are involved student, teacher, subject and
course-material.

Mappin Cardinalities: mapping cardinalities the number of entities to which another entity can be
associated via a relationship set.
For a binary relationship set R between entity sets A and B, the mapping cardinalites must be one of the
falowing:
One to one: An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in B, and an entity in B is associated with
at most one entity in A.

A1 B1

A2 B2

A3 B3

A4 B4

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Example: A customer with single account at given branch.

Depositor
Customer Account

One-to-many: An entity in A is associated with any number in B. An entity in B is associated with at most
one entity in A

B1

A1 B2

A2 B3

A3 B4

A4 B5

B6

Example: A customer having two account at given branch.

Depositor
Customer Account

Many-to-one: An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in B. An entity in B is associated with any
number of entities in A.

A1

A2 B1

A3 B2

A4 B3

A5

Example: Many employees works for a company. This relationship is shown by mant-to-one

Works for
Employee Company

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Many-to-Many: An entity in A is associated with any number of entities in B. An entity in B is associated

with any number entities in A.

A1 B1

A2 B2

A3 B3

A4 B4

A5
Example: Employee works on number of projects and project is handled by number of employees.
Therefore the relationship between employee and project is manu-to-many

Works in
Employee Company

Cardinality constraints: It specifies the number of instances of one entity that can be associated with each
instance of another entity.
Mandatory one: It means an instance of entity must be associated with another instances of entity. For
example, examine the following relationship “PROFESSOR GUIDE THE STUDENTS” . In this,
professor must guide the students.
One one
PROFESSOR GUIDE STUDENT

A professor guide only one student

Optional one : It means an instance of entity optionally associated with another instance of entity. For
example, examine the following relationship “PROFESSOR GUIDE THE STUDENTS” . In this, professor
may or may not guide the students.
One one
PROFESSOR GUIDE STUDENT

A professor may guide only one student

Mandatory many: It means the number of instances of an entity must be associated with another instance of
entity.
student take course
Many students take many courses

Optional many : It means, the number of instances of an entity optionally associated with another instance of
entity.
student take course

Many students optianally take many courses

Minimum cardinality: A cardinality constraint specifies the minimum number of instances of one entity that
can be associated with each instance of another entity.
Maximum cardinality : A cardinality constraint that specifies the maximum number of instances one entity
that can be associated with each instance of another entity.

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Rules for naming relationships:

1) A relationship name is verb phrase.
2) A relationship name is in lower case letter.
3) Relationship names represents action being taken , i.e., usually in present tense.
Rules for defining relationships:
A relationship definition explains what relationship is and what is important.
1) It may be important to state that who does the action.
2) It may be important to give examples to clarify the action.
3) The definition should explain any optional participation.
4) A relationship definition should explain any restrictions on participating in relationship.

Additional Features of ER model:

The additional features of ER model allow us to describe some common properties (attributes) of the data.
Key constraints: The Key constraints are used to provide the restrictions to an entity. So that allows unique
instance. Consider the “Works_In relationship” example shown in fig that an employee can work in several
departments and a department can have several employees.

Emp_no-1
5
Emp_no-2
8
Emp_no-3
9
Emp_no-4 7

Employee Works_in (date) Department

In the above fig. each employee is denoted by its “emp_no” and each department is denoted by number such
as 5,8,9,7. Here “works_in” is a relationship that establish the relationship b/w employee and department.
Here the emp_no 2 works in 5 & 8 departments and emp_no4 works in 9 & 7 departments.

Now consider another relationship set called “manages” b/w employee and department entities. This is
shown in following fig. Dept_Title
Date_of Dept_id
Emp_no ename budget
Course_id

_birth Course_id

manages department
employee

In this example, we applied “key constraint” by indicating the arrow mark from “department” entity to
“manages” relationship. So that each department entity appears in at most one manages relationship. Thus,
the arrow mark said that given a department entity is uniquely determine the “manages” relationship in
which it appears.

Participation Constraints: The participation of entity set E in a relationship set R is said to be total if
every entity in E participates in at least one relationship in R.
If only some entities in E participate in relationships in R, the participation of entity set E in relationship
R is said to be partial.
For example, we expect every loan entity to be related to at least one customer through the borrower
relationship. Therefore, the participation of loan in the relationship set borrower is total. While, a bank

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customer may or may not have a loan. Therefore, the participation of customer in the borrower relationship
is partial.

Class Hierarchies: To classify the entities in an entity set into subclass entity is known as class hierarchy.
This hierarchy contains the model that has resulted from extending the original E-R model with new
modeling constructs. Such type of new modeling constructs are Sub type/Super type relationship. This
facility allows us to model a general entity type, called super type and then subdivide it into several
specialized entity types, called subtype.

For example, the entity type EMPLOYEE can be modeled as a super type with subtypes such as “hourly
employees”, “salaried employees”, and “contract consultants”.
super type entity and sub type entity.

Sub type: A sub grouping of entities in an entity type that is meaningful to organization and that share the
common attributes that are distinct from other attribute of other type.

Super type : It is a generic entity type that has a relationship with one or more subtypes. The relationship of
Super type and sub type is shown in simple example. Suppose that an organization has three basic types of
employee: i.e. hourly employees, salaried employees, and contract consultants.

Ex: Hourly employees contain Employee no, emp name ,address, date hired, hourly rate.

Salaried employees contain emp no,emp name ,address, date hired, annual salary, stock option.

Contract consultants contain emp no ,emp name, address, date hired, contract no, billing rate .

Emp name Super type address

Emp no EMPLOYEE Date hired

subtype
SALARIED EMP
HOURLY CONSULTANT

Stock
Annual
EMPLOYE option
salary
Contact no
Billing rate
Hourly rate

In the above example, the subtype entities inherit the values of all attributes of the super
type. This type of process is called Attribute inheritance. i.e. emp no, empname, address etc are also
assigned to subtypes.

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Extended E-R model:

The E-R model that is supported with the additional semantic concepts is called the extended entity
relationship model or EER model. The EER model includes all the concepts of the original E-R together
with the following additional concepts:
 Specialization
 Generalization
 Aggregation
Specialization:
“Specialization is the process of designating sub grouping within an entity set.”
Specialization is a top-down process. Consider an entity set person, with attributes name, street, and city. A
person may be further classified as one of the following
 Customer
 Employee
Each of these person types is described by a set of attributes that includes all the attributes of entity set
person plus additional attributes. For example, customer entities may be further described by customer_id
and employee entities by employee_code and salary.
Specialization which is represented by triangle. The lable ISA stands for “is a” and represents for example
that customer “is a” person. The ISA relationship may also be referred to as a super class-subclass
relationship.

Generalization:
“Generalization is the process of defining a more general entity type from a set of more specialized entity
types”
Generalization is a bottom-up approach. This approach results in the identification of a generalized super
class from the original subclasses.
Consider that the attributes of „customer‟ entity are customer_id, name, street, city and an „employeee‟
entity attributes are employee_code, street, city and salary. Thus, the entity sets employee and customer
have several attributes in common. This commonality can be expressed by generalization which is a
containment relationship that exists between a higher-level entity set and one or more lower-level entity sets.
Person is higher-level entity set and customer and employee can lower-level entity sets. In other words,
person is a super class if customer and employee are subclasses.

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Aggregation
One limitation on E-R model is that cannot express relationships among relationships.
Consider a quaternary relationship manages between employee, branch, job and manager, Using the
basic E-R modeling constructs, we obtain the E-R diagrams as shown below,

There is redundant information in the resultant figure, since every employee, branch, job combination in
manages is also in Works_on.
The best way to model above situation is to use aggregation. Aggregation is an abstraction through hich
relationships are treated as higher-level entities. Thus, the relationship set Works_on relating the entity sets
employee, branch and job is considered as a higher_level entity set called Works_on. We can then create a
binary relationship manages between Works_on and manager to represent who manages what tasks.

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN WITH THE ER MODEL:

Developing an ER diagram presents several design issues including the following:
1. Entity versus Attribute.
2. Entity versus Relationship
3. Binary versus Ternary Relationships
4. Aggregation versus Ternary Relationships.

Entity Versus Attribute: While identifying the attributes of an entity set, it is sometimes not clear whether
a property should be modeled as an attribute or as an entity set.
For example Should address be an attribute of Employees or an entity (connected to Employees by a
relationship)?
Depends upon the use we want to make of address information, and the semantics of the data:
If we have several addresses per employee, address must be an entity (since attributes cannot be set-valued).
If the structure (city, street, etc.) is important, e.g., we want to retrieve employees in a given city, address
must be modeled as an entity (since attribute values are atomic).
Entity Vs Relationship: It is not always clear whether an object is best expressed by an entity set or a
relationship set.
For example, A bank loan is modeled as an entity. An alternative is to model a loan not as an entity, but
rather as a relationship b/w customers and branches, with loan number and amount as descriptive attributes.
Each loan is represented by a relationship b/w a customer and a branch.
If every loan is held by exactly one customer and customer is associated with exactly one branch,
we may find satisfactory the design, where a loan is represented as a relationship.

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But, with this design, we cannot represent conveniently a situation in which several customers hold a
loan jointly. We must define a separate relationship for each holder of the joint loan. Then we must
replicate the values for the descriptive attribute loan_number and amount in each such relationship. Each
such relationship must of course, have the same value for the descriptive attributes loan_number and
amount.
Two problems arise as a result of the replication.
1. The data is stored multiple times, wasting storage space.
2. Updates, leave the data in an inconsistent state.
One possible guideline is determining whether to use an entity set or a relationship set to designate a
relationship set, an action that occurs b/w entities. This approach can also be useful in deciding whether
certain attributes may be more appropriately expressed as relationships.

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Binary Vs Ternary Relationships: It is always possible to replace a non-binary relationship set by a

number of distinct binary relationship sets.
This example an employee can own several policies each policy can be owned by several employees and
each dependent can be covered by several policies.
suppose that we have the following additional requirements.
A policy cannot be owned jointly by two or more employees.
Every policy must be owned by some employee.

Aggregation Vs Ternary Relationship: The choice b/w using aggregation or a ternary relationship is
mainly determined by the existence of a relationship that relates a relationship set to an entity set. The
choice may also be guided by certain integrity constraints that we want to express.
Example, Consider the constraint that each sponsorship be monitored by at most one employee. We can
express this constraint in terms of the sponsors relationship set. On the other hand, we can relationship
sponsors to the relationship monitors. Thus, the presence of such a constraint serves a another reason for
using aggregation rather than a ternary relationship set.

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RELATIONAL MODEL
INTRODUCTION TO THE RELATIONAL MODEL: The relational data model was first introduced in
1970 by E.F.Codd at IBM research laboratory. The second at the university of California in 1980 and
named as RDBMS.
Definitions: The relational data model represents data in the form of tables. This model consists of three
components.
1) Data structure : In RDBMS data are organized in the form of tables with rows and columns.
2) Data manipulation : In data manipulation the powerful operations are used to manipulate data stored in
the relations.
3) Data integrity: In RDBMS, facilities are included to specify business rules, that maintain the integrity
of data when they are manipulated.
The E.F. Codd proposed the relational data model in 1970. At that time, the hierarchical and network
models were using for database. To reduce the draw backs of hierarchical and network models, introduced
relational database system. The relational database model is the product of DBMS. The relational model
were introduced by IBM‟s DB2 family (Oracle, Sybase) and other are Microsoft‟s Access, SQL server,
Foxbase, Foxpro etc.

What is relational model? How to create a relational table? Explain with suitable example.
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The E.F. Codd proposed the relational data model in 1970 To reduce the draw backs of hierarchical
and network models.
The relational model is very simple and elegant. A database is a collection of one or more relations.
This relation is table with rows and columns. In this, the users can easy to understand and easy to permit the
high level languages to query the data.
The relational model uses Data Definition Language (DDL) and Data Manipulation Language
(Query language) for creating, accessing, manipulating, and querying data in a relational DBMS
The relational model represents both data and relationship among data in the form of tables. Each
table has multiple columns and each column has a unique name. This is created by create command.
Consider the following relational model.
SQL> Create table customer(cid number(6), customer_city varchar(20), customer_street varchar(10),
customer_city varchar(10));
Customer Relation
cid customer_name Customer_street customer_city

5555 Chaitanya Gandhi nagar Ongole

6666 Bhagya sujatha nagar Ongole

7777 Sumathi jyothi bazzar Ongole

An important of a relational model is that it specifies some conditions that must satisfied while accepting the
values from the user which prevents the entry of incorrect information. Such conditions are called Integrity
constraints.

What is Relation? Define the terms relation schema, relation instance, unary, degree of relation and
domain constraints and its types.
Representing the data in the relational model is called relation. A relation contains set of records in
the form of two-dimension table which contain rows and columns of data. A relation consists of two things,
such as a relation schema and a relation instance.
Relation schema: A relation schema contains the basic information of a table or relation. This information
includes the name of the entire table, the names of the column and the data types associated with each
column.
For example: A relation schema for the relation called students could be expressed using the following
representation,
Students (sid : string, name :string, course: string, age: integer, fees : real);
In this table, contain five column attributes with respective data types such as string, integers, real are
associated with it.
Relation instance: A relation instance is a set of rows (also known as records) that when combined together
forms the schema of the relation. A relation instance can be a table which each tuple (record) is a row and
all rows has same number of fields (columns).
For example,
cid customer_name Customer_street customer_city

5555 Chaitanya Sri nagar Ongole

6666 Anusha Madhuri nagar Ongole

7777 Nithisha Swathi bazzar Ongole

Relational Database Schema: A relational database schema is a collection of relation schemas, describing
one or more relations.
Domain: Domain is synonymous with data type. Attributes is a column in a table. Therefore an attribute
domain refers to the database associated with a column.
Relational Cardinality: The relation cardinality is the number of tuples (rows or records) in the relation.
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Relation Degree: The relation degree is the number of fields (column or attribute) in the relation.
Tuples/Records: The rows of the table are also known as fields or attributes.
Unary: A relation with only one attribute and have only one degree is called a unary relation.

How to create the relation and modify the relation using SQL:
1) Creating relation in SQL (Structured Query Language) : Relations are created in SQL using create
command.
SQL> Create table customer(cid number(6), cname varchar(20), accno number(6), amount number(8,2));

2)Inserting records in a table : Records are inserted in a table using an integer command as,
SQL> insert into customer(cid, cname, accno, amount) values (5, „badri‟, 5555,15000.00);
or
SQL> insert into customer values (5, „badri‟, 5555,15000.00);
or
SQL> insert into customer values(&cid, „&cname‟, &accno, &amount);

3) Deleting tuples from a table : Tuples in the table can be deleted using delete command in SQL as,
SQL> delete from customers where accno = 5555;

4) Modifying the column values: Values in a particular row can be changed using an update command as,
SQL> update customer set cname = „Chaithanya‟ amount = 15000.00;
SQL> update customer set amount = amount + 1000 where accno <= 5555;

Importance of NULL values: The SQL NULL is the term used to represent a missing value. A NULL
value in a table is a value in a field that appears to be blank.
A field with a NULL value is a field with no value. It is very important to understand that a NULL value is
different than a zero value or a field that contains spaces.
Principles of NULL values:
 Setting a null value is appropriate when the actual value is unknown or when a value would not be
meaningful.
 A null value is not equivalent to a value of zero.
 A null value will evaluate to null in any expression: null multiplied by 10 is null.
 When a column name is defined as not null, then that column becomes a mandatory column. It implies that
the user is forced to enter data into that column.

INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS OVER RELATION:

What is an integrity constrain? Explain “Integrity constraints over relations”.
Integrity constraint is a condition (rule) that ensures the correct insertion of the data and prevents
unauthorized data access thereby preserving the consistency of the data.

For example, the roll number of a student cannot be a decimal value. The database enforces the constraint
that the instance of roll number can have only integer values.

The Integrity constraints can be applied in the following cases.

1. At the time of defining the database, the constraints are must be specified.
2. Validity of the data must be checked while executing the application.

The major integrity constraints are 1) Domain Constraints. 2) Key constraints

3) Referential integrity constraints 4) General Constraints.

1) DOMAIN CONSTRAINTS : The domain constraints are used to prevent from null values and allows
specified range of values. A domain definition consists domain name, meaning, data type and size (or)
length. The domain integrity constraints are classified into two types.

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NULL/NOT NULL: The word „NULL‟ means zero and it is a default value in a column_name. The word
„NOT NULL‟ means not zero, it is used with one or more column_names that do not accept zero‟s.
Note: 1)zero and null are not equivalent. 2)One null is not equivalent to another null
Eg: Create table bvsr_table(stu_id number(6) not null);

CHECK constraint : The CHECK constraint can be specified to column_name to allow only a particular
range of values. The CHECK constraint contain a condition that must satisfy in each row. These conditions
governed by logical expressions (or) Boolean expression. Note: Check constraint cannot be allowed in sub-
queries.
Eg: 1)CREATE TABLE student(sno number(6) CHECK (sno <=100), sname varchar2(20)
NOT NULL, course varchar2(10) CHECK(course IN(„btech‟,‟mtech‟,‟degree‟)));

2) KEY CONSTRAINTS : Key constraints are used in relations to uniquely identify the records of the
relation. A Key constraint can be defined as a statement that consists of minimal subset of attribute that
uniquely determine a record in a table. The different types of key constraints are,

i)Entity Integrity Constraint : An entity represents a table and each row of table represents an instance of
the entity. Each row in a table can be uniquely identified by using the entity constraint. This constraint can
be classified into two types. They are a) Unique constraint b) Primary key constraint.
a) UNIQUE constraint: It is defined with column to handle unique values. This can be used to prevent from
duplication values within the rows of specified column (or) set of columns. It means, it cannot allow
duplicate values in the table. But it allows NULL values. It can be defined in more than one column. (i.e
up to 16 columns).

Eg: 1) CREATE TABLE emp_table(emp_id number(6) unique, emp_name char(20));

b) Primary Key : A PRIMARY KEY is a constraint that uniquely identify each row in a table. The
primary key cannot accept NULL value and same value (i.e duplicates). A table can allow only one primary
key. For example, the primary key for the student is defined to stu_id (or) Employee is emp_id.
Eg: CREATE TABLE student(sno number(6) PRIMARY KEY, sname char(20), fname
char(20), fee number(7,2), date_of_join date);
OR
Eg: CREATE TABLE student(sno number(6), sname char(20), fname char(20),
fee number(7,2), date_of_join date, PRIMARY KEY(sno));

ii)Candidate Key: A candidate key is a collection of fields / columns / attributes that uniquely identifies a
tuple (record). For example, in customer relation (table) the attribute “cid” is a key that uniquely defines a
tuple in a relation. No two rows in a “customer” relation of “cid” can have same value.
For example, customer (cid, cname) in this, either cid or cname can be taken as key but not both. Each of
them uniquely identifies a particular row. The alternate keys are the candidate keys that are not taken as
keys.
iii)Composite Key: Composite key consist of more than one
attribute that uniquely identifies a tuple in a relation. All the Super key
attributes that form a set of keys and all of them taken together
determines a unique row in a table. For example, the set (cid,
accno) is a composite key which maintains the uniqueness of each Candidate Composite
row. Both cid, accno are taken as keys. key key

iv) Super Key: A super key is a combination of both candidate key Primary
and composite key. That is a super key is a set of attributes or a key
single attribute that uniquely identifies a tuple in a relation. For
example, consider the super key, {cid, accno, cname}

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Here all the three attributes taken together can identify a particular record or a combination of any two
attributes can identify a particular record or any one of the attribute can identify a particular record.

3) Referential Integrity Constraint : It establish the relation between two tables when having a common
column in both tables. A referential Integrity constrain is a rule that states the relation between primary key
value and foreign key value. It means, it establishes the relation between two tables. In this case, the
primary key value will be referenced in another table by a foreign key and that cannot be deleted. The
referential integrity constraints are a) Referenced key b)Foreign key

a) Referenced key: It is a unique (or) primary key which is defined on a column belongs to the parent
table. The referential integrity constraint does not use foreign key to identify the column that make up the
foreign key . The foreign key is automatically enforced on the columns.

Eg: 1. CREATE TABLE student(sno number(5) PRIMARY KEY, sname char(20) NOT NULL, fname
char(20) NOT NULL, fee number(7,2) NOT NULL, course char2(10));

Eg: 2. CREATE TABLE library (sno number(5) NOT NULL, sname char(20) NOT NULL,
issued_book_name char(20) NOT NULL, issued_book_id number(7,2) NOT NULL, course varchar2(10),
CONSTRAINT sno REFERENCES student(sno));
 In the library table, the value of sno is referenced in the student table (sno).

b) Foreign Key : Foreign key provides links between two tables. Foreign keys are used to maintain data
consistency. A foreign key is a set of attributes or a single attribute in one relation that forms a point of
candidate key in other relation. A column (or) combination of columns included in the definition of
referential integrity which would refer to a referenced key. The foreign key operation is only in one table.
For example,
Eg: 1 CREATE TABLE dept(deptno number(4) primary key,dname varchar2(20), loc varchar2(20);
CREATE TABLE emp(emp_id number(5) primary key, ename char(20), sal number(7,2), hiredate date,
deptno number(4) constraint FK FOREIGN KEY(deptno) references dept(deptno));

4) General Constraints: Domain, primary key, foreign key constraints are considered to be a fundamental
part of the relational data model and are given special attention in most systems. Sometimes, it is necessary
to specify more general constraints.

Default constraint: The DEFAULT constraint is used to provide a default value for a column. The default
value will be added to all new records IF no other value is specified.

Ex: create table sailors(sid number(4),sname varchar2(10),addtress varcahr2(15) default 'ONG');

In general constraints, the domain, primary key and foreign key can also specify the maximum limit.
For example, we require a student whose age is greater than 16 must have a gpa less than 3.5.
There are two types of general constraints. They are,
1) Table constraints: These are applied on a particular table and are checked every time whenever that
specific table is updated.
2)Assertions: These assertions are applied on collection of tables and are checked every time whenever
these tables are updated.

DATA TYPES IN SQL : The data types are used to define the letters or words as a variable name. The
variable name is in a group, is called field name or column name. The first letter in a column name must be
an alphabet and next letters may be an alphabet or numbers. No special character is allowed except
underscore.
The column name can hold the data, carry the data and can change the data. The data types are
Number data type : This data type is used to define a field as a numeric variable to hold the numeric data.
The numeric data may be fixed (whole) or floating point values.

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Syntax : column name number(size);

 The column name is name of field in a table to store the data.
 The word „number‟ is reserved word, used to define the column name as numeric type to store
numeric values.
 The word „size‟ specifies „p‟ and „s‟ . The „p‟ means precision that determine maximum length and
„s‟ means scale that determine number of decimal places in the maximum length.

Eg: 1) sno number(5); This defines the word „sno‟ as integer variable with size 5 to store 5 digit integer
data.
2) rate number(7,2); This defines the word „rate‟ as floating point variable with size 7,2 to store
floating point data. [5 integer places and two decimal places. Eg: 00045.75

Character data types : These data types are used to define the field names as character variable to store
alphanumeric data. The character data types are
Char data type: This data type is used to define a field name as character variable to store alphanumeric
data. (Maximum size of data 27 bits=255). CHAR on the other hand is store fixed length character data.
Syntax : column name char(size);
 The column name is name of field in a table to store the data.
 Fixed-length character data of length size bytes.
 The word „char‟ is reserved word that define a column name as alphanumeric variable to store
alphanumeric data.
 The word „size‟ specifies maximum number of characters can stored in column name.
Eg: sname char(20); It defines the word „sname‟ as character variable to store alphanumeric data.

Nchar data type: Fixed for every row in the table (with trailing blanks). Column size is the number of
characters for a fixed-width national character set or the number of bytes for a varying-width national
character set. Maximum size is determined by the number of bytes required to store one character, with an
upper limit of 2000 bytes per row. Default is 1 character or 1 byte, depending on the character set. Nchar is
used to store fixed length Unicode data. It is often used to store data in different languages
 Fixed-length character data of length sizecharacters or bytes, depending on the national character
set.

Varchar data type: This data type is used to define a field name as character variable to store alphanumeric
data up to maximum 2000. VARCHAR is reserved by Oracle to support distinction between NULL and
empty string in future, as ANSI standard prescribes
Syntax : column name varchar(size);
 The column name is name of field in a table to store the data.
 The word „varchar‟ is reserved word that define a column name as alphanumeric variable to store
alphanumeric data.
 The word „size‟ specifies maximum number of characters can stored in column name.
Eg: sname varchar(20); It defines the word „sname‟ as character variable to store alphanumeric data.
Varchar2 data type: This data type is used to define a field name as character variable to store
alphanumeric data up to maximum 2000. VARCHAR2 does not distinguish between a NULL and empty
string, and never will.
Syntax : column name varchar2(size);
 The column name is name of field in a table to store the data.
 The word „varchar2‟ is reserved word that define a column name as alphanumeric variable to store
alphanumeric data.
 The word „size‟ specifies maximum number of characters can stored in column name.
Eg: sname varchar2(20); It defines the word „sname‟ as character variable to store alphanumeric data.

Date data type : This data type used to define the column name as date type to date in the format DD-MM-
YY.

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Syntax : column name date;

 The column name is name of field in a table to store the date.
 The word „date‟ is reserved word that define a column name as date variable to store date.
Eg: dob date; It defines the word date of birth as date variable to the date in the format.
For example : 05-aug-2005.
Note: Month must be 3 character data.

LONG data type : This data type is used to define a column name as character type variable to store
alphanumeric data up 2GB.
RAW data type : This data type is used to define a column name as binary variable to store binary data upto
255 bytes. The binary data may be digitized picture or image.
LONG RAW data type : This data type is used to define a column name as binary variable to store binary
data upto 2GB. The binary data may be digitized picture or image.

RELATIONAL ALGEBRA:
The relational is a procedural query language. It consists of a set of operations that take one or two relations
(tables) as input and produce a new relation, on the request of the user to retrieve the specific information, as
the output (result).
The relational algebra contains the following operations:

1) Selection 2) projection 3) union 4) Rename 5) Difference 6) Cartesian product

7) Intersection 8) join 9)division .

The selection, projection and rename operations are called unary operations because they operate
only on one relation.

The other operations operate on pairs of relations and are therefore called binary operations.

The Selection ( σ ) Operation: The selection is a relational algebra operation that uses a condition to select
rows from a relation. A new relation (as a result) is created from another existing relation by selecting only
rows requested by the user that satisfy a specified condition. This is denoted by greek letter sigma ( σ ) to
denote selection.
Syntax: selection condition (relation_name)
 condition allows relational and logical operators.
Eg: Find the customer details who are living in Hyderabad city from customer relation.
σcity = „Hyderabad‟ (customer) it is equal to
select * from customer where city = „Hyderabad‟;
Eg: Find the customer details who are living in Hyderabad city and whose customer_id is greater than 1000
in customer relation.
σcity = „Hyderabad‟ ^ customer_id>1000(customer) it is equal to
select * from customer where city=‟Hyderabad‟ and customer_id > 1000;

The Projection ( π ) Operation : The projection is a relational algebra operation that creates a new relation
by deleting columns from an existing relation i.e., a new relation ( as a result) is created from another
existing relation by selecting only those columns requested by the user from projection and is denoted by
letter pi (π) .
The selection operation eliminates unwanted rows whereas the projection operation eliminates
unwanted columns. In simple words, the projection operation extracts specified columns from a table.
Example : Find the customer names (not all customer details) who are living in Hyderabad city from
customer relation.
πcustomer_name ( σcity = „Hyderabad‟(customer)

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In the above example, the selection operation is performed first. Next, the projection of the
resulting relation on the customer_name column is carried out. It means, it will display only customer
names who is living in Hyderabad city. So, it is equal to

Select customer_name from customer where city = „Hyderabad‟;

Example: Find all customer names of the customer relation.
πcustomer_name (customer) This is equal to “Select customer_name from customer”

SET OPERATIONS:
The Union ( U ) Operation: The union denoted by U. It is a relational algebra operation that creates a
union or combination of two relations. The result of this operation is denoted by “table1 U table2”. It
means, all tuples (records) that are either in table1 or in table2 or in both table1 and table2 will be displayed.
But duplicate tuples are eliminated.
Example: Find the customer_id of all customers in the bank who have either an account (depositor table) or
a loan (borrower) or both.

πcustomer_id (depositor) U πcustomer_id (borrower) This is equal to

(select customer_id from depositor) union (select customer_id from borrower);

The Intersection ( ∩ ) Operation : The intersection operation is denoted by ∩. This is relational algebra
operation that finds tupes that are in both relations. The result of this operation is denoted by table1 ∩
table2. In this all tuples, (records) which are common in both depositor relation (table) and borrower
relation (table).
Example: Find the customer_id of all customers in the bank table and who have an account in borrower table
and a loan.

πcustomer_id (depositor) ∩ πcustomer_id (borrower)

(select customer_id from depositor) intersect (select customer_id from borrower);

The Difference ( - ) Operation : The set difference operation is denoted by symbol - . This is a relational
algebra operation that finds tuples that are in one relation but not in another. The result of this relation is
denoted by table1 – table2. It means, it will display all tuples of depositor relation but not in borrower
relation.

Example: πcustomer_id (depositor) - πcustomer_id (borrower)

(select customer_id from depositor) minus(select customer_id from borrower);

The result of this query is to display the customer ids of all customers who have an account but not a loan. It
means, it display the customer ids of all customers of depositor table but not having an account in borrower
table.

The Cross-Product (or) Cartesian Product ( x ) Operation: The Cartesian-product operation is denoted
by a cross symbol ( X ). This is a relation algebra operation which allows us to combine information from
two relations into one relation. For example, table1 x table2 is considered as to display all records of both
table i.e., table1 * table2. Suppose if a table1 contain 10 records and table2 contain 5 records then outputted
records are 10 * 5 = 50 records. But draw back is same records and same attributes are repeated.
Example: Find customer ids of all customers and borrower.
πcustomer_id (customer x borrower)
It is equal to select customer_id from customer, borrower;
Find customer ids of all customers who have loan > 10000.

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πcustomer_id ( σcustomer.loan_no = borrower.loan_no ( σamount > 10000(customer x borrower))) This

is equal to
select customer_id from cusotmer, borrower where customer.loan_no = borrower.loan_no and
customer.amount > 10000;

Renaming (ρ): The rename operation is denoted by rho ( ρ ) , is a relational algebra operation. This is used
to give the new names to the relation algebra expressions. For example, the relation “customer” can be
changed as new name as x.
ρ x (customer)  It means, customer name is renamed as x.
Ex: select ename,job*12 as "annualsal" from emp;

SQL JOINS:
Join is a query in which data is retrieved from two or more tables. A join matches from two or more tables,
based on the value of one or more columns in each table.

The join is denoted by join symbol It is a relational algebra operation which is used to combine
(join) two relations like Cartesian-product but finally removes duplicate attributes and makes the selection,
projection operation. The join operations are 3 types.
1) Inner join
1) Natural join
2) Outer join
Inner join: inner join returns the matching rows from the table that are being joined

Syntax: select * from table1 inner join table2 on table1.column=table2.column;

Ex: select * from emp e inner join dept d on e.deptno=d.deptno;

Natural join or Equi-join: Natural Join is a type of Inner join which is based on column having same name
and same datatype present in both the tables to be joined. The Natural join is a binary operation that allows
us to combine two different relations into one relation and makes the same column in two different relations
into only one-column in the resulting relation. Suppose we have relations with following schemas that
explained for natural join and for equi-join.

Customer table
Cust_id Cust_name Address City state postal_code
101 Ramesh Market center Ongole A.P 523001
102 Avinash Ram nagar Ongole A.P 523002
103 Sunil Gandh nagar Ongole A.P 523003
104 Vasanthi Anjaiah road Ongole A.P 523003
105 Krishna Mm road Ongole A.P 523003

Order table
Order_id Order_date Product_name Qty Cust_id
1001 ‟21-Apr-08‟ Xxx 5 101
1002 ‟22-Apr-08‟ Yyy 2 103
1003 „25-May-08‟ Zzz 8 101
1004 „27-May-08‟ Aaa 7 106
1005 „27-May-08‟ Bbb 3 104

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A join in which the joining the condition is based on equality between values in common columns.
Common columns appear in the result table. For example, „Customer‟ and „Order‟ tables are using to apply
equi-join operation for retrieving the related rows.
SQL> SELECT CUST_ID, CUST_NAME, ADDRESS, ORDER_ID, ORDER_NAME, ORDER_DATE,
Product_NAME, qty FROM CUSTOMER, ORDER WHERE CUSTOMER.CUST_ID =
ORDER.CUST_ID;
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP NATURAL JOIN DEPT ;
OUTER-JOIN: When tables are joined using inner join, rows which contains matching values in the join
predicate are returned. Sometimes you may want both matching and non matching rows returned for the
table are being joined. This kind of operation is known as an outer join.
An outer join is an extended from of the inner join. In this the rows in onw table having no matching rows in
the other table will also appear in the result table with nulls.
Types of outer join: 1) Left Outer-join. 2) Right Outer-join 3) Full Outer-join

LEFT OUTER JOIN : It displays all rows from left side table (i.e CUSTOMER table) and
non-matching values of right side table are not added but displays with null values. (i.e ORDER table).

Query : SELECT * FROM EMP E,DEPT D WHERE E.DEPTNO=D.DEPTNO(+);

OR
SELECT * FROM EMP E LEFT OUTER JOIN DEPT D ON E.DEPTNO=D.DEPTNO;

RIGHT OUTER JOIN : It displays all rows from right side table (i.e ORDER table) and
matching values from left side table (i.e CUSTOMER table) and non-matching values of left side table are
not added but displays with null values.

SELECT * FROM EMP E,DEPT D WHERE E.DEPTNO(+)=D.DEPTNO;

OR
SELECT * FROM EMP E RIGHT OUTER JOIN DEPT D ON E.DEPTNO=D.DEPTNO;

FULL OUTER JOIN : It displays all rows when there is a match in either left or right table.

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Query: SELECT C.CUST_ID, C.CUST_NAME, C.ADDRESS, O.ORDER_ID, O.ORDER_NAME,

O.ORDER_DATE, O.P_NAME, O.QTY FROM CUSTOMER C FULL OUTR JOIN ORDER O
WHERE C.CUST_ID = O.CUST_ID;

The Division ( ÷ ) Operation: The division operation is denoted by ÷, is a relational algebra operation that
creates a new relation by selecting the rows in one relation that does not match rows in another relation.
Let relation A is ( x1 , x2, x3, . . . . xm, y1, y2, . . . , ym ) and relation B is (y1, y2, . . . , ym)
Where y1, y2, . . . , ym tuples are common to the both relation A and B with same domain compulsory. Then
A ÷ B = new relation with (x1 , x2, x3, . . . . xm) tuples.
Relation A and B represent the dividend and divisor respectively.
A tuple „t‟ is in a † b if and only if two conditions are satisfied,
1.t is in π(A - B) (r) .
2.For every tuple tb in B, there is a tuple ta in A satisfying the following two things.
i) ta [B] = tb [B] ii) ta [A – B] = t

Ex:A B1 A/B1

B2 A/B2

RELATIONAL CALCULUS : Relational calculus is an alternative to relational algebra. In contrast to the

algebra, which is procedural, the relational calculus is non-procedural or declarative because in that it
allows us to describe the set of answers without showing procedure about how they should be computed.
Relational calculus has a big influence on the design of commercial query languages such SQL and
especially, Query-by Example(QBE).
Relational calculus is of two types,
1. Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC).
2. Domain Relational Calculus (DRC).

Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC): The tuple relational calculus is a non-procedural qery language because
it vies the desired information without showing procedure about how they should be computed.
A query in tuple relational calculus is expressed as {T|p(T)}
where, T  tuple variable, p(T)  „p‟ is a condition or formula that is true for „t‟
In addition to that we use,
T[A]  to denote the value of tuple t on attribute A and
t є r  to denote that tuple t is in relation r.
Syntax of TRC Queries:
Let „rel‟ be a relation name, „R‟ and „S‟ be tuple variables, „a‟ is an attribute of R. „b‟ is an attribute of S.
Let „op‟ denote an operator in the set. { < , > , = , >= , <= , ≠ }
Then, an atomic formula is one of the following.

1) R є Rel. 2) R.a op S.b.

R.a op constant, or constant op R.a.
A formula is recursively defined to be one of the following, where „p‟ and „q‟ are themselves
formulas and „p(R)‟ denotes a formula in which the variable R appears,
1) any atomic formula,
2) ¬p, p ^ q, p v q or p ==> q
3) Э R (p(R)), where R is a tuple variable,
4) V R(p(R)), where R is a tuple variable.
In the last two clauses above, the quantifiers Э and V are said to be the variable R.

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Semantics of TRC Queries : The TRC query { T|p(T) } is the set of all tuples „t‟ for which the formula
p(T) evaluates to true with variable T assigned the tuple value t. To complete this definition, we must state
which assignments of tuple values to the free variables in a formula make the formula evaluates to true.
A query is evaluated on a given instance of the database. Let each free variable in a formula F be
bound to a tuple value. For the given assignment of tuples to variables, with respect to the given database
instance, F evaluates to true if one of the following condition is true.
1) F is an atomic formula R є Rel and R is assigned a tuple in the instance of relation Rel.
2) F is a comparision R.a op S.b, R.a op constant, or constant op R.a and the tuples assigned to R and S
have filed values R.a and S.b that make the comparison true.
3) F is of the form ¬p and p is not true, or of the form p ^ q and both p and q are true, or of the form p v q
and one of them is true, or of the form p ==> q and q is true whenever p is true.
4) F is of the form ЭR (p(R ) and there is some assignment of tuples to the free variables in p(R ), including
the variable R, that makes the formula p(R ) true.
5) F is of the form ) V R(p(R)) and there is some assignment of tupes to the free variables in p(R ) that
makes the formula p(R ) true no matter what tuple is assigned R.

Domain Relational Calculus (DRC): A domain variable that comes in the range of the values of domain
(data types) of some columns (attributes).
Syntax of DRC Queries: Let „op‟ denote an operator in the set { < , > , = , >= , <= , ≠ } and let x and y be
domain variables.
An atomic formula in DRC is one of the following,
1) < x1 , x2, x3, . . . . xn > є Rel, where Rel is a relation with n attributes, each xi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n is either a variable
or a constant.
2) x op y
3) x op constant, or constant op x:
A formula is recursively defined to be one of the following, where p and q are themselves formulas
and each p(x) denotes a formula in which the variable x appears.

1) any atomic formula,

2)
2) ¬p, p ^ q, p v q or p ==> q
3) Э R (p(x)), where x is domain variable,
4) V R(p(x)), where x is a domain variable.
The reader can remember these formulas very easily by comparing them with TRC formulas and see
how closely these two formulas correspond.
SCHEMA DEFINITIONS IN SQL:
The schema is collection of related objects which are created by user with create command such as
tables, views, domains, constraints, character sets, triggers, roles etc., In simple way, schema is nothing but
plan how to store the data on secondary storage device and how to extract the from secondary storage
device.

SQL Commands are used to define the definition to Schema by using DDL commands,
Data Definition Language Commands (DDL) : The DDL Commands are used to define database table in
schema. It includes create, alter, drop the tables and establishing constraints. These commands are restricted
to production version database.

CREATING THE TABLES: The tables are created in SQL by CREATE command. The CREATE
command is used to create a table with column_names. The column_name are called variables or field
names. To create a table, must follow the below steps.
1. Identify the appropriate data type, including length, precision, and scale for each attribute if required.
2. Identify the columns that should accept null values.
3. Identify the columns that need to be unique.
4. Identify the primary key and foreign key for attributes.
5. Determine the values to be inserted in any column for which a default value is specified.
6. Identify any column for which domain specifications may be stated. Eg: CHECK
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7. Create index using existed table.

Syntax: CREATE TABLE table_name(column_name1 data type1 [<constraint_type
attribute_ name>], column_name2 data type2 [<constraint_type attribute_ name>]
----- ------
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] );
 The table_name is name of table to store the data in secondary memory.
 The column_name is name of filed name, used to store the data.
 The data type is used to define column_name to store related data. The data types are number(), char(),
varchar2() and date.
 The constraint_types are used with column_name to specify the constraint type. They are i) PRIMARY
KEY, ii)FOREIN KEY, iii) UNIQUE KEY iv) REFERENCE v)NOT NULL vi) CHECK.

Eg: CREATE TABLE student(sno number(5),sname char(20), fname char(20),fee

number(7,2),date_of_join date);

Performing the operations on table definitions: Once the table is created, the user can perform operations
on table. They are adding the coulmn_names, change the size of column_name, and can remove the
column_name and table. These operations are done by using ALTER command, DESC command, DROP
command etc.

ALTER command: The ALTER command is used to change the definition of a table.
ADD
Syntax: ALTER TABLE table name MODIFY (column_name data type(size));
DROP
RENAME
ADD clause : The ADD is a keyword, used to add a column_name and/or constraints to an existing table.
Syntax : ALTER TABLE table_name ADD(new column_name data type);
Eg: ALTER TABLE student ADD(date_of_join date);

MODIFY clause : The MODIFY is a keyword, used to modify the definition of an existing column_name.
The MODIFY keyword in the ALTER command cannot make following three changes. They are
i) can not change the specification of column_name from NULL to NOT NULL when column_name
containing nulls.
ii)can not decrease the size of a column_name (or) data type when column_name contain a data.
iii)can not define constraints on a column_name except NULL/NOT NULL.

Ex: alter table student modify sno number(4);

DROP clause : It is used with ALTER command to remove a constrained from a table.
Syntax : ALTER TABLE table_name DROP constraint constraint_name;
Eg: ALTER TABLE emp DROP constraint PK;

RENAME clause: it is used to rename the column name

Syntax: alter table table_name rename column old column name to new column name;
Ex: alter table student rename column date_of_join to doj;

DESC command : This command is used to display the definition of an existed table. I.e., it will display
the structure of specified table.
Syntax : DESC table_name; Eg: DESC student;

DROP command: This command is used to delete the table name from the secondary memory.
Syntax : DROP TABLE table_name; Eg: DROP TABLE student;

RENAME command: This command is used to change the name of the table definition.
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Syntax : RENAME old name TO new name;

Eg : RENAME student TO student_table;

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