University of Nevada, Reno
University of Nevada, Reno
University of Nevada, Reno
by
December, 2018
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
JASON W. CRAIG
Entitled
MASTER OF SCIENCE
December, 2018
i
ABSTRACT
This study assessed the potential for high-temperature (≥130C) blind geothermal
Valley is a complex, tectonically active basin within the Great Basin on the boundary between
the transtensional central Walker Lane domain and extensional Basin and Range province. The
termination of the Petrified Springs fault, a major dextral fault of the central Walker Lane, in an
array of normal faults indicates that southeastern Gabbs Valley occupies a displacement transfer
zone, which is a favorable structural setting for geothermal activity. The displacement transfer
zone is a structurally complicated area with many faults of varying geometries, kinematics, and
ages. A substantial northwest-trending gravity high within the south-central part of southeastern
Gabbs Valley is produced from offsets along concealed northwest-striking dextral-normal faults
tightly spaced faults and fault intersections is a particularly favorable structural setting within the
broader-scale displacement transfer zone. Multiple lines of direct and indirect evidence suggest
the presence of a relatively high-temperature (130C) blind geothermal system in this area,
temperature anomaly. Potentially related, water samples from agricultural wells ~7 km northwest
of the 2-m anomaly yield geothermometers indicating subsurface fluid temperatures of 130-
140°C.
Six temperature-gradient holes were drilled to target the extent of the shallow-
temperature and geophysical anomalies to define the geothermal system in southeastern Gabbs
Valley. Two wells contained high temperatures exceeding boiling with bottom-hole temperatures
ii
of 114.5°C and 124.9°C, respectively, and the remaining wells displayed elevated to background
temperatures ranging from 79.2°C to 28.7°C. The observed temperature gradients for the two
hottest drill holes necessitate drill-hole intercepts of convecting hydrothermal fluids. The 2-m
survey is spatially and thermally consistent with the temperature-gradient holes and constrains
the core of upflow at a shallow depth interval (<250m) to an area <0.5-1 km west-southwest of
the hottest drill hole. The zone of inferred upwelling occupies the area corresponding to the
This project has several significant implications. The newly discovered blind geothermal
power plant. This detailed study provides an initial validation of the play fairway approach to
geothermal exploration. It also demonstrates both the broad applicability of the play fairway
exploration strategy and the large untapped potential for commercial-grade blind geothermal
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am extremely grateful to my advisor Dr. James Faulds for giving me the opportunity to
work on this project, guiding me along the process, providing valuable criticism, and shaping me
into a better scientist and geologist. It has been an honor to learn from you. I am grateful to Dr.
Mark Coolbaugh for his experience and foresight on this project. Thanks to Nicholas Hinz for his
help and insight into all matters from geothermal to ArcGIS. I am indebted to Andrew Sadowski
for his teaching and wisdom in the early stages of this project. Thank you to Lisa Shevenell for
all the help troubleshooting numerous problems along the way. Thanks to Chris Sladek for his
patience and support with the 2-m survey. Thanks to Steve DeOreo for managing the drilling
program. Thank you to the crew at Zonge International, Inc. for completing the initial gravity
survey. I am grateful to the USGS Geophysics Unit of Menlo Park including Dr. Johnathan Glen,
Dr. Jared Peacock, Tait Earney, and William Schermerhorn for their help and collaboration.
Thank you to Dr. Drew Siler for the help conducting slip and dilatational tendency analysis. I
gratefully acknowledge Irene Seelye for all her cartographic help and endless ArcGIS
knowledge. Thank you to Emma McConville for the support and inspiration. Thank you to my
committee members Dr. John N. Louie and Dr. Scott A. Mensing. This work was funded by a
scholarships from the Nevada Petroleum and Geothermal society and the American Association
of Petroleum Geologists also contributed to this work. Lastly, I want to thank my friends and
family for all their support over the past few years- it’s been a wild ride and I wouldn’t have
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ i
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iii
Plate 1...........................................................................................................................................110
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Simplified unit descriptions of southeastern Gabbs Valley .............................................22
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1. Map of high-temperature geothermal systems of the Great Basin region in the Basin
Figure 1.3. Geothermal play fairway map of west-central to eastern Nevada .................................9
Figure 2.2. Historic earthquakes of central Nevada seismic belt in western Nevada ....................15
Figure 3.1.1. Simplified stratigraphic column of southeastern Gabbs Valley study area ..............20
Figure 4.1.1. Simplified geologic map of the southeastern Gabbs Valley study area ...................30
Figure 4.1.2. Extent of LiDAR coverage in the southeastern Gabbs Valley study area ................32
Figure 4.1.3. Quaternary geologic map of the Petrified Springs fault, southeastern Gabbs Valley
........................................................................................................................................................34
viii
Figure 4.1.4. Normal fault splays of the southern Gabbs Valley fault zone ..................................36
Figure 4.1.5. Quaternary faults in southeastern Gabbs Valley with attributed rupture recency and
rocks ...............................................................................................................................................41
Figure 4.2.2. Reduced to pole (RTP) magnetic map of the study area ..........................................48
Figure 4.4.1. Slip and dilatation tendency analyses for the southeastern Gabbs Valley fault
system ............................................................................................................................................53
Figure 4.5.1 Piper diagram of water samples from southeastern Gabbs Valley ............................55
Figure 4.6.1. Shallow 2-m temperature survey in southeastern Gabbs Valley. ............................58
Figure 5.1.2. Geologic map and cross section of Gabbs Mountain with highlighted fault
intersections ...................................................................................................................................63
Figure 5.2.2. Collocated intersecting gravity gradients, magnetic low, low resistivity, 2-m
temperature anomaly, and favorable oriented faults for slip and dilation .....................................68
Figure 5.2.3. Geothermometor sample locations in relation to favorable structural settings and 2-
m temperature anomaly..................................................................................................................70
Figure 5.4.1. Temperature gradient data and drill hole locations for the southeastern Gabbs
1. Introduction
occurring heat stored in the Earth to produce constant energy with minimal carbon
multiple geologic settings (e.g., volcanic, extensional, amagmatic) across the globe.
social issues associated with increased energy needs for the growing population.
properties must spatially coalesce to manifest geothermal activity: 1) a heat source (e.g.
the fluids, and 3) fluids to transport heat stored at depth to the surface. Most of the
geothermal resources that have been developed into power plants were first identified
fumaroles, mud pots, etc.) and are known as conventional geothermal systems. Recently,
exploration focus has shifted to discovering geothermal systems that are concealed in the
subsurface and lack obvious surface manifestations. These buried geothermal systems are
siliceous sinter, travertine, and tufa), rock alteration, and vegetation anomalies produced
from outflow of fluids and gasses. Paleo-hydrothermal deposits may have developed in
2
different hydrologic conditions and in some cases have been shown to overlie an active
geothermal system hidden in the subsurface (Coolbaugh et al., 2009). Blind geothermal
systems are contained entirely in the subsurface and lack any surface expression or paleo-
Great Basin region, which could account for more than 3.2 times the number of currently
developed geothermal systems in the region (Coolbaugh and Shevenell, 2004; Coolbaugh
et al., 2006). Discovery and development of blind resources could exceed production of
previously known systems. This study is primarily motivated by the substantial potential
of undiscovered geothermal resources in the Great Basin region and the scientific
The primary purpose of this study was to define the structural setting of a
potential blind geothermal system in southeastern Gabbs Valley, Nevada, and to use
overarching goal of this work is to use play fairway methodology, outlined in the Nevada
play fairway project (Faulds et al., 2015a, 2016a, 2016b, 2017b) and discussed in detail in
The study area is in southeastern Gabbs Valley, Nevada, in the west-central part
of the Basin and Range physiographic province (Figure 1.1). The study area spans the
boundary of two tectonic regimes; the transtensional Walker Lane domain and the
extensional Basin and Range province. The interaction between two different structural
domains within the study area enhances the structural complexity and thus increases the
3
potential of geothermal activity. Notably, this area had no previously known geothermal
the area, 2) delineating the geometry and kinematics of fault systems, 3) identifying
favorable structural settings for geothermal activity, 4) discovering and defining the
selecting and surveying the most favorable exploration target(s) for drilling, and 6)
Geothermal activity in the Great Basin region of the western United States is
prolific (Figure 1.1, Coolbaugh et al., 2002), and the abundance of geothermal systems is
2010, 2011) produced from regional extension and resultant thinning of the crust (Faulds
et al., 2004). The Great Basin region is currently the most actively extending part of the
Basin and Range province and includes nearly all of Nevada, western Utah, southern
(Figure 1.1). Globally, most geothermal systems are associated with magmatism and
located in subduction, rift, or hotspot settings (Moeck et al., 2015; Curewitz and Karson,
1997). Volcanism within the Great Basin largely ceased between 10 and 3 Ma
(Christiansen and McKee, 1978), thus excluding magmatism as a source of heat for most
4
of the geothermal systems in the region. With the exception of a few magmatic-
influenced systems (e.g., Steamboat, Coso, and Roosevelt), most geothermal systems in
the Great Basin are amagmatic. Amagmatic geothermal systems typically derive heat
from high mantle heat flow to shallow levels of the crust (McKenzie, 1978; Henley and
Figure 1.1. Map of high-temperature geothermal systems of the Great Basin region in the Basin and Range
province. The Great Basin region is outlined in red with major geothermal systems displayed as circles
(yellow <150˚C, red >150˚C, from Faulds et al., 2004). Magmatic systems are large pink circles.
Quaternary faults are black lines. The boundary of the Walker Lane-eastern California shear zone is gray
polygon with cross-hatch pattern. Study area is shown in the blue outline.
5
necessary to allow for the transmission and convection of fluids (Curewitz and Karson,
propagation and dilation of interconnected fracture networks in the core and damage zone
of a fault (Caine et al., 1996). Specific fault geometries have been shown to increase
dilatation along fault systems, resulting in a conduit for fluid transport ( Curewitz and
Karson, 1997; Ferrill and Morris, 2003; Micklethwaite and Cox, 2004; Faulds et al.,
2006, 2010, 2011, 2013). Favorable structural settings in the Great Basin region include
accommodation zones (cf., Faulds and Varga, 1998), and transtensional displacement
transfer zones (Faulds et al., 2006, 2010, 2011, 2013). Because geothermal systems
within the Great Basin are primarily controlled by faults, the identification of favorable
structural settings provides a method for guiding geothermal exploration (Figure 1.2).
The combination of multiple structural settings at a single locality has been shown to
further increase the probability and extent of geothermal activity (Faulds et al., 2013;
Figure 1.2: Schematic diagrams of favorable structural settings (modified from Faulds and Hinz, 2015).
Faults are shown in black. Normal faults are indicated by fault balls on the hanging walls, and motion along
strike-slip faults is shown by arrows. Red circles and ellipsoids indicate potential geothermal upwelling
zones. Structural settings in the Great Basin region associated with geothermal activity include: (A) major
normal fault, (B), fault bends in a range-front normal fault, (C) major normal fault terminating in horsetails
or fault splays, (D) hard or soft-linked major fault step-overs (relay ramps), (E) fault intersection between
two or more major faults, (F) accommodation zones between two sets of oppositely dipping normal faults,
(G) displacement transfer zones where a strike-slip fault terminates by transferring displacement to several
normal faults, and (H) transtensional pull-aparts formed by releasing steps in strike-slip faults. Favorable
structural settings for geothermal systems include C through E. Favorable structural settings observed in
southeastern Gabbs Valley are indicated with yellow stars.
Great Basin region are associated with Quaternary faults (Bell and Ramelli, 2007; 2009).
Therefore, it is essential to understand fault rupture history and attribute fault strands with
age of rupture. Faults with the most recent rupture event younger than ~750 ka are more
likely to host a geothermal system (Faulds et al., 2015a, 2017b). Over the lifespan of a
geothermal system, dissolved solutes in hydrothermal fluids precipitate along the flow
pathway and reduce flow rates within structural conduits. This is especially true for
7
geothermal systems with a boiling horizon exolving volatiles (Drummond and Ohmoto,
1985). Active fault systems with minimum mineral precipitation and open fractures in the
reservoir are ideal for producing the high flow rates needed for economic geothermal
operations.
cost. Much of the initial investment involves the drilling program, which is inherently
risky with no guarantee of returns if the wells are unproductive. If a drill program is
successful, the project will typically pay off the initial investment in 4-8 years (Salmon et
al., 2011).
The play fairway methodology was first developed by the oil and gas industry
integrating multiple datasets to narrow and rank drill targets to mitigate risk in
(Faulds et al., 2015a, 2015b, 2016a, 2016b), Utah (Wannamaker et al., 2015, 2017a,
2017b), Hawaii (Lautze et al., 2017), Idaho (Shervais et al., 2016), Washington (Forson
et al., 2016), and New Mexico (Nash and Bennett, 2015). The play fairway analysis is a
The Nevada play fairway project is a three-phase study aimed at conducting one
the project generated a regional geothermal potential map (Figure 1.3) covering 96,000
2
km of the Great Basin. The map spans west-central to eastern Nevada across a regional
structural domains (Faulds et al., 2015a, 2015b). Nine geologic and geophysical
parameters were synthesized into the map (Figure 1.4) to show areas of high potential to
guide geothermal exploration. The nine parameters integrated into the geothermal
potential map include: 1) structural settings, 2) age of Quaternary faulting, 3) slip rates on
depth, and 9) geochemistry from springs and wells. The first seven of these nine
combined permeability model (Figure 1.4, Faulds et al., 2015a, 2015b). The combined
permeability model was merged with temperatures at 3 km depth to produce the fairway
or geothermal potential map (Figure 1.3). The geothermal potential map was then
iteratively combined with lines of direct evidence (e.g. well temperatures and
favorability maps (Faulds et al., 2015a, 2015b). The “fairway” identified areas with high
After evaluation of the twenty-four sites, five of the most favorable areas were down-
9
selected for detailed studies (Faulds et al., 2017a, 2017b). Among the down-selected sites
was southeastern Gabbs Valley. This study includes detail studies conducted in Phase II
and III of the Nevada play fairway project in southeastern Gabbs Valley.
Figure 1.3. Geothermal play fairway map of west-central to eastern Nevada. Warmer colors indicate areas
of higher potential; cool colors show areas of relatively low potential overlain on a DEM (digital elevation
model) hillshade (Faulds et al., 2017b). Fairway values are not normalized and are based on parameters and
relative weighting shown in Figure 1.4. Areas down selected for detailed studies are indicated by polygons
with black hachures. Black arrow points to the southeastern Gabbs Valley area. Cities are labeled on map
and major highways shown as black lines. Boundary of play fairway map is shown as red rectangle over the
state of Nevada for spatial reference in lower right corner of figure. Abbreviations for known geothermal
systems in the region: Br, Bradys; Bw, Beowawe; DP, Desert Peak; LA, Lee-Allen; MH, McGinness Hills;
SE, San Emidio; SL, Soda Lake; St, Stillwater; SW, Salt Wells; TM, Tungsten Mountain; WR, Wild Rose
or Don Campbell.
10
Figure 1.4. Nevada play fairway modeling workflow (Faulds et al., 2017b). Red numbers indicate relative
weights determined from weights of evidence. Black numbers indicate expert driven weights used in the
analysis. In all cases, the expert driven weights took into account the statistical analyses.
11
The Great Basin region is part of the Basin and Range province, which is a vast
Cenozoic extensional tectonic regime (Stewart, 1998a; Wernicke, 1992) across the
western United States and Mexico. In the strict sense, the Great Basin is a region of
western North America that has no hydrographic connection to the ocean. All
precipitation distributed into this watershed evaporates, infiltrates into the subsurface, or
is captured by topographic lows (e.g. lakes and basins). In this study, we define the
“Great Basin region” as a broad area (Figure 2.1) of active extensional to transtensional
tectonism that encompasses the Great Basin hydrographic area as well as neighboring
areas similar in tectonic setting. Although multiple tectonic events have affected this
region since the Paleozoic, Cenozoic episodes of extension are most relevant to this study
The western Great Basin has experienced multiple extensional events since the
late Oligocene, including several pulses predating late Cenozoic Basin and Range
faulting and extension. For example, the Stillwater Range experienced two earlier
extensional events: 1) late Oligocene to early Miocene (initiation ca. 24-23 Ma) east-west
oriented extension, and 2) subsequent early to middle Miocene (initiated ca. 19-18 Ma)
(John, 1992, 1995; Hudson et al., 2000). Northwest-striking normal oblique-slip faults are
observed in the northern Wassuk Range, and the age of these faults is bracketed between
ca. 26 and 14 Ma (Dilles and Gans, 1995). In addition, Hardyman and Oldow (1991)
suggested a northeast-southwest oriented extension direction for the central Walker Lane
from late Oligocene to early Miocene (28 to 17 Ma). Initiation of northwest directed
12
Basin and Range extension is constrained to <15 Ma in the Yerington district (Dilles and
Gans, 1995, Surpless et al., 2002) and to 15-13.3 Ma in the southern Stillwater Range
(John, 1992). This extensional event has continued to present-day (Wesnousky et al.,
2005; Wesnousky et al., 2012) and has generated the characteristic north to northeast-
Initiation of dextral shear along the Walker Lane in the western Great Basin
approximately coincided with the northward migration of the Mendocino triple junction
that marked the termination of subduction on the plate margin and retreat of arc
volcanism to the northwest ( Faulds et al., 2005; Faulds and Henry, 2008). Geodetic
measurements show that ~20% percent of the dextral motion between the Pacific and
North American plates is currently accommodated by the eastern California shear zone
and Walker Lane (Figure 2.1, Hammond and Thatcher, 2005, 2007; Faulds and Henry,
The eastern California shear zone and Walker Lane contain complex structural
fault blocks (Stewart, 1988; Cashman and Fontaine, 2000; Faulds and Henry, 2008).
Estimates for total right-lateral offsets decrease northwestward from 40-110 km in the
eastern California shear zone and southern Walker Lane ( Beanland and Clark, 1982;
Dokka and Travis, 1983), to 40-78 km in the central Walker Lane (Ekren and Byers,
1984; Faulds and Henry, 2008), and 20-30 km in the northern Walker Lane (Faulds et al.,
2005; Faulds and Henry, 2008). In northeastern California, at the northernmost extent of
the Walker Lane, cumulative dextral offset is negligible (Faulds and Henry, 2008). As the
13
extension (Figure 2.1) across the northwestern Great Basin (Faulds et al., 2004, 2005),
with significant diffusion of dextral shear into extension within the central Nevada
seismic belt (Wesnousky et al., 2005; Wesnousky, 2005a; Faulds et al., 2005).
Figure 2.1. Tectonic map of western North America. Map shows boundaries of the Great Basin region in
red, structural domains of the Walker Lane-eastern California shear zone in blue (modified from Faulds and
Henry, 2008), and Quaternary faults as black lines (USGS, 2010) overlain on a geodetic strain map
(Kreemer et al,. 2012). Strain rates reflect the second invariant strain rate tensor (10-9/yr). Red arrow
indicates the general regional extension direction of N65ºW.
14
The central Nevada seismic belt is a north-northeast trending zone in the western
Great Basin (Figure 2.2) of enhanced seismicity, including several historical (<150
years), large magnitude (6.1-7.3Ms) earthquakes that extend from Monte Cristo Valley to
Pleasant Valley (Figure 2.2, Wesnousky et al., 2005). It is also characterized by high
strain rates relative to surrounding areas (Figure 2.1, Thatcher, 2003; Blewitt et al.,
2009). To the north and east of the central Nevada seismic belt, geodetic measurements
(Hammond and Thatcher, 2007) and paleoseismic studies (Wesnousky et al., 2005)
suggest lower strain rates throughout the rest of the Great Basin. Beyond the central
Nevada seismic belt and Walker Lane/eastern California shear zone, the highest rates of
strain and seismicity are along the margins of the Great Basin in the vicinity of the major
normal fault systems bounding the Sierra Nevada and Wasatch Range (Dokka and Travis,
Near the boundary between the Walker Lane and Basin and Range province,
historic earthquakes illustrate the transition from dextral shear to extension. For example,
the 1932 Cedar Mountain earthquake ruptured on a series of discontinuous fault traces
extending for 75 km (Figure 2.2) from Monte Cristo Valley in the southeast, through
Stewart Valley, and extending northwest through Gabbs Valley (Bell et al., 1999). As the
fault rupture propagated north, the style of faulting changed from right-slip in Monte
examples of this style of dextral to normal faulting includes the 1954 Fairview Peak and
Dixie Valley earthquakes (Figure 2.2, Caskey and Wesnousky, 1997). Dominantly right-
oblique slip ruptures propagated north along the eastern range front of Fairview Peak,
15
followed by dip-slip faulting four minutes later and ~25 km northwest along the Dixie
Valley fault, which then propagated 46 km to the north (Caskey et al., 1996). These
earthquakes suggest a transfer of dextral shear in the Walker Lane into northwest-directed
Figure 2.2. Historic earthquakes of central Nevada seismic belt in western Nevada. Historic fault ruptures
are displayed in red (USGS Quaternary fault and fold database, 2010), and the boundary of the Walker
Lane is blue. Outline of map boundary (blue polygon), with respect to the state of Nevada (black polygon),
is shown for spatial reference in upper right hand corner. Study area boundary is shown as black polygon in
map. DV, Dixie Valley; FP, Fairview Peak; GV, Gabbs Valley; GVR, Gabbs Valley Range; MCV, Monte
Cristo Valley; PV, Pleasant Valley; SV, Stewart Valley.
16
hydrographic-low in the northwest portion of the basin. The study area encompasses
~400 km2 in the southeastern part of the basin, including the northern extent of the Gabbs
Valley Range, southernmost Monte Cristo Range, Gabbs Mountain, and the southern part
of Cobble Questa (Figure 3.0.2). The Gabbs Valley Range trends northwest and bounds
the southern edge of the valley and study area (Figure 3.0.2). Mystery Ridge is the
northernmost extent of the Gabbs Valley Range and marks the western margin of the
study area. Gabbs Mountain is a lone peak (1900 m) ~ 4 km north of the Gabbs Valley
Range on the southeast margin of the study area. The area north of the Gabbs Valley
Range between Gabbs Mountain and Mystery Ridge is a large gently north-sloping
piedmont composed of alluvial fans and channels sourced from the surrounding high
topography. The lowest elevation within the study area lies north of the piedmont and is
Cobble Cuesta is a northerly trending ridge that rises out of the basin on the northern
margin of the study area. The north-northeast-trending Monte Cristo Range and Fissure
Ridge divide the Gabbs basin into two discrete western and eastern lobes (Figure 3.0.2).
17
Figure 3.0.1. Regional overview map of west-central Nevada. Map shown on DEM (digital elevation
model) topographic hillshade. Major roads are orange lines. Quaternary faults are black lines. Blue polygon
is the study area boundary.
18
Figure 3.0.2. Area map for Gabbs Valley. Major physiographic features are labeled. The town of Gabbs
and the Diamond A Ranch are also indicated for reference.
In ascending order, the major stratigraphic units in the southeastern Gabbs Valley
surficial deposits (Figure 3.1.1). The composite thickness of the Tertiary volcanic section
in the Gabbs Valley and Gillis Ranges is estimated to be ~2 km (Ekren et al., 1980). The
km based on gravity modeling (Earney et al., 2018) and prior stratigraphic studies
granodiorite (Muller and Ferguson, 1939; Ekren et al., 1980; Ekren and Byers, 1985a,
1985b, 1986a). Mesozoic sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks (^vc) are exposed in
the northwest portion of the study area at Mystery Ridge and Fissure Ridge area of the
facies within the Luning Formation (Muller and Ferguson, 1939) and consist of gray,
(Ekren and Byers, 1985a). Jurassic to Cretaceous granodiorite (KJgd) crops out in the
northwest portion of the study area in Fissure Ridge. Granodiorite from the western
extent of Gabbs Valley yielded K/Ar ages of 158±4 Ma and 155±7 Ma (Ekren and Byers,
1984). Granodiorite exposures within the study area are likely similar in age to these
nearby plutons. The age of this granodiorite coincides with emplacement of much of the
Figure 3.1.1. Simplified stratigraphic column of southeastern Gabbs Valley study area. Dates shown are
provided for the tuff of Gabbs Valley (Tgv; Henry and John, 2013), Hu-Pwi Rhyodacite and lavas of
Mount Ferguson (Ekren and Byers, 1980), and Esmeralda Formation (Stewart et al., 1999).
overlie Paleozoic-Mesozoic basement. The three main divisions of volcanic rocks are, in
ascending order: 1) tuff of Gabbs Valley, 2) Hu-Pwi Rhyodacite, and 3) lavas of Mount
Ferguson (Ekren and Byers, 1980, 1985a, 1985b, 1986a). The tuff of Gabbs Valley is a
sequence of Oligocene ash-flow tuffs exposed in Fissure Ridge of the Monte Cristo
Range with a K/Ar date of 25.15 ±0.06 Ma (Henry and John, 2013). The tuff of Gabbs
lowermost volcanic unit in the Gabbs Valley Range, south of exposures of the tuff of
Gabbs Valley, is the lavas of Pointsettia Mine, which are a propylitically altered series of
rhyodacitic tuffs that overlie the lavas of Poinsettia Mine and have established K/Ar dates
by the lavas of Mount Ferguson. The omission of a tuff unit in the stratigraphic sequence
(~100 m thick Copper Mountain Tuff) between the upper Pointsettia Tuff Member of the
Hu-Pwi section and lavas of Mount Ferguson was interpreted to indicate substantial
erosion in this interval (Ekren and Byers., 1980). The lavas of Mount Ferguson include a
sequence of multiple volcanic flows with a wide range in composition from basalt to
rhyolite. Intermediate lavas comprise much of the rocks exposed in the Gabbs Valley
Range and Gabbs Mountain and range in composition from trachyandesite to quartz latite
(Ekren and Byers, 1980). K/Ar ages range from 22.5±0.6 Ma on basal lava to 15.0±0.5
sedimentary rocks of the Esmeralda formation and are locally intruded by Miocene
rhyolite and basalt dikes. The strata of the Esmeralda formation have a minimum
thickness of 850 m and consist of siltstones, sandstones, and conglomerates that have
bedrock units.
22
that lies on the northern margin of the central Walker Lane at the transition to the Basin
and Range extensional province (Figure 3.2.1). Directly southwest of Gabbs Valley, the
echelon dextral Quaternary faults. These strike slip faults, from southwest to northeast,
include the Indian Head, Gumdrop Hills, Benton Springs, and Petrified Springs faults
(Figure 3.2.1). The northern portion of Gabbs Valley contains several north-northeast-
striking Quaternary normal fault zones, including the southern Gabbs Valley, Hot
Springs, Monte Cristo, Phillips Wash, and Paradise Range fault zones (Figure 3.2.1). The
study area is positioned at the northern termination of the Petrified Springs fault and
southern termination of normal fault zones in Gabbs Valley. It thus occupies a broad zone
The Petrified Springs fault is a 45 km long northwest-striking dextral fault that cuts
across the southern part of the study area (Figure 3.2.1) and ends proximal to Mystery
Ridge. Ekren and Byers (1984) suggested total right-lateral offset of ~12-16 km on the
Petrified Springs fault on the basis of correlating tuffs of Mount Ferguson across the
fault. Angster (2018) estimated a late-Pleistocene slip rate of 0.6 ± 0.1 mm/yr for the
Petrified Springs fault based on the age of offset Quaternary alluvial surfaces.
24
Figure 3.2.1 Simplified geologic map of Gabbs Valley (modified from Stewart and Carlson, 1978).
Quaternary faults (USGS, 2010) shown in black; border of study area shown in blue; and approximate
boundary between the Walker Lane and Basin and Range tectonic domains shown in yellow. Geologic map
overlain on DEM hillshade. SGSV, southern Gabbs Valley fault zone.
The Gabbs Valley basin contains numerous Holocene and historic (<150 yr) ruptures
along strands of the Monte Cristo, Hot Springs, Phillips Wash, and southern Gabbs
Valley fault zones. The 1932 Cedar Mountain earthquake (Ms 7.2) produced surface
25
Cristo, Phillips Wash, and southern Gabbs Valley fault zones (Figure 3.2.2, Bell et al.,
1999). The 1954 Fairview Peak earthquake (Ms 7.2) primarily occurred to the north of
the study area, but faults ruptured within Gabbs Valley, including the northern extent of
the Hot Springs fault and segments of the Monte Cristo and Phillips Wash fault zones
(Figure 3.2.2, Caskey et al., 1996). Surface ruptures associated with the 1932 and 1954
earthquakes overlap in the northern part of Cobble Cuesta (Bell et al., 1999; Caskey et
al., 1996). Payne (2013) and Stewart (1999) interpreted Cobble Cuesta as an extensional
normal faults, including the east-dipping Monte Cristo fault zone on the western side of
the valley and west-dipping Paradise Range fault on the east side of the valley (Figure
3.2.2).
The bedrock structure consists of moderately tilted fault blocks with variable amounts
of Quaternary faulting that overprints preexisting structures. The Gabbs Valley Range
middle Miocene northwest-striking normal faults (Ekren and Byers; 1985a, 1985b,
1986a) that parallel the younger dextral faults in the central Walker Lane. Gabbs
Mountain has the same structural fabric as the Gabbs Valley Range, but many of the
older northwest-striking normal faults have been reactivated as dextral faults. Northwest-
striking normal faults observed in the Gabbs Valley Range and Gabbs Mountain likely
pre-date the onset of strike slip faulting and are consistent with a northeast-southwest
oriented extension direction in the early to middle Miocene (ca. <19-10 Ma) (Hardyman
and Oldow, 1991). These normal faults were well oriented to later accommodate strike-
26
slip motion when dextral-shear initiated in the Walker Lane in the late Miocene (ca. 11-9
Ma) (Hardyman and Oldow, 1991). In contrast to Gabbs Mountain and the Gabbs Valley
Range on the border of the Walker Lane, the Monte Cristo Range is the southernmost
extent of Basin and Range extension within the valley and is a north-trending, gently
east-tilted (25º) horst block bound by active normal faults on either side. Within the
Monte Cristo Range are a series of both north-northeast-striking normal and northwest-
normal faults in the region is constrained to 17-15 Ma (Dilles and Gans, 1995, Surpless et
al., 2002).
Figure 3.2.2. Quaternary faults of Gabbs Valley. Mapped quaternary faults (USGS, 2010) color coded
according to rupture age overlain on DEM hillshade. SGFZ, southern Gabbs Valley fault zone.
27
The Gabbs Valley area has several known geothermal systems, including one hot
geothermal power plant (Figure 3.3.1). Rawhide Hot Springs is a series of pools located
on the west side of Fissure Ridge in the western arm of the basin. The springs have a
flow rate of 0.8593 m3/min, and geothermometry suggest subsurface fluid temperatures
of 130-140ºC (Kratt et al., 2008). One 2-m thermal anomaly lies on the western edge of
the Monte Cristo Range in western Gabbs Valley (Figure 3.3.1, Kratt et al., 2008). The
second 2-m thermal anomaly is located east of Fissure Ridge in the eastern basin (Figure
3.3.1, Payne et al., 2011, 2013). These thermal anomalies have been interpreted as
thermal signals from upwelling zones of blind geothermal systems (Kratt et al., 2008;
Payne, 2013). The Don Campbell power plant, owned by Ormat Nevada Inc., lies in the
southwestern portion of the basin (Figure 3.3.1). The power plant is a binary system that
initiated from the identification of a low magnetic anomaly collocated with hot wells
mineral exploration program (Orenstein et al., 2015). A 2-m survey constrained the
location of the thermal anomaly (Kratt et al., 2010), and subsequent geothermal drilling
2015).
Prior to this study, no previous geothermal exploration had been conducted in the
southeastern portion of the basin. The following sections will address the exploration
28
methods used to identify and characterize a previously unknown blind geothermal system
in this area.
Figure 3.3.1. Known geothermal systems of Gabbs Valley. Don A. Campbell geothermal power plant (pink
dot), Rawhide Hot Springs (yellow ellipse), and previously documented 2-m temperature anomalies (red
ellipses) are shown. The location of the Diamond A Ranch is also indicated for reference.
29
Geologic mapping was used to define the geometry and kinematics of the local fault
alteration, and conductive anomalies associated with geothermal activity. Detailed cross
sections were used to conceptualize geologic structure and contribute to the conceptual
model of possible geothermal systems in the area. Slip and dilation tendency analyses
were preformed to indicate faults that are more favorably oriented to transmit
hydrothermal fluids within the present stress field. Fluid geochemistry was used to
survey was deployed to detect areas of shallow anomalous temperatures likely sourced
Geologic investigations were carried out across a study area encompassing ~400
km2 in southeastern Gabbs Valley and adjacent mountain ranges. Geologic investigations
scale. Reconnaissance scale mapping at ~1:48,000 was completed on the remaining ~220
km2. The map area includes Gabbs Mountain, southeastern Gabbs Valley, southern
Cobble Cuesta, and the northern extent of the Gabbs Valley Range. Previous mapping by
Ekren and Byers (1985a, 1985b, 1986a, 1986b), Stewart (1999), and Payne (2013) was
incorporated to generate a composite geologic map of the study area (Figure 4.1.1 and
Plate 1).
Figure 4.1.1. Simplified geologic map of the southeastern Gabbs Valley study area. See Table 1 and
Appendix A for unit descriptions and Plate 1 for detailed geologic map.
31
Field mapping was completed on 1:24,000 scale color stereo air photos and aided
by 160 km2 of LiDAR data. LiDAR coverage (Figure 4.1.2) was sourced from a previous
DOE-funded geothermal project (Payne, 2013), which covered the northern part of the
study area at 5.1 pulse per m2 (ppm) resolution, and an NSF-funded tectonics research
project (Angster, 2018), which covered a 1.5 km by 20 km strip along the Petrified
Springs fault at ≥8 ppm. LiDAR data were collected from aircraft-flown, laser point-
models from LiDAR data were converted into hillshades to distinguish geologic features,
especially Quaternary fault scarps, which are commonly not identifiable in the field or on
air photos. Air photos were scanned and digitized utilizing Vr software (by Cardinal
Systems) that ortho-rectifies and georeferences the photos. Vr software generated a 3-D
topographic model of each stereo-pair upon which faults, contacts, and other features
were attributed. The Vr files were exported into ArcGIS 10.3 for assimilation into a
geodatabase and geologic map. Cross-sections were constructed from the geologic map
and geophysical data to display key geologic relationships and structures at depth in the
field area.
Because most relatively high temperature geothermal systems are associated with
Quaternary faults (Bell and Ramelli, 2007), Quaternary mapping was completed
throughout the entire study area in southeastern Gabbs Valley. Distinguishing alluvial
surfaces was based on observations indicative of the relative age of units, such as the
alluvial surfaces generally have greater amounts of incision, wider channels, rougher
32
contrast, younger surfaces commonly display little incision, smaller closely spaced
channels, smooth texture, and darker tone. Development of desert pavement (e.g., Wells
et al., 1995) and soils (Birkeland, 1999) is a function of increasing surface age and is an
important tool for surface correlation and relative age determination of alluvial surfaces.
Additionally, the presence of desert varnish on clasts can be another indicator of surface
age.
Figure 4.1.2. Extent of LiDAR coverage in the southeastern Gabbs Valley study area. LiDAR data shown
as gray hillshade with boundary of coverage indicated by red polygon. Base map is DEM hillshade.
33
landforms (e.g. drainages). Greater scarp heights relative to increasing age of surfaces
commonly rupture in relatively sinuous traces produced from the expression of the
dipping surface across topography, changes in dip angle, or lateral fault steps. Strike-slip
faulting is characterized by linear fault traces, laterally offset drainages, up-hill facing
scarps, pop-up structures, sag-ponds, and shutter ridges. Uphill facing scarps, offset
drainages, and shutter ridges are all produced from the lateral motion across a strike-slip
fault. Pop-up structures and sag ponds result from variations in the strike of the strike-slip
Mann, 2007).
Detailed Quaternary mapping was completed along the trace of the Petrified Springs
fault (Figure 4.1.3) in the southern part of the study area. LiDAR data and field
observations were employed to accurately map the trace of the fault, identify alluvial
surfaces of similar ages across the fault trace, estimate scarp heights, and distinguish
Quaternary alluvial units generally overlie the Esmeralda Formation (Tes) on Quaternary-
Tertiary pediment surfaces (Plate 1). The primary feature of the Petrified Springs fault is
alluvial fans. The youngest alluvial fans and active channels (Qfy) are incised into the
scarp with no apparent offset across the trace. The height of the scarp increases relative to
older units, which display greater development of soil, desert pavement, desert varnish,
dissection by streams and gullies, and smoothing of surfaces compared to younger units.
34
The scarp heights observed in progressively older units range from approximately 2 m in
Qfi, 22 m in Qfo, and ≤50 m in Qfo2. These observations indicate a component of dip-
slip across the fault. Additionally, a 10 m2 travertine deposit was identified on the fault
Figure 4.1.3. Quaternary geologic map of the Petrified Springs fault, southeastern Gabbs Valley. A.
Detailed Quaternary map with faults shown as black lines with annotations pointing to features along the
fault trace. Travertine deposit shown as small red polygon. B. Inset showing study area boundary with
extent of Quaternary map boundary (A) in red for spatial reference.
streams along the fault trace are deflected in a dextral sense. One deflection in the north-
central part of the detailed map area displays shutter-ridge morphology and a series of
uphill facing scarps/knobs adjacent to the scarp on the downthrown side. A left-step of
the fault trace in the central part of the detailed map area has produced a “pop-up”
structure. Within this transpressional ridge, the otherwise gently northeast sloping Qfo
surface is tilted to a sub-horizontal attitude, and scarp height locally increases. Beheaded
southeastern portion of the detailed map area. An abandoned channel in the Qfi unit
alluvial units established along the Petrified Springs fault were used as reference for
LiDAR data were also used to map the northern part of the study area at the
southern extent of Cobble Cuesta in the vicinity of the southern Gabbs Valley fault zone
(Figure 4.1.4). A series of previously undocumented fault scarps were identified in this
area, adding to some faults identified by Payne (2013) (Figure 4.1.4). Faults in this area
range in length from 0.1-3 km, and cut basin sediment deposits (Qay and Qai) and
bedrock (Kcg, Te, and Tlf). Faults strike north-northeast and dip both east and west, with
the west-facing faults displaying greater vertical displacements and longer fault traces.
Traces of the normal faults are largely not observed in younger units (Qa, Qay, and Qfy)
36
bordering the fault zone, indicating possible ruptures <750 ka (Ramelli personal
communication, 2017).
Figure 4.1.4. Normal fault splays of the southern Gabbs Valley fault zone. A. Mapped faults are displayed
as black lines with direction of displacement indicated by fault ball. Faults are overlain on LiDAR
topographic hillshade. B. Inset showing study area boundary with extent of map (A) in red for spatial
reference.
Quaternary faults were attributed with age of most recent rupture (Figure 4.1.5A)
and estimated slip rate (Figure 4.1.5B). Fault age was assessed based on the youngest
offset unit (Ramelli personal communication, 2018). A slip rate of 0.6 ± 0.1 mm/yr was
inferred for the Petrified Springs fault based on work by Angster (2018). Significant
37
Figure 4.1.5. Quaternary faults in southeastern Gabbs Valley with attributed rupture recency and slip rate
values. A. Fault age (ka) shown as colored faults with warmer colors indicating more recent ruptures. B.
Fault slip rate (mm/yr) displayed as colored faults with warmer colors indicating higher slip rates.
38
Quaternary faults with no existing slip rate data were assigned slip rates between 0.001
and 0.01 mm/yr based on their location, size of scarp, age of offset surface (Ramelli,
personal communication, 2018), and previous analyses (Bell et al., 1999; Payne, 2013).
Geologic mapping and structural analysis were also conducted in bedrock units
stratigraphic framework of the area, particularly within the subsurface of Gabbs Valley.
The bedrock structure of the area is vital for identifying favorable structural settings that
may host blind geothermal systems. Bedding, flow-foliation, and compaction foliation
measurements were recorded to help constrain the attitude of bedrock units and tilt
orientation of fault blocks. A total of 110 attitudes were integrated into the geologic map
(Plate 1) from new mapping efforts and previous work (Ekren and Byers (1985a, 1985b,
1986a, 1986b; Stewart, 1999; Payne, 2013). Faults were identified by offset of
stratigraphic units, scarps, and fault surfaces. The attitudes of fault surfaces were
indicators include slickenlines, rough facets, and Riedel shears (e.g., Angelier et al.,
1985). Relatively few fault surfaces with useable kinematic indicators were observed in
this study.
Gabbs Mountain is well situated adjacent to the Petrified Springs fault to allow
for detailed analysis of bedrock structure affected by deformation at the transition from
strike-slip faulting of the Walker Lane to normal faulting of the Basin and Range.
Furthermore, bedrock structure in the Gabbs Mountain area is likely analogous to that
beneath southeastern Gabbs Valley and may therefore elucidate concealed structures in
39
the basin that control geothermal activity. Miocene lavas of Mount Ferguson comprise
the entirety of rock types exposed at Gabbs Mountain. Fault blocks typically strike west-
northwest and dip 25-65° to the northeast (Figure 4.1.6 and Figure 4.1.7A). The Miocene
volcanic strata in this area are cut by three distinct sets of faults: 1) northeast-striking
offsets ranging from 10-150 m. Volcanic flows of unit Tlfh on the summit and southern
extent of Gabbs Mountain have been offset right-laterally along steeply dipping,
volcanic units of the area, exhibits a shallow dip (0-5°) in comparison to the moderate
dips (25-50°) of underlying units, and is interpreted to be the youngest unit at Gabbs
Mountain. Measured right-lateral separations of the lower contact of unit Tlfh on the
summit of Gabbs Mountain range from 20-60 m. Northwest-striking faults are observed
south of the summit and along the southwestern-most ridges, with a few outliers in the
northern ridges (Figure 4.1.6). Fault scarps range in height from 0.5-3 m and cut both
bedrock and commonly Quaternary colluvium and young alluvial fans (Qfy). These faults
are interpreted to have ruptured <750 ka based on offsets in colluvium (Ramelli personal
communication, 2018). The final style of faulting observed in this area involves
stratigraphic units. These normal faults lack recent scarps characteristic of the other two
sets of faults in the area, do not truncate the capping volcanic unit at the summit of Gabbs
Mountain (Tlfh), are distinguished by apparent southwest dip-slip offsets ranging from
40
100-500 m, and are interpreted to be the oldest faulting sequence in this area. These faults
are likely early to middle Miocene and may correlate with faults of similar geometry and
kinematics in the Stillwater Range (e.g., John, 1992; Hudson et al., 2000) and northern
Figure 4.1.6. Geologic map of Gabbs Mountain. A. Geologic map of Gabbs Mountain showing faults as
black lines, attitudes, and contacts. B. Inset showing location of map within study area in red.
41
Within the Gabbs Valley Range, southwest of the Petrified Springs fault, a series
composed of Tertiary volcanic rocks and are tilted 40-60º northeast. A major northwest-
striking normal fault bounds Mystery Ridge on the southwest and juxtaposes Tertiary
volcanic rocks on the south against Mesozoic metasedimentary rocks on the north (Plate
42
Gabbs Valley and Gabbs Mountain are generally not observed in the Gabbs Valley
Range. An exception to the lack of strike-slip faulting in the Gabbs Valley Range
includes a lone northwest-striking strike-slip fault observed in volcanic rocks near the
fault contact with Mesozoic basement south of the summit of Mystery Ridge (Plate 1).
The Mesozoic basement of the area is a potential reservoir for geothermal systems
in southeastern Gabbs Valley, and thus understanding the orientation of joint and fracture
sets in these basement rocks is useful for conceptualizing permeable pathways that may
and detailed fracture and joint analysis were conducted in Mesozoic basement exposures
at both Mystery Ridge and Fissure Ridge. Mystery Ridge exposes Triassic and Jurassic
northeast and dips moderately (20-40°) to the southeast (Figure 4.1.7C). Three sets of
analyses are needed to determine if the first two sets of presumed joints are associated
range of fracture orientations, with at least two or more sets observed (Figure 4.1.7B): 1)
dipping fractures. Metasedimentary rocks (^vc) at Fissure Ridge are folded into a gentle
43
syncline (Figure 4.1.7E). These rocks are also highly fractured but have no dominant
orientation of joints (Figure 4.1.7F). The most notable fracture set strikes northeast and
dips steeply. Exposures of metasedimentary basement at Mystery Ridge vary from those
Mystery Ridge in comparison to the gentle fold indicated by west to north-northeast dips
at Fissure Ridge; and 2) foliation and joint sets are much more consistent and better
concealed faults, and detect features associated with geothermal activity. Potential field
multidisciplinary approach that integrated geologic mapping with these geophysical data,
particularly the gravity surveys. Geophysical surveys, methods, and data interpretation
included in this study area are also discussed in Earney et al. (2018) and Peacock et al.
(2018).
identify major concealed faults. Gravity anomalies caused by faulting have been
documented at several geothermal systems in the Great Basin (Glen et al., 2008, 2018;
anomalies can be used to assess potential targets for blind geothermal systems within
44
basins.
International, Inc. and the U.S. Geological Survey. Zonge completed the initial gravity
survey in this study, collecting 274 stations during December, 2016 and March, 2017.
The U.S. Geological Survey subsequently collected 480 gravity stations in November,
2017 (Earney et al., 2018). Geodetic-grade GPS equipment was used to determine station
locations and elevations. The observed gravity is produced from both the position
(elevation and latitude) of the station and the variation of subsurface density. To remove
(Blakley, 1984), free air, Bouguer, curvature (LaFehr, 1991), and terrain corrections. A
density of 2.67 g/cc was used for reductions (Earney et al., 2018). Corrections were
horizontal derivative (MHG) were completed. The complete Bouguer anomaly was
completed by combining the simple Bouguer anomaly with terrain corrections. Finally,
the regional isostatic gravity field was removed from the Bouguer anomaly using
established methods (Blakley and Simpson, 1986; Athens et al., 2014) to produce
isostatic gravity and residual isostatic gravity maps of the area. Isostatic gravity
anomalies are caused by lateral density variations in the middle to upper crust and can be
and Simpson, 1986; Athens et al., 2014). Modeling was completed by Zonge
International Inc. and the U.S. Geological Survey, with the USGS integrating the prior
The residual isostatic gravity values range from -4.7 mGal to 5.8 mGal and define a
north to northwest-trending anomalies. Fissure Ridge and County Line Ridge are two
north-northeast-trending bedrock exposures that match the observed gravity highs sharing
the same orientation. Within the basin is a northeast oriented alignment of several gravity
lows, with the most significant low located northwest of County Line Ridge (point A in
occurs west and adjacent to the previously mentioned northeast-trending low. Volcanic
rocks exposed at the northwestern margin of the intrabasinal gravity high at the
southwestern edge of Cobble Cuesta suggest the presence of a basement high in this area.
Mystery Ridge and the Gabbs Valley Range are two northwest-trending bedrock
gravity highs in locations with bedrock exposure and also displays two north- and
northwest-trending gravity highs projecting into the basin. The westernmost gravity high
(point C in Figure 4.2.1) is bound by substantial gradients (~2.6 to -0.4 mGals) on its
northwest, southwest, and northeast margins. East of Gabbs Mountain is a gravity low
(point D in Figure 2.1.1) connected to a small isolated basin in the southeastern-most part
of the study area. Between Fissure Ridge and Mystery Ridge is a northwest-trending
gravity low (point E in Figure 4.2.1) associated with a small basin connecting the western
and eastern lobes of Gabbs Valley. West of Mystery Ridge and Fissure Ridge is another
north-northeast-trending gravity low (point F in Figure 4.2.1) that continues west of the
Figure 4.2.1. Residual isostatic gravity map of southeastern Gabbs Valley. Mapped faults shown as black
lines. Colored gravity plot overlain on DEM hillshade with warmer colors indicating relatively high gravity
values (mGals). Gravity stations are black dots. Gravity contours are shown as dark lines and with 0.5
mGal intervals. Gravity data collected and processed by the USGS and Zonge International, Inc.
Synthesis of geologic mapping efforts with the gravity data was used for
identifying and mapping concealed fault zones in the basin of southeastern Gabbs Valley
(Figure 4.2.1). Major gravity gradients in the area are likely produced by the
47
low-density basin-fill sediments are in contact with higher-density volcanic and basement
lithologies. Generally, substantial gravity gradients within the basin were interpreted as
concealed faults if consistent with the established structural framework of the area as
identified in the geologic mapping. In many cases, major faults observed in the
surrounding ranges projected directly into major gravity gradients within the basin, thus
interpretations of gravity data are described in detail in the Discussion, but the results of
these interpretations are incorporated into subsequent sections on cross sections and slip
A ground magnetic survey was conducted to identify subsurface faults and areas
different rock types across faults and differences in the magnetic polarity and intensity of
volcanic rocks. Magnetic lows can be associated with geothermal activity due to the
alteration of rocks (e.g., Glen et al., 2008, 2018; ; Orenstein et al., 2015; Schwering et al.,
2018).
A total of 300 line-km of high resolution ground magnetic data were collected by
the U.S. Geological Survey on foot and by use of ATV-mounted systems using
Geometrics G858 and G859 cesium vapor magnetometers with integrated Global
Positioning Systems (GPS). Corrections were applied for variations in the local magnetic
48
field. Magnetic susceptibility values were measured from outcrop locations and hand
samples using a ZH instruments SM30 meter (resolution 1×10-7 SI units) for all major
Figure 4.2.2. Reduced to pole (RTP) magnetic map of the study area. The magnetic survey is overlain on
DEM hillshade. Warmer colors indicate relatively higher magnetic values (nT) than cooler colors. Letters
indicate location points referenced in text. Magnetic data collected and processed by USGS.
bedrock units in the area (Earney et al., 2018). Remnant magnetization properties
surveys in the region (Carlson, 2018). The magnetic susceptibility and remnant
49
magnetization data were utilized for modeling of data acquired in the magnetic survey.
Magnetic values range from -1319.3 nT to -565.3 nT. Magnetic highs are observed within
4.2.2). Magnetic highs also mark the Gabbs Valley Range in areas with volcanic strata,
magnetic low is observed in the south-central part of the basin to the west of Gabbs
Mountain and north of the Gabbs Valley Range (point G in Figure 4.2.2). This magnetic
953.8 nT.
the electrical response of the Earth to natural time-varying magnetic fields (Vozoff, 1991)
and is very useful for imaging geothermal activity in the subsurface. The frequency
dependent ratio of the induced electric field and the inducing magnetic field, the
impedance tensor, provides both directional and depth information about subsurface
anomalies, and clay mineral assemblages associated with geothermal alteration can be
Cumming, 2009; Wannamaker et al., 2011, 2013, 2017). Several geothermal systems in
the Great Basin have documented conductive MT anomalies (Wannamaker et al., 2011,
2013).
Figure 4.2.3. MT resistivity depth profiles. Warmer colors indicate areas with higher measured
conductivity values (Ohm-m). Study area boundary shown in inset at top-center with extent of the MT
survey displayed as red polygon. MT station locations are black dots. A. Depth slice at 108-m. B. 199-m
depth slice. C. 392-m depth slice. D. 642-m depth slice. MT data collected and processed by USGS.
4.2.3) using ZEN data loggers, ANT-4 induction coils, and Borin Ag-AgCl
electrodes. Data were recorded for 20 hours and processed using the bounded influence
51
robust processing code developed by Chave and Thompson (2004), where synchronous
stations were used as remote references. The data were inverted using ModEM (Kelbert
The MT data indicate several low-resistivity anomalies in the study area (Figure
4.2.3). The largest low-resistivity anomaly has a semi-ellipsoidal geometry that is 10 km2,
trends northeast, and ranges from 100-1000 m in depth. This low-resistivity anomaly is
located in the southeastern part of the basin and is collocated with conspicuous gravity
gradients and the 2 km2 magnetic-low. Because the coverage and number of stations were
limited due to land status, there is some uncertainty in MT results. Methods and results
Five detailed cross sections were constructed based on the integration of geologic
mapping with the geophysical surveys (Plate 1). The thickness of basin-fill sediments
(i.e., depth to top of the Tertiary volcanic section) was constrained by gravity forward
modeling completed by the U.S. Geological Survey (Earney, Schermerhorn, and Glen
personal communication, 2018). Lack of well and seismic reflection data within the study
Faults that are optimally oriented for slip and dilation are commonly the most
active conduits for fluid transmission (Ferrill et al., 1999; Ferrill and Morris, 2003). Slip
and dilation tendency analyses are useful methods for identifying faults with high
52
potential for transmitting geothermal fluids. Slip-tendency analysis assesses the potential
for faults to rupture in a known or inferred stress state for the area. Slip tendency (Ts) is a
function of the frictional resistance on a fault plane and the ratio of shear stress () to
normal stress (n) acting on that plane (Morris et al., 1996). This relationship is
Ts=/n
The value of slip tendency (Ts) is only dependent on the stress field and orientation of the
similar to slip tendency analysis based on a known stress field. Fracture dilation is mainly
controlled by the normal stress, which is in turn related to the acting fluid pressure and
the tectonic and lithostatic stresses. Dilation tendency (Td) for a fault or fracture surface
is defined as:
Td=(1-n)/(1-3)
Where 1 is the maximum principal stress, n is normal stress on the fault or fracture
Slip and dilation tendency analyses were conducted for the mapped fault system
in the study area (Figure 4.4.1) using a compilation of stress magnitudes from the western
principal stress direction (Shmin) oriented 124. Several assumptions were made for the
calculation, notably that all normal faults dip 60, and all strike-slip faults are vertical.
Slip and dilation tendency results showed that north-northeast-striking normal faults have
53
the highest slip and dilation tendency values, with a maximum along normal faults
striking N32E. Northwest-striking oblique-slip and strike-slip faults have high slip
tendency yet low dilation tendency. East-northeast-striking faults display moderate to low
Figure 4.4.1. Slip and dilatation tendency analyses for the southeastern Gabbs Valley fault system. Faults
are colored based on slip and dilation tendency values, with warmer colors indicating high slip and dilation
tendency.
54
for 20 locations in this study. Out of the 20 water analyses, 11 are historical water
samples, 5 are new samples gleaned from gray literature (Payne, 2013; Delwich personal
communication, 2017), and 4 new samples were collected for this study at the Diamond
A Ranch in the northwest part of the study area (Figure 3.0.2). It is worth noting that
anomalously warm wells (32ºC) were identified in the study area at the Diamond A
Ranch. This was the first indication of a potential blind geothermal system in the area and
Established methods were used for geothermometer calculations from cation and
silica concentrations in water samples (Fournier and Truesdell, 1973; Fournier, 1977a,
1977b, 1983; Fournier and Potter, 1979, 1982; Giggenbach, 1984; 1988). Samples with
charge balances ± 10% were used (Shevenell personal communciation, 2018). The
available geochemical data are predominantly from wells and springs in Gabbs Valley
and the surrounding area, with the four new analyses sourced from irrigation wells at the
Diamond-A Ranch. Several geothermometers for the Diamond A Ranch wells indicate
temperatures between 170-233ºC. A Piper diagram with plotted water samples show that
most samples are in the chloride-sulfide-bicarbonate facies (e.g., Schwartz and Zhang,
2003) (Figure 4.5.1). A GeoT multicomponent chemical equilibria model (Spycher et al.,
2016) was completed for the water samples collected at the Diamond A Ranch (Figure
55
communication, 2017).
Figure 4.5.1 Piper diagram of water samples from southeastern Gabbs Valley. Water samples plotted using
different shapes and colors. Sample abbreviations and chemistry listed in Table 2. In the upper diamond
plot of the Piper diagram, water facies are characterized by Back (1961) and shown in blue, purple, green,
and yellow.
Figure 4.5.2. GeoT multicomponent chemical equilibria model results (Spycher, personal communication,
May 2017). The modeled minerals attain equilibria under the modeled conditions for Diamond A Ranch
Well 1 (22.4°C) at 133 ± 5°C, suggesting last temperature of equilibration near 133°C.
56
A 2-meter temperature survey was deployed to detect thermal anomalies associated with
zones of geothermal upwelling. Previous 2-m temperature surveys have been successful in
locating blind, relatively high-temperature geothermal systems that were subsequently developed
into geothermal power plants, including the Don A. Campbell plant in Gabbs Valley (Kratt et al.,
2010, Orenstein et al., 2014). Established methods were followed for the surveys in the study
area (Sladek et al., 2007; Coolbaugh et al., 2007; Sladek et al., 2009; Sladek et al., 2012; Sladek
and Coolbaugh, 2013). The shallow temperature survey was completed in three discrete time
intervals, with the initial collection of 61 stations in August, 2016, followed by two campaigns
totaling 65 stations in December, 2016. A total of 126 stations were collected in the study area
(Figure 4.6.1).
Data across the temporally-spaced surveys were influenced by seasonally driven changes
in ground temperatures. Base station measurements were therefore used as means to adjust the
14.94°C, and deviation from average background (DAB) was calculated for each station utilizing
methods outlined in Sladek and Coolbaugh (2013). Areas displaying DAB greater than 3°C are
Normalized 2-m temperatures range from 13.3°C to 21.8°C (Figure 4.6.1). The 2-m
survey established a 7 km2 area with elevated temperatures in the southeastern part of the valley
(Figure 4.6.1) with the hottest station deviating from average background by 5.36°C, which is
well above the statistically significant temperature threshold. The thermal anomaly is elliptically
shaped with a northerly oriented long axis and highest measured temperatures in the north-
58
central part of the anomaly. Temperatures systematically decrease on all sides of the anomaly.
Background temperatures were detected throughout the rest of the basin with the exception of
Figure 4.6.1. Shallow 2-m temperature survey in southeastern Gabbs Valley. Stations are shown as colored circles.
Colors correspond to measured temperatures and are attributed from colder temperatures displayed as blue to
warmest measurements as red.
59
5. Discussion
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential for high-temperature (≥130C) blind
approach to exploration termed the geothermal play fairway analysis whereby geologic,
geophysical, and geochemical datasets were integrated to individually rank prospects to guide
assessment and potential future development. The sections below present a conceptual model of
the area based on bedrock structure and basin architecture that was used to identify favorable
structural settings. This model permitted selection of temperature-gradient holes, the results of
which, in turn, provided a means by which to evaluate the Nevada play fairway methodology.
The geothermal implications and direct evidence for the discovery of a high-temperature
The geologic mapping, detailed gravity surveys, relatively high regional strain rates
(Kreemer et al., 2012), and numerous Quaternary faults with relatively high slip-rates (Angster,
2018; Payne, 2013; Bell et al., 1999) demonstrate that Gabbs Valley is a complex, tectonically
active basin. It is positioned at the southern extent of the central Nevada seismic belt. The
heightened seismicity and strain rates within this region probably result from the transfer of
dextral shear from the Walker Lane into northwest directed extension (Wesnousky et al., 2005;
Faulds et al., 2005; Faulds and Henry, 2008). The relatively abrupt transition from northwest-
striking faults and fault blocks in the southernmost part of the study area to the north-northeast-
trending structural grain to the north epitomizes this transfer of dextral shear into northwest-
directed extension. Integration of previous geologic mapping (Ekren and Byer, 1985a, 1985b,
60
1986a, 1986b; Stewart, 1999; Payne, 2013) and new mapping paired with detailed gravity data
provide insights into the structural framework of the area. The geologic map and cross-sections
from this study (Plate 1) illustrate the spatial-temporal relationships and kinematics of fault
Analysis of the Quaternary fault network shows how active deformation and strain is
distributed in southeastern Gabbs Valley. The Petrified Springs fault is the most significant
Quaternary fault with a late Pleistocene slip rate of 0.6 mm/yr (Angster, 2018). It has a distinct
linear northwest-trending fault trace with strike-slip geomorphic features and vertical
Petrified Springs fault dies out in the northwestern portion of the study area near Mystery Ridge,
indicating that the fault is losing total displacement along strike to the northwest and terminating
in or near the northwestern edge of the study area (Plate 1). North-northeast-striking Quaternary
normal faults observed in the northern portion of the area between Fissure Ridge and County
Line Ridge, through the southern extent of Cobble Cuesta (Plate 1 and cross-section D-D’), are
inferred to project south-southwest through the basin to intersect the Petrified Springs fault. The
apparent northwestward termination of the Petrified Springs fault suggests that dextral shear
striking normal faults. The termination of a major strike-slip fault of the central Walker Lane in
an array of normal faults implies that southeastern Gabbs Valley contains a displacement transfer
zone (Figure 5.1.1), which is one of the key favorable structural settings for hosting geothermal
systems in the region (Faulds et al., 2011; Faulds and Hinz, 2015).
61
Figure 5.1.1. Southeastern Gabbs Valley displacement transfer zone. Structural domains of the area are shaded to
illustrate the spatial distributions of faulting: Walker Lane dextral shear in red, displacement transfer zone in orange,
and Basin and Range extension shown in yellow. The trace of the Petrified Springs fault is shown as a red line.
Favorable structural settings shown as orange-red dashed polygons.
The area in and surrounding the displacement transfer zone is structurally complicated
with many faults of varying geometries, kinematics, and ages. The three main styles of faults in
this area include: 1) late Miocene-Quaternary northwest-striking oblique-slip and dextral faults,
62
middle Miocene northwest-striking normal faults. The late Oligocene to middle Miocene
northwest-striking normal faults are the primary set of faults observed in the Gabbs Valley
Range, signifying that this fault block has been minimally affected by more recent Walker Lane
deformation and is currently translating as a relatively coherent block between two major dextral
faults of the central Walker Lane, the Petrified Springs and Benton Springs faults. The relative
lack of Quaternary faulting in the Gabbs Valley Range indicates that the transfer of dextral shear
strain is primarily distributed on the northwest side of the Petrified Springs fault.
On the northwest side of the Petrified Springs fault, Gabbs Mountain contains a large
exposure of Tertiary bedrock that illustrates the complex fault structure within the displacement
transfer zone. Gabbs Mountain displays all three sets of faults observed in the study area in a
dense array of faulting. The late Oligocene to middle Miocene northwest-striking normal faults
cut volcanic stratigraphy throughout Gabbs Mountain, similar to the Gabbs Valley Range.
However, multiple younger faults overprint the northeast-tilted fault blocks at Gabbs Mountain.
The type, density, and interaction of recent fault sets at Gabbs Mountain varies based on the
general location and distance from the Petrified Springs fault (Figure 5.1.2, Plate 1 and cross-
section C-C’). Northwest-striking dextral and oblique-slip faults dominate the area south of the
summit of Gabbs Mountain proximal to the Petrified Springs fault. In contrast, the ridges north
and northwest of the summit exhibit primarily north-northeast-striking normal faults. The
overlap of normal and dextral/oblique-slip fault zones are best observed west of the summit in an
area with numerous intersections between these two sets of faults (Figure 5.1.2).
63
Figure 5.1.2. Geologic map and cross section of Gabbs Mountain with highlighted fault intersections. A. Geologic
map with major fault intersections between north-northeast-striking normal faults and northwest-striking oblique-
slip faults are circled in red. Location of C-C’ shown on map. B. Inset showing location of geologic map as red
rectangle relative to study area. C. Portion of cross section C-C’. Fault intersection circled in red.
64
As evident in the residual isostatic gravity (Figure 4.2.1) and geologic mapping data
(Plate 1), southeast Gabbs Valley is a complex composite basin composed of several sub-basins
that are controlled by the tectonic domains of the area. The northern portion of study area,
extending from western Gabbs Valley to Stewart Valley (Plate 1, cross section D-D’), is
and County Line Ridge are both horst blocks, bound by oppositely dipping normal faults. The
basin between these two horst blocks is primarily composed of a series of east-tilted half-grabens
that are locally punctuated by secondary, east-dipping antithetic faults (Plate 1, cross section D-
D’). The east-tilting of these sub-basins is inferred from the east tilts observed in both Fissure
and County Line Ridge, as well as the dominant set of west-dipping normal faults. The most
substantial sub-basin in this area is located northwest of County Line Ridge (point A in Figure
dipping faults. West of this sub-basin is a northeast-trending intrabasinal high (point B in Figure
4.2.1) that may be a horst or half-graben and could be a concealed expression of the southern
extent of the Cobble Cuesta anticline. Between the intrabasinal high and Fissure Ridge is another
graben and sub-basin (Figure 4.2.1) bound on either side by oppositely-dipping normal faults.
The basin architecture of the southern portion of southeastern Gabbs Valley contrasts
with that in the north, as northwest-trending sub-basins dominate and are primarily controlled by
transtensional faulting. Basins in this area are generally located between dextral-oblique faults,
and changes in fault geometry, in addition to interaction with normal faults, has influenced sub-
basin development. For example, an inferred right-step of the Petrified Springs fault between
Mystery Ridge and Fissure Ridge transfers dextral shear strain across a series of north-northeast-
65
striking normal faults. Displacement along these normal faults generated a relatively shallow
northwest-trending basin that connects the two larger basins of western and eastern Gabbs Valley
(Figure 5.2.1). On the western and eastern margins of this right-step are two pull-apart zones that
concentrate strain along the bounding normal faults and have produced two discrete deeper sub-
basins (Figure 5.2.1, points D and E). The area between the shallow northwest-trending
transtensional sub-basin within the right-step and the deep northeast-trending extensional sub-
basin northwest of County Line Ridge is a transition zone, where the basin architecture gradually
changes in orientation and structure between the Walker Lane and Basin and Range province.
The structural framework of Gabbs Mountain is probably a good analogue for concealed
structures in the basin that may control geothermal activity. Within the basin directly west of
Gabbs Mountain is a substantial northwest-trending gravity high produced from offsets along
concealed faults. Tightly spaced gravity stations at 100-250 m within this area allow for high-
resolution control on subsurface fault locations. This northwest-trending gravity high ends
abruptly to the northwest along a northeast-trending gravity gradient in the central part of the
basin. This gravity high is probably bound by northwest-striking dextral-normal faults, linked to
major faults in Gabbs Mountain along its southeastern and northeastern margins (Plate 1 and
cross-section B-B’), and northwest-dipping normal faults projecting from Cobble Questa and
County Line Ridge on its northwest margin (cross-section E-E’). The northwest-striking oblique-
slip faults are interpreted to intersect splays of northeast- to east-northeast-striking normal faults
within a dense array of fault intersections near the northwest margin of the gravity high.
The geologic and geophysical data indicate at least six individual, favorable structural
66
settings for geothermal activity within the broader displacement transfer zone in southeastern
Gabbs Valley (Figure 5.1.1). These include fault intersections of varying complexity, apparent
pull-aparts and releasing bends along the Petrified Springs dextral fault, and possible
terminations of normal fault zones (Figure 5.2.1). The multitude of favorable settings within one
moderately sized basin attests to both the structural complexity and vast geothermal potential of
Figure 5.2.1. Favorable structural settings of southeastern Gabbs Valley. Residual isostatic gravity map of the area
with warmer colors indicating higher relative gravity values. Brown lines are 0.5 mGal gravity contours. Favorable
structural settings shown as red dashed polygons with letters corresponding to locations referenced in the text.
67
The area of tightly spaced faults and fault intersections in the south-central part of
southeastern Gabbs Valley between the north-northeast-striking southern Gabbs Valley fault
zone and northwest-striking oblique-slip faults emanating from Gabbs Mountain define a
particularly favorable structural setting (point A in figure 5.2.1). Multiple lines of direct and
indirect evidence suggest a relatively high-temperature (130C) blind geothermal system in this
area, including collocated intersecting gravity gradients, magnetic-low, low-resistivity, and 2-m
temperature anomaly (Figure 5.2.2). The intersecting gravity gradients, in particular, suggest a
complex fault intersection (Figure 5.2.2A). Numerous north-northeast striking faults intersecting
northwest-striking faults, as mapped from gravity data, are favorably oriented to both slip and
dilate in the current stress field (Figure 5.2.2D). The 2 km2 magnetic-low (Figure 5.2.2B) is
likely produced from hydrothermal alteration of magnetic minerals in the volcanic stratigraphy.
The ~10 km2 low-resistivity anomaly (Figure 5.2.2C) is inferred to result from argillic alteration
in the system. The geometry of the resistivity anomaly is elliptically shaped and mostly
distributed between depths of 250-750 m in volcanic rocks near the contact with basin-fill
sediments. The shape of the low-resistivity anomaly is consistent with the model of an argillic
lithocap straddling the geothermal system, similar to that documented in other geothermal
systems (Pellerin et al., 1996; Newman et al., 2008; Munoz, 2014). The shallow temperature
survey defined a discrete 7 km2 anomaly (Figure 5.2.2) within this area with temperatures
elevated as much as 5.36°C above average background, which is well above the statistically
significant temperature threshold used to classify shallow thermal anomalies as potentially linked
to zones of hydrothermal upwelling (Sladeck and Coolbaugh, 2013). The 2-m temperature data
illustrate the surficial extent of the thermal anomaly. Anomalous 2-m temperatures
68
Figure 5.2.2. Collocated intersecting gravity gradients, magnetic-low, low-resistivity, 2-m temperature anomaly,
and favorable oriented faults for slip and dilation. Faults are shown as black lines (except in D). 2-m temperature
stations are shown as colored circles with warmer colors indicating higher measured temperatures. Favorable
structural settings shown as red dashed polygons. All maps are overlain on DEM hillshade. A. Residual isostatic
gravity map of the area with warmer colors indicating higher relative gravity values. Brown lines are 0.5 mGal
gravity contours. B. Reduced to pole (RTP) magnetic map of study area. Warmer colors indicate relatively higher
magnetic values (nT) than cooler colors. C. 199 m MT resistivity depth profile. Warmer colors indicate areas with
lower measured resistivity values (Ohm-m). D. Slip and dilatation tendency analyses. Faults are colored based on
slip and dilation tendency values with warmer colors indicating high slip and dilation tendency. E. Map showing
area of datasets as red polygon.
69
systematically decline to the north and eventually drop to background temperatures in the basin
at the inferred near-surface elevation of the water table (Figure 5.4.2). Thus, the 2-m survey
appears to detect the thermal signature produced from a zone of hydrothermal upflow/outflow of
a concealed geothermal system and essentially maps the flow path to the north into the central
part of the basin, where the thermal signature is masked by cool groundwater.
Interestingly, water samples collected from agricultural wells at the Diamond A Ranch
~7 km northwest of the 2-m anomaly (Figure 5.2.3) were anomalously warm (32°C) and
Figure 4.5.2). However, due to the proximity of several other favorable structural settings (points
B, D, and F in Figure 5.2.3), including the 2-m thermal anomaly documented by Payne (2013)
near Cobble Cuesta (point F in Figure 5.2.3), the warm water and promising geothermometers
from these wells are not clearly related to the geothermal system encountered by the 2-m survey
in the south-central part of the study area. Thus, geothermometry from the water samples at
Diamond A Ranch is not considered a definitive temperature estimate for the inferred geothermal
system in the south-central part of the basin. It is notable, however, that the geothermal systems
in western Gabbs Valley, including Rawhide Hot Springs and the system powering the Don A.
Campbell geothermal plant, are not likely sources based on fluid chemistry, structural barriers to
flow, and location down hydrologic gradient from the ranch. Thus, geothermometry results
Valley.
70
Figure 5.2.3. Geothermometor sample locations in relation to favorable structural settings and 2-m temperature
anomaly. Temperature data overlain on residual isostatic gravity map of the area with 0.5 mGal contours. Wells at
the Diamond A Ranch, where water samples were collected and used for geothermometry, are shown as yellow
squares. 2-m temperature stations are shown as colored circles with warmer colors indicating higher measured
temperatures. Favorable structural settings shown as red dashed polygons.
Several other favorable structural settings were identified within the study area (Figure
5.2.3). Two additional fault intersections were noted: 1) near the eastern edge of Mystery Ridge,
where a northeast-striking normal fault inferred from gravity data intersects the Petrified Springs
71
fault within a small releasing bend along the Petrified Springs fault (point B in Figure 5.2.3), and
2) along the northwestern side of County Line Ridge, where multiple north-striking faults
scarps (e.g., 1932 Cedar Mountain earthquake), and gravity gradients (point C, Figure 5.2.3). On
the west side of the map area, the inferred right-step in the Petrified Springs fault between
Mystery and Fissure Ridges (Figure 5.2.3) displays two discrete gravity lows on either side of a
gravity saddle that may correspond to transtensional pull apart zones, where faulting and
extension are concentrated (points D and E in Figure 5.2.3). This inferred right-step implies that
the Petrified Springs fault does not completely terminate within the study area and that some
dextral strain extends northwestward into western Gabbs Valley (Plate 1).
The final favorable structural setting is located in the northern part of the study area
directly west of Cobble Cuesta (point F in Figure 5.2.3), where an anomalous gravity high within
the basin lies adjacent to a previously documented 2.5 km2 thermal anomaly possibly associated
with a zone of geothermal upwelling (Payne, 2013). Payne (2013) proposed three potential
structural settings for this inferred upwelling: 1) fault termination of the Philips Wash normal
fault zone (e.g., ruptures associated with the 1954 Fairview Peak earthquake, Figure 3.2.1), 2)
striking strike-slip fault and north-striking normal faults. New gravity data collected in this study
show a west-northwest-trending gravity gradient in this area, which supports either the concealed
fault intersection setting or hybrid setting involving the southward terminating Phillips Wash
fault zone amid multiple intersections with the concealed northwest-striking fault. Further work
The Nevada play fairway methodology is a probabilistic estimate for finding a relatively
geochemical, and temperature data sets to show areas that are most favorable for further
exploration efforts. All datasets acquired in the detailed study have been synthesized to perform
a play fairway statistical analysis to quantitatively estimate targets in the area most favorable for
temperature-gradient drilling and further exploration. The general methodologies for producing
regional predictive maps in the initial phase of the project (Faulds et al., 2015b) were followed in
building detailed predictive maps for southeastern Gabbs Valley at the completion of this study.
Two main sets of predictive maps were generated: 1) play fairway maps (Figure 5.3.1), and 2)
Methodologies were modified from the initial to final phases of the play fairway project
to include new geologic mapping, geophysical data, geochemical data, and temperature data.
The permeability model for the area was improved by attributing Quaternary faults within the
area with slip and dilation tendency values, slip rates, and estimated most recent rupture age.
Additional modifications included incorporation of: 1) a structural settings quality factor used to
model the strength or quality of individual structural settings; and 2) 2-m temperature anomalies
utilizing established methods of assessing degrees above background and potential errors (e.g.,
Sladek and Coolbaugh, 2013). A probability of occurrence of a 130°C geothermal system was
assigned to the 2-m temperature anomaly as follows: a DAB of <2°C = 0 probability, 2-3°C =
0.15 probability, 3-4°C = 0.25 probability, 4-5°C=0.40 probability, and 5-6°C = 0.45 probability.
New data acquired in this study significantly enhanced the play fairway analysis from the
initial phase (Figure 5.3.1A) to Phase III (Figure 5.3.1C). The hybrid structural setting of the
73
densely spaced faults and fault intersections within the displacement transfer zone (point A in
Figure 5.3.1C) in the south-central part of the study area is the area most likely to host a
geothermal system based on this analysis. The favorable settings are ranked and scored in the
following order: 1) zone of multiple fault intersections in the south-central part of the area (point
A in Figure 5.3.1C) with a score of 7.2, 2) the eastern pull-apart zone of the Petrified Springs
fault adjoining the Diamond A Ranch (point D) with a score of 5.44, 3) the western pull-apart
zone of the Petrified Springs fault (point E) and fault intersection near the southern edge of
Mystery Ridge (point B) tied with a score of 4.8, 4) multiple fault intersections (point C)
bordering the northwest edge of County Line Ridge with a score of 2.34, and 5) the fault
termination or fault intersection near Cobble Questa (point F) with a score of 1.335. This
analysis indicates two structural settings with scores greater than 5, which signifies potential for
Although the play fairway scores have similar overall values in both the initial and final
phases of the project, the final play fairway analysis has defined locations of higher favorability
in much greater detail (Figure 5.3.1). Figure 5.3.1D illustrates the difference between the initial
and final phases whereby newly identified areas of permeability are shown in red compared to
areas that have a reduced permeability score in blue. Fairway error analysis maps (Figure 5.3.2)
display areas that have a decrease in error as positive numbers, whereas areas that have an
increase in error correspond to negative numbers. Error analysis results indicate a decrease in
error throughout the study area from the initial to final phases of the play fairway analysis, which
is attributed to the input of new data. The primary conclusion from this analysis is that the final
fairway map has reduced the exploration risk and improved targeting of blind geothermal
Figure 5.3.1. Phase I-III play fairway maps. Play fairway raster images overlain on DEM hillshade. A. Phase I
fairway map with initial structural settings and Quaternary faults (USGS, 2010). B. Phase II fairway map with newly
mapped faults and revised structural settings. Extent of phase II play fairway map covers the prior map boundary. C.
Phase III play fairway map with updated fault map and revised structural settings displaying local permeability
score. D. Difference between phase III and phase I play fairway maps. Blue colors indicate areas that have lower
fairway favorability scores after phase III analysis, and red colors are areas that have received higher fairway
favorability scores after phase III analysis.
75
Figure 5.3.2. Phase I-III fairway error maps. Error maps are overlain on DEM hillshade and show locations of
Quaternary faults and revised structural settings. A. Phase I fairway error map. Quaternary faults mapped by USGS
(2010). B. Phase II fairway error map. C. Phase III fairway error map.
76
On the basis of the high play fairway score and collocated 2-m temperature anomaly,
intersecting gravity gradients, magnetic-low, and low-resistivity, the complex fault intersection
within the south-central part of the study area (point A on Figure 5.2.3) was chosen for
temperature-gradient drilling in this study. Specific drill targets were selected to span and
straddle the collocated features to better define the length and breadth of the potential geothermal
system.
Six temperature-gradient holes were drilled by the U.S. Geological Survey research
drilling unit from late May to late June 2018 to a depth of ~152 m (500 ft) each. A depth of 152
m was chosen based on regional observations (Benoit personal communication, 2018) suggesting
that this is a sufficient depth interval to detect concealed geothermal activity. The budget only
allowed for six drill holes. A sealed narrow conductive casing was placed in the wellbore and
cemented in place with geothermal grout. The sealed casing was filled with water and allowed to
equilibrate with the surrounding rock temperature, and subsequent surveys tracked temperature
equilibration. Five temperature surveys were completed to track temperature equilibration in the
holes from June 9, 2018 to September 28, 2018 to ensure equilibrated temperature-gradient
profiles of the holes. Surveys involved lowering a thermocouple on a wire-line down the sealed
casing and measuring temperatures in 10 m intervals. All surveys were found to have an
The six temperature-gradient holes were distributed roughly across the extent of the
shallow-temperature and geophysical anomalies, including the full north-south extent of the
anomalous area and partially across the east-west extent (Figure 5.3.1B). Wells 31-2 and 52-2
contained high temperatures exceeding boiling with bottom-hole temperatures of 114.5°C and
77
ranging from 79.2°C to 28.7°C. The drill data indicate that the thermal anomaly has a ~2 km
north-south length and a ~1 km east-west breadth. Drill cuttings are homogeneous across all
wells and are composed of basin-fill sediments of sand, silt, and gravels primarily composed of
Tertiary volcanic clasts sourced from the surrounding mountains. Tertiary and Mesozoic bedrock
Analysis of the temperature-gradient drilling data yields insights into the distribution and
source of subsurface thermal anomalies and implications for the interpretation of other datasets.
Five of the six wells yielded temperature-gradients significantly higher than the average for the
Great Basin region. Holes 65-33 and 87-3 display linear trends of temperature increasing with
depth (Figure 5.3.1A) consistent with a geothermal gradient produced solely by conductive
heating. The calculated temperature gradient for hole 65-33 is 56.7ºC/km and considered within
the range of the average Great Basin geothermal gradient of 25-70ºC/km (Blackwell and
Richards, 2004; Coolbaugh, 2005). Hole 87-3 has a geothermal gradient of 190.8ºC/km, which is
highly elevated. Holes 85-3 and 41-1 exhibit even more highly elevated geothermal gradients
(Figure 5.3.1A). The calculated gradient for 85-3 is 400ºC/km, which is considered an extreme
gradient and indicative of a localized heat-source proximal to the hole. Similar to holes 65-33
and 87-3, 85-3 has a linear conduction temperature gradient, whereas hole 41-1 has a gently
that this hole is not solely influenced by conduction and possibly received some secondary
thermal input between 30-100 m from convective fluids. Holes that do not exhibit conduction
were not chosen for temperature gradient calculations based on the uncertainty in estimating the
Figure 5.4.1. Temperature-gradient data and drill-hole locations for the southeastern Gabbs Valley blind geothermal
system. Temperature-gradients were measured following temperature equilibration of the holes from the latest
survey taken on September 28th, 2018. A. Temperature vs. depth graphs with well names and interpretations. For
wells displaying conduction, the calculated linear gradient is extended to 1 km to yield a °C/km estimation, which is
listed below the well name. B. Location of temperature-gradient holes (colored triangles) with respect to the
favorable structural setting (red dashed ellipse) and faults (black lines). Warmer colored triangles indicate higher
bottom-hole temperatures at 152 m.
79
The temperature-gradient profiles for holes 31-2 and 52-2 differ significantly from the
profiles produced from the other four drilled holes (Figure 5.3.1A). These differences include:
temperature reversals in both holes between 60-80 m depth, and 3) relatively isothermal
temperatures from 90 m to the bottom of the holes at 152 m. The observed temperature-gradients
for 31-2 and 52-2 necessitate drill-hole intercepts of convecting hydrothermal fluids to produce
the distinct temperature reversals and isothermal anomalies, which cannot be produced purely
from a conductive heat source. The matching isothermal interval between 60-80 m depth
strongly indicates the presence of hydrothermal fluids, which is likely a zone of lateral outflow in
the basin sediments. The 90-150 m isothermal interval also indicates hydrothermal fluids, which
may be in a zone of upwelling or lateral outflow. The relatively shallow depths of these holes do
not capture the full extent of the deeper isothermal thermal anomaly, and thus several questions
nearby areas, including Dixie Valley (Blackwell et al., 2000), Salt Wells (Edmiston and Benoit,
1985; Hinz et al., 2014), Hawthorne (Blake et al., 2017), and western Gabbs Valley (Orenstein et
al., 2015), display similar temperatuer/depth relationships to the blind geothermal system in
southeastern Gabbs Valley. Nonetheless, deeper drilling is needed to extend the temperature
profiles to resolve whether these holes intersected a zone of geothermal upflow (temperature
increases and/or remains constant with depth) or lateral outflow (decrease in temperature with
depth).
It is noteworthy that the 2-m survey captured a broad area with elevated temperatures that
are spatially and thermally consistent with the temperature-gradient holes (Figure 5.4.2). For
example, the hottest 2-m stations are clustered ~700-900 m to the north and down hydrologic
80
gradient from the hottest temperature-gradient hole (Figure 5.4.2). Thus, the core of upflow at a
shallow depth interval (<250m) is likely <0.5-1 km west-southwest of the hottest drill hole, as
evidenced by: 1) tight spatial correlation in three dimensions between the highest temperature
gradient holes and 2-m stations tracking upflow/outflow, 2) intersecting gravity gradients
anomaly.
The direct evidence map for temperatures indicative of a blind geothermal system in
southeastern Gabbs Valley has been significantly improved in this study with the addition of new
geothermometry, 2-m data, and temperature-gradient hole data. Figure 5.4.3A shows that there
was no indication of a blind geothermal system in the study area in the initial phase of the play
Diamond A Ranch and identified the 2-m thermal anomaly in Phase II (Figure 5.4.3B).
Temperature-gradient drill data acquired in the final phase is another line of evidence for a
geothermal system and correlates with the 2-m data (Figure 5.4.3C). Figure 5.4.3D shows the
Figure 5.4.2. Spatial relationships of temperature and magnetic data. Temperature-gradient holes are shown as
colored triangles with warmer colors indicating higher temperatures at 152 m. The shallow temperature survey is
shown as colored circles with warmer colors indicating higher temperatures at 2 m. Magnetic survey shown as
colored basemap with warmer colors indicating higher relative magnetic values (nT). Favorable structural setting is
shown as red dashed polygon, which also approximately encompasses the extent of the thermal anomaly. Location
of deep potential well targets indicated by red circular bulls-eyes. Yellow circle indicates the inferred core area of
shallow (<250 m) hydrothermal upwelling.
82
Figure 5.4.3. Phase I-III direct evidence maps. A. Phase I direct evidence map. B. Phase II direct evidence map. C.
Phase III direct evidence map. D. Map showing difference in direct evidence between phase I and phase III. Note
that direct evidence near Cobble Cuesta is data from Payne (2013) that was added to the fairway map following
Phase I and not new data acquired in this study.
83
All available datasets indicate that relatively high-temperature hydrothermal fluids are
upwelling in the south-central part of southeastern Gabbs Valley in the area of densely spaced
faults and fault intersections collocated with the thermal anomaly (as defined by both
temperature-gradient holes and 2-m temperature data), intersecting gravity gradients, magnetic-
low, and low-resistivity (Figure 5.2.2). Fluids likely upflow along north-northeast striking
normal faults proximal to and along fault intersections. North-northeast-striking normal faults
have the highest tendency to slip and dilate in the current stress field, and fracture density is
probably greater near the fault intersections. The Mesozoic basement likely hosts a geothermal
reservoir, and joint and fracture analysis of basement exposures in the study area documented
pervasive fracture density likely increasing overall permeability of these lithologies. Primary
fracture orientations in the basement strike north-northeast, parallel to major normal faults in the
area, and are similarly favored for slip and dilation in the current stress field. Hydrothermal
fluids presumably convect from basement into the overlying volcanic and sedimentary rocks.
Multiple geologic and geophysical collocated features suggest that the Tertiary volcanic and
sedimentary rocks also host a geothermal reservoir. Temperature-gradient hole and 2-m survey
data constrain the zone of shallow upwelling (Figure 5.4.2), and the location of the magnetic-low
may best define the spatial extent of the geothermal system in volcanic rocks. The zone of
inferred upwelling in volcanic rocks occupies the area corresponding to the center of the
magnetic-low, which is ~750 m west of the hottest temperature-gradient hole (52-2). The fine-
scale resolution (<200 m) constraining the area with hydrothermal upflow is yet to be
ascertained. It is worth reiterating that this is a blind geothermal system, whereby fluids do not
daylight. Hydrothermal fluids are instead inhibited by a clay cap and/or captured by highly-
84
permeable alluvium and directed down hydrologic gradient to the north-northwest into lower
Based on synthesis of all available data sets and generation of a conceptual model of the
geothermal system, deeper drill targets are recommended to delineate the zone of upflow and
characterize the system. This is a natural progression following relatively shallow temperature-
gradient drilling in assessing a geothermal system. Figure 5.4.2 shows locations of suggested
drill targets. Four wells placed near the highest temperature-gradient hole, centered on the
magnetic low and drilled to progressively increasing depths from east to west (500-1000 m) are
proximal to intersections with northwest-striking faults. The increasing depths for the wells from
The geothermal system supplying the Don A. Campbell power plant ~15 km to the
northwest of the study area is an analogous system that shares many of the same geologic,
Gabbs Valley. Similar to southeastern Gabbs Valley, the Don A. Campbell geothermal system is
blind with no surface expression of geothermal activity. A reconnaissance 2-m survey initially
documented a 6.5 km2 temperature anomaly at that site (Kratt et al., 2008). The geophysical
expression of the Don Campbell system shares the same patterns observed in southeastern Gabbs
Valley with a conspicuous magnetic-low anomaly and northeast-trending gravity gradients. The
Don A. Campbell system occupies a hybrid structural setting, including fault intersections
between possible splays of the Benton Springs dextral fault and north-northeast-striking normal
faults in an apparent displacement transfer zone. The power plant taps a ~130°C reservoir
85
(Orenstein et al., 2015). Geothermometers for the Diamond A Ranch show similar patterns and
slightly lower values in comparison to water samples sourced from production wells at the power
plant. Well temperatures at ~150 m are ~130°C for six of the eight wells at the power plant.
Below 150 m, these six wells are isothermal down to terminal depths, which vary from 500-1200
m (Orenstein et al., 2015). The 150 m temperature gradient profiles of the wells at the power
excellent candidate for further development for electrical energy production. Temperature-
gradient hole measurements and potentially related geothermometry suggest that the system has
temperatures ≥130ºC. If so, the system would probably be capable of supporting a binary-type
geothermal power plant. Further exploration is needed, however, to test if the area has sufficient
reservoir temperatures and permeability over a broad enough area to maintain flow rates needed
to sustain a power plant. Drilling deeper temperature-gradient holes or full sized well bores is
recommended (Figure 5.4.2). Completion of these wells is necessary to assess the exact location
of hydrothermal upwelling, gauge the permeability of the reservoir, and directly sample water
from the system for improved geothermometry. Seismic reflection surveys would also be helpful
in imaging concealed faults and more accurately defining the basin architecture.
Other favorable structural settings identified in this study (Figure 5.2.1) have potential for
hosting a blind geothermal system, and further work is needed to delineate the quality of these
prospects. Reconnaissance geologic mapping, gravity surveys, and shallow temperature surveys
employed in this study have covered most of the southeastern part of the Gabbs Valley basin.
The majority of the 2-m survey in the lower parts of the basin encountered background
86
temperatures likely produced from cool groundwater. Typical 2-m temperatures in these areas do
not rule out the potential for blind geothermal systems, as thermal anomalies are possibly
suppressed by cool shallow ground water. The favorable structural setting directly east of
Mystery Ridge (Figure 5.2.1, point B) contains one moderately anomalous 2-m station that could
signal some geothermal activity. Collection of new magnetic and MT data in areas lacking
coverage would be helpful in determining whether any of the other favorable structural settings
(e.g., Zehner et al., 2012) would be recommended. The thermal anomaly identified by Payne
(2013) near Cobble Cuesta (Figure 3.3.1) is an excellent candidate for future exploration in
The play fairway analysis for southeastern Gabbs Valley yielded significant differences
between the initial and final phases of the project (Figure 5.3.1A and 5.3.1C). The location of the
study area in a large late Cenozoic basin necessitated collection of new geophysical data to refine
focused on the most promising setting that displayed the highest structural complexity collocated
with other features indicative of geothermal potential (Figure 5.2.2). A primary difference
between the initial and final phases of this project is that the initial regional analysis recognized a
relatively broad, favorable structural setting in the southeastern part of Gabbs Valley (Figure 1.3
and Figure 5.3.1). As is typical in any exploration program, it is difficult to discern the detailed
characteristics of a particular area to select the most favorable targets for drilling in the early,
more regional stages. Detailed geological, geochemical, and geophysical investigations were
87
thus carried out in subsequent phases to apply the play fairway analysis at a finer scale, refine
exploration targets, and ultimately select temperature-gradient drilling sites within the basin. The
positive results epitomize the importance of detailed studies to refine exploration targets.
Considering that nearly half of the Great Basin region is covered by basins, this also
demonstrates the broad applicability of such detailed studies, as well as the large untapped
potential for commercial-grade blind geothermal systems in many of these basins. The discovery
of an apparent blind geothermal system in southeastern Gabbs Valley also provides an initial
This methodology of accurately targeting blind geothermal systems through play fairway
analysis can be applied to future exploration programs in the Great Basin, particularly to
development in broad Neogene basins. Evolution of future methods may encompass targeting
geothermal systems on the scale of entire basins, which contain several individual prospects,
geothermal system at a time in isolated localities has been the standard since the 1980’s. An
exploration program targeting multiple geothermal systems at a time would yield several
advantages, such as lower long-term exploration costs (e.g., geophysical survey and drill rig
mobilization), reduced infrastructure expense (e.g., transmission lines), and a possibly more
robust investment model of diversified risk and higher total energy capacity projects. Conducting
exploration programs in this fashion would be similar to how oil fields are developed and
maximized (e.g., Merrill and Sternbach, 2017). Results from this study indicate that southeastern
Gabbs Valley has at least one blind geothermal system worthy of further investment and possibly
several other systems of similar quality. There are numerous basins within the Great Basin that
may hide multiple blind systems and are prime for this type of analysis. Locating and harnessing
88
large amounts of blind conventional geothermal resources in this fashion may change how the
geothermal industry operates in relation to other renewable energy industries in the coming
decades. Large capacity renewable infrastructure is expected to be built to transition away from
fossil-fuel energy resources. Proving that geothermal can compete with large wind and solar
projects will be important to capitalize on during this transition period. Play fairway analysis can
clearly play a crucial role in the continued advancement in the development of geothermal
energy.
89
4. Conclusions
This study has assessed the potential for high-temperature (≥130C) blind geothermal
prospects to guide future development. Gabbs Valley is a complex, tectonically active basin
within the Great Basin on the boundary of the transtensional central Walker Lane and
extensional Basin and Range province. The relatively abrupt transition from northwest-striking
faults and fault blocks in the southernmost part of the study area to the north-northeast-trending
structural grain to the north reflects a transfer of dextral shear into northwest-directed extension.
The termination of the Petrified Springs fault, a major strike-slip fault of the central Walker
Lane, into an array of normal faults indicates that a broad displacement transfer zone occupies
the area.
The geologic and geophysical data indicate at least six individual, favorable structural
settings for geothermal activity within the broader displacement transfer zone in southeastern
Gabbs Valley. These include fault intersections of varying complexity, apparent pull-aparts and
releasing bends along the Petrified Springs dextral fault, and possible terminations of normal
fault zones. The area of tightly spaced faults and fault intersections in the south-central part of
southeastern Gabbs Valley is a particularly favorable structural setting. Multiple lines of direct
and indirect evidence suggest a relatively high-temperature (130C) blind geothermal system in
this area, including collocated intersecting gravity gradients, magnetic-low, low-resistivity, and
2-m temperature anomaly. Water samples collected from agricultural wells ~7 km northwest of
the 2-m anomaly produced geothermometers indicating subsurface fluid temperatures of 130-
140°C. However, geothermal fluids contributing to these wells are not clearly related to the blind
90
Six temperature-gradient holes were drilled to target the extent of the shallow-
temperature and geophysical anomalies to define the geothermal system in southeastern Gabbs
Valley. Two wells contained high temperatures exceeding boiling, with bottom-hole
temperatures of 114.5°C and 124.9°C, respectively. The remaining wells displaying elevated to
background temperatures ranging from 79.2°C to 28.7°C. The observed temperature gradients
for the two hottest drill holes necessitate drill-hole intercepts of convecting hydrothermal fluids.
Deeper drilling is needed to extend the temperature profiles to resolve whether these holes
intersected a zone of geothermal upflow or lateral outflow. The 2-m survey is spatially and
thermally consistent with the temperature-gradient holes, and integration of these datasets
constrains the core of upflow at a shallow depth interval (<250m) to an area <0.5-1 km west-
southwest of the hottest drill hole. Fluids likely upflow along north-northeast striking normal
faults proximal to and along fault intersections. The core of upwelling probably occupies the area
corresponding to the center of magnetic-low, which is ~750 m west of the hottest temperature-
gradient hole.
measurements and potentially related geothermometry suggest that the system in southeastern
Gabbs Valley has temperatures ≥130ºC and is likely capable of supporting a binary-type
geothermal power plant. Further exploration is needed to test if the area has sufficient reservoir
temperatures and permeability over a broad enough area to maintain flow rates needed to sustain
a power plant.
91
provides an initial validation of the play fairway methodology. This detailed study demonstrates
the broad applicability of this exploration strategy and the large untapped potential for
commercial-grade blind geothermal systems in many of the basins in the Great Basin region.
Evolution of future methods may encompass targeting multiple geothermal systems on the scale
of entire basins. There are numerous basins within the Great Basin that may hide multiple blind
References Cited
Allmendinger, R. W., Cardozo, N., and Fisher, D., 2012, Structural geology algorithms: Vectors
and tensors in structural geology: New York, Cambridge University Press, 304 p.
Angelier, J., Colletta, B., and Anderson, R.E., 1985, Neogene paleostress changes in the Basin and
Range: A case study at Hoover Dam, Nevada-Arizona: Geological Society of
America Bulletin, v. 96, p. 347–361, doi: 10.1130/0016-
7606(1985)96<347:NPCITB>2.0.CO;2.
Angelier, J., 1994, Fault slip analysis and paleostress field reconstruction, in Hancock, P.L., ed.,
Continental Deformation: Terrytown, New York, Pergamon Press, p. 53-100.
Angster, S.J., 2018, Contributions to the neotectonics of the central and northern Walker Lane,
[Ph.D. dissertation]: University of Nevada, Reno, 172 p.
Arnórsson, S., 1983, Chemical equilibria in Icelandic geothermal systems – Implications for
chemical geothermometry investigations: Geothermics, v. 12, p. 119-128.
Athens, N.D., Glen, J.M., Morin, R.L., and Klemperer, S.L., 2011, ATV magnetometer systems for
efficient ground magnetic surveying: The Leading Edge, v. 30, p. 394-398.
Athens, N.D., Ponce, D.A., Jayko, A.S., Miller, M., McEvoy, B., Marcaida, M., Mangan, M.T.,
Wilkinson, S.K., McClain, J.S., Chuchel, B.A., and Denton K.M, 2014, Magnetic and
gravity studies of Mono Lake, east-central California: U.S. Geological Survey Open File
Report 2014-1043, 14 p.
Atwater, T., and Molnar, P., 1973, Relative motion of the Pacific and North American plates
deduced from seafloor spreading in the Atlantic, Indian and south Pacific Oceans, in
Kovach, R.L., and Nur, A., eds, Proceedings of the Conference on Tectonic Problems of the
San Andreas fault system: Stanford University Publication Geological Sciences, v. 13, p.
136-148.
Atwater, T., and Stock, J., 1998, Pacific – North American plate tectonics of the Neogene
southwestern United States – An update: International Geology Reviews, v. 40, p. 375-402.
Back, W., 1961, Techniques for mapping of hydrochemical facies: U.S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 424, 382 p.
Baker, R.A., Gehman, H. M., James, W. R., and White, D. A., 1986, Geologic field number and oil
and gas plays, in Rice, D.D., ed., Oil and gas assessment- Methods and applications:
American Association of Petroleum Geologists Studies in Geology, v. 21, p. 25-31.
Barton, C.A., Hickman, S., Morin, R., Zoback, M.D., Finkbeiner, T., Sassj, J., and Benoit, D.,
1997, Fracture permeability and its relationship to in-situ stress in the Dixie Valley,
93
Beanland, S., and Clark, M.M., 1982, The Owens Valley fault zone, Eastern California, and surface
faulting associated with the 1872 Earthquake: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1982, 38 p.
Bell, J.W., DePolo, C.M., Ramelli, A.R., Sarna-Wojcicki, A.M., and Meyer, C.E., 1999, Surface
faulting and paleoseismic history of the 1932 Cedar Mountain earthquake area, west-central
Nevada, and implications for modern tectonics of the Walker Lane: Geological Society of
America Bulletin, v. 111, p. 791–807, doi: 10.1130/0016-
7606(1999)111<0791:SFAPHO>2.3.CO;2.
Bell, J., and Ramelli, A., 2007, Active faults and neotectonics at geothermal sites in the western
Basin and Range: Preliminary results: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 31,
p. 375–378.
Bell, J.W., and Ramelli, A.R., 2009, Active fault controls at high-temperature geothermal sites:
Prospecting for new faults: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 33, p. 425–429.
Birkeland, P.W., 1999, Soils and geomorphology: Oxford University Press, 430 p., doi:
10.1016/0016-7061(86)90046-7.
Blackwell, D.D., 1983, Heat Flow in the northern Basin and Range Province, in The role of heat in
the development of energy and mineral resources in the northern Basin and Range province:
Geothermal Resources Council Special Report 13, p. 81–92.
Blackwell, D., Stepp, P., and Richards, M., 2010, Comparison and discussion of the 6 km
temperature maps of the western U.S. prepared by the SMU Geothermal Lab and the USGS:
Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 34, p. 515–520.
Blackwell, D.D., Richards, M., Frone, Z., and Batir, J., 2011, Temperature-at-depth maps for the
conterminous U.S. and geothermal resource estimates: Geothermal Resources Council
Transactions, v. 35, p. 1545-1550.
Blake, K., and Davatzes, N.C., 2012, Borehole image log and statistical analysis of FOH-3D,
Fallon Naval Air Station, NV: Proceedings, 37th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir
Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 14 p.
Blakley, R.J., 1995, Potential theory in gravity and magnetic applications: Cambridge, New York,
Cambridge University Press, 135 p.
Blakely, R.J., and Simpson, R.W., 1986, Approximating edges of source bodies from magnetic or
gravity anomalies: Geophysics, v. 51, p. 1494-1498.
Blewitt, G., Hammond, W.C., and Kreemer, C., 2009, Geodetic observation of contemporary
deformation in the northern Walker Lane: 1. Semipermanent GPS strategy, in Oldow, J.S.,
94
Cashman, P.H., Late Cenozoic structure and evolution of the Great Basin- Sierra Nevada
transition: Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America Special Paper 447, p. 1-15.
Boden, D.R., 2017, Geologic fundamentals of geothermal energy: Boca Raton, Florida, CRC Press,
398 p.
Brundy, M., and Zoback, M., 1999, Drilling-induced tensile wall-fractures: Implications for
determination of in-situ stress orientation and magnitude: International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences, v. 36, p. 191-215.
Caine, J.S., Evans, J.P., and Forster, C.B., 1996, Fault zone architecture and permeability structure:
Geology, v. 24, p. 1025–1028, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<1025
Cardozo, N., and Allmendinger, R. W., 2013, Spherical projections with OSXStereonet: Computers
and Geosciences, v. 51, p. 193 – 205, doi:10.1016/j.cageo.2012.07.021.
Cashman, P.H., and Fontaine, S.A., 2000, Strain partitioning in the northern Walker Lane, western
Nevada and northeastern California: Tectonophysics, v. 326, p. 111–130, doi:
10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00149-9.
Caskey, S.J., Wesnousky, S.G., Zhang, P., and Slemmons, D.B., 1996, Surface faulting of the 1954
Fairview Peak (MS 7.2) and Dixie Valley (MS 6.8) earthquakes, central Nevada:
Seismological Society of America Bulletin, v. 86, p. 761–787.
Caskey, S.J., and Wesnousky, S.G., 1997, Static stress changes and earthquake triggering during
the 1954 Fairview Peak and Dixie Valley earthquakes, central Nevada: Seismological
Society of America Bulletin, v. 87, p. 521–527.
Chave, A.D., Thomson, D.J., 2004, Bounded influence magnetotelluric response function
estimation: Geophysical Journal International, v. 157, p. 988-1006.
Christiansen, R.L., and McKee, E.H., 1978, Late Cenozoic volcanic and tectonic evolution of the
Great Basin and Columbia Intermontane regions, in Smith, R.B., Eaton, G.P., eds.,
Cenozoic Tectonics and Regional Geophysics of the Western Cordillera: Geological Society
of America Memoir 152, p. 283–312.
Colgan, J.P., Howard, K.A., Fleck, R.J., Wooden, J.L., 2010, Rapid middle Miocene extension and
unroofing of the southern Ruby Mountains, Nevada: Tectonics, v. 29, p. 38.
Coney, P.J., and Harms, T.A., 1984, Cordillerian metamorphic core complexes: Cenozoic
extensional relics of Mesozoic compression: Geology, v. 12, p. 550-554.
Coolbaugh, M.F., Taranik, J. V, Raines, G., Shevenell, A., Sawatzky, D., Bedell, R., and Minor,
T.B., 2002, A geothermal GIS for Nevada: Defining regional controls and favorable
95
Coolbaugh, M.F, and A. Shevenell, L., 2004, A method for estimating undiscovered geothermal
resources in Nevada and the Great Basin: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v.
28, p. 13-18.
Coolbaugh, M.F., Raines, G.L., Zehner, R.E., Shevenell, L., and Williams, C.F., 2006, Prediction
and discovery of new geothermal resources in the Great Basin: Multiple evidence of a large
undiscovered resource base: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 30, p. 867–
874.
Coolbaugh, M., Sladek, C., Faulds, J., Zehner, R., and Oppliger, G., 2007, Use of rapid temperature
measurements at a 2-meter depth to augment deeper temperature gradient drilling:
Proceedings, 32nd Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University,
Stanford, California, SGP-TR-183, p. 109-116.
Coolbaugh, M., Lechler, P., Sladek, C., and Kratt, C., 2009, Carbonate tufa columns as exploration
guides for geothermal systems in the Great Basin: Geothermal Resources Council
Transactions, v. 33, p. 461–466.
Coolbaugh, M., Sladek, C., Zehner, R., and Kratt, C., 2014, Shallow temperature surveys for
geothermal exploration in the Great Basin, USA, and estimation of shallow aquifer heat
loss: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 38, p. 115-122.
Cumming, W., 2009, Geothermal resource conceptual models using surface exploration data:
Proceedings: 34th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University,
Stanford, California, 6 p.
Cunningham, W.D., and Mann, P., 2007, Tectonics of strike-slip restraining and releasing bends:
London, England, Geological Society of Special Publications 290, p. 1-12.
Curewitz, D., and Karson, J.A., 1997, Structural settings of hydrothermal outflow: Fracture
permeability maintained by fault propagation and interaction: Journal of Volcanology and
Geothermal Research, v. 79, p. 149–168, doi: 10.1016/S0377-0273(97)00027-9.
Dallmeyer, R.D., Snoke, A.W., and McKee, E.H., 1986, The Mesozoic-Cenozoic tectonothermal
evolution of the Ruby Mountains, East Humboldt Range, Nevada: A cordilleran
metamorphic core complex: Tectonics, v. 5, p. 931-954.
DeAngelo, J., Shervais, J.W., Glen, J.M., Nielson, D., Garg, S., Dobson, P., Gasperikova, E.,
Sonnenthal, E., Visser, C., and Liberty, L.M., 2016, Geothermal play fairway analysis of the
Snake River Plain: Phase II: Geothermal Research Council Transactions, v. 41, p. 2328-
2345.
96
Dilles, J.H., and Gans, P.B., 1995, The chronology of Cenozoic volcanism and deformation in the
Yerington area, western Basin and Range and Walker Lane: Geological Society of America
Bulletin, v. 107, p. 474-486.
Dokka, R.K., and Travis, C.J., 1983, Late Cenozoic strike‐slip faulting in the Mojave Desert,
California: Geology, v. 11, p. 305–308.
Dokka, R.K., and Travis, C.J., 1990, Role of the eastern California shear zone in accommodating
Pacific‐North American plate motion: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 17, p. 1323–1326.
Drummond, S.E., and Ohmoto, H., 1985, Chemical evolution and mineral deposition in boiling
hydrothermal systems: Economic Geology, v. 80, p. 126–147, doi:
10.2113/gsecongeo.80.1.126.
Doust, H., 2003, Placing petroleum systems and plays in their basin-history context: A means to
assist in the identification of new opportunities: First Break, v. 21, p. 73-83.
Doust, H., 2010, The exploration play: what do we mean by it?: American Association of
Petroleum Geologist Bulletin, v. 94, p. 1657-1672.
Ekren, E. B., and Byers, F.M., Jr., 1976, Ash-flow fissure vent in west-central Nevada: Geology, v.
4, p. 247-251.
Ekren, E.B., Byers, F.M., Jr., Hardyman, R.F., Marvin, R.F., and Silberman, M.L., 1980,
Stratigraphy, preliminary petrology, and some structural features of Tertiary volcanic rocks
in the Gabbs Valley and Gillis Ranges, Mineral County, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey
Bulletin 1464, p. 1-54.
Ekren, E.B., and Byers, F.M., Jr., 1984, The Gabbs Valley Range – A well-exposed segment of the
Walker Lane in west-central Nevada, in Lintz, J., Jr., ed., Western geologic excursions, v. 4:
Reno, Nevada: Geologic Society of America Guidebook, Annual Meeting, p. 203-215.
Ekren, E. B., and Byers, F.M., Jr., 1985a, Geologic map of the Gabbs Mountain, Mount Ferguson,
Luning, and Sunrise Fault quadrangles, Mineral and Nye counties, Nevada: U.S. Geological
Survey Map I-1577, scale 1:48,000, 1 sheet.
Ekren, E. B., and Byers, F.M., Jr., 1985b, Geologic map of the Win Wan Flat, Kinkaid NW,
Kinkaid, and Indian Head Peak quadrangles, Mineral County, Nevada: U.S. Geological
Survey Map I-1578, scale 1:48,000, 1 sheet.
Ekren, E. B., and Byers, F.M., Jr., 1986a, Geologic map of the Mount Annie NE, Mount Annie,
Ramsey Spring, and Mount Annie SE quadrangles, Mineral and Nye counties, Nevada: U.S.
Geological Survey Map I-1579, scale 1:48,000, 1 sheet.
Ekren, E. B., and Byers, F.M., Jr., 1986b, Geologic map of the Murphys Well, Pilot Cone, Copper
Mountain, and Poinsettia Spring quadrangles, Mineral County, Nevada: U.S. Geological
Survey Map I-1576, scale 1:48,000, 1 sheet.
97
Evernden, J., and Kistler, R.W., 1970, Chronology of emplacement of Mesozoic batholithic
complexes in California and western Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
623, 42 p.
Faulds, J.E., and Varga, R.J., 1998, The role of accommodation zones and transfer zones in the
regional segmentation of extended terranes, in Faulds, J.E., and Stewart, J.H., eds.,
Accommodation Zones and Transfer Zones: The Regional Segmentation of the Basin and
Range Province: Geological Society of America Special Paper 323. p. 1-46.
Faulds, J.E., Coolbaugh, M.F., Blewitt, G., and Henry, C.D., 2004, Why is Nevada in hot water?
Structural controls and tectonic model of geothermal systems in the northwestern Great
Basin: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 28, p. 649–654.
Faulds, J.E., Henry, C.D., and Hinz, N.H., 2005, Kinematics of the northern Walker Lane: An
incipient transform fault along the Pacific-North American plate boundary: Geology, v. 33,
p. 505–508.
Faulds, J.E., Coolbaugh, M.F., Vice, G.S., and Edwards, M.L., 2006, Characterizing structural
controls of geothermal fields in the northwestern Great Basin: A progress report:
Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 30, p. 69–76.
Faulds, J.E., and Henry, C.D., 2008, Tectonic influences on the spatial and temporal evolution of
the Walker Lane: an incipient transform fault along the evolving Pacific – North American
plate boundary, in Spencer, J.E., and Titley, S.R., eds, Ores and orogenesis: Circum Pacific
tectonics, geologic evolution, and ore deposits: Arizona Geological Society Digest, p. 437–
470.
Faulds, J.E., Coolbaugh, M.F., Bouchot, V., Moeck, I., and Oguz, K., 2010, Characterizing
structural controls of geothermal reservoirs in the Great Basin, USA, and western Turkey:
Developing successful exploration strategies in extended terranes: Proceedings of the World
Geothermal Congress, Bali, Indonesia, 25-29 April, 10 p.
Faulds, J.E., Hinz, N.H., Coolbaugh, M.F., Cashman, P.H., Kratt, C., Dering, G., Edwards, J.,
Mayhew, B., and Mclachlan, H., 2011, Assessment of favorable structural settings of
geothermal systems in the Great Basin, western USA: Geothermal Resources Council
Transactions, v. 35, p. 777–783.
Faulds. J.E., Hinz, N., Kreemer, C., and Coolbaugh, M., 2012, Regional patterns of geothermal
activity in the Great Basin region, western USA: Correlation with strain rates and
distribution of geothermal fields: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 36, p.
897-902.
Faulds, J.E., Hinz, N.H., Dering, G.M., and Siler, D.L., 2013, The hybrid model — The most
accommodating structural setting for geothermal power generation in the Great Basin,
western USA: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 37, p. 3-10.
98
Faulds, J.E., Hinz, N.H., Coolbaugh, M.F., Shevenell, L.A., Siler, D.L., dePolo, C.M., Hammond,
W.C., Kreemer, C., Oppliger, G., Wannamaker, P., Queen, J.H., and Visser, C., 2015a,
Integrated geologic and geophysical approach for establishing geothermal play fairways and
discovering blind geothermal systems in the Great Basin region, western USA: Final
submitted report to the Department of Energy (DE-EE0006731), 106 p.
Faulds, J.E., Hinz, N.H., Coolbaugh, M.F., Shevenell, L.A., Siler, D.L., dePolo, C.M., Hammond,
W.C., Kreemer, C., Oppliger, G., Wannamaker, P.E., Queen, J.H., and Visser, C.F., 2015b,
Integrated geologic and geophysical approach for establishing geothermal play fairways and
discovering blind geothermal systems in the Great Basin region, western USA: A progress
report: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 39, p. 691-700.
Faulds, J.E., and Hinz, N.H., 2015, Favorable tectonic and structural settings of geothermal systems
in the Great Basin region, western USA: Proxies for discovering blind geothermal systems:
World Geothermal Congress 2015, Melbourne, Australia, 6 p.
Faulds, J. E., Hinz, N.H., Coolbaugh, M. F., Shevenell, L. A., and Siler D. L, 2016a, The
Nevada play fairway project — Phase II: Initial search for new viable geothermal systems
in the Great Basin region, western USA: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v.
40, p. 535-540.
Faulds, J.E., Hinz, N.H., Coolbaugh, M.F., Siler, D.L., Shevenell, L.A., Queen, J.H., dePolo, C.M.,
Hammond, W.C., and Kreemer, C., 2016b, Discovering geothermal systems in the Great
Basin region: an integrated geologic, geochemical, and geophysical approach for
establishing geothermal play fairways: Proceedings, 41st Workshop on Geothermal
Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 15 p.
Faulds, J. E., Hinz, N.H., Coolbaugh, M. F., Shevenell, L. A., Sadowski, A.J., Shevenell, L.A.,
McConville, E., Craig, J., Sladek, C., and Siler D. L, 2017a, Progress report on the Nevada
play fairway project: Integrated geological, geochemical, and geophysical analyses of
possible new geothermal systems in the Great Basin region: Proceedings, 42nd Workshop
on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 11 p.
Faulds, J. E., Hinz, N.H., Coolbaugh, M. F., Shevenell, L. A., Sadowski, A.J., Shevenell, L.A.,
McConville, E., Craig, J., Sladek, C., and Siler D. L, 2017b, Discovering Blind Geothermal
Systems in the Great Basin Region: An Integrated Geologic and Geophysical Approach for
Establishing Geothermal Play Fairways: Final report submitted to the Department of Energy
(DE-EE0006731), 37 p.
Ferrill, D.A., and Morris, A.P., 2003, Dilatational normal faults: Journal of Structural Geology, v.
25, p. 183–196.
Ferrill, D.A., Winterle, J., Wittmeyer, G., Sims, D., Colton, S., Armstrong, A., and Morris, A.P.,
1999, Stressed rock strains groundwater at Yucca Mountain, Nevada: Geologic Society
Today, v. 9, p. 1–8.
99
Forson, C., Czajkowski, J.L., Norman, D.K., Swyer, M.W., Cladouhos, T.T., and Davatzes, N.,
2016, Summary of phase 1 and plans for phase 2 of the Washington state geothermal play-
fairway analysis, Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 40, p. 541-550.
Fosdick, J.C., and Colgan, J.P., 2008, Miocene extension in the East Range, Nevada: A two-stage
history of normal faulting in the northern basin and range: Geological Society of America
Bulletin, v. 120, p. 1198–1213, doi: 10.1130/B26201.1.
Fournier, R.O., and Truesdell, A.H., 1973, An empirical NaKCa geothermometer for natural
waters: Geochemica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 37, p. 1255-1275.
Fournier, R.O., 1977a, Chemical geothermometers and mixing models for geothermal systems:
Geothermics, v. 5, p. 41–50.
Fournier, R.O., 1977b, The solubility of amorphous silica in water at high temperatures and
pressures: The American Mineralogist, v. 62, p. 1052-1056.
Fournier, R.O., and Potter II, R.W., 1979, Magnesium correction to the NAKCa chemical
geothermometer: Geochemica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 43, p.1543-1550.
Fournier, R.O., and Potter II, R.W., 1982, Revised and expanded silica (quartz) geothermometer:
Geothermal Resources Council Bulletin, v. 11, p. 1-32.
Fournier, R.O., 1983, A method of calculating quartz solubilities in aqueous sodium chloride
solutions: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 47, p.579-586.
Glen, J.M., Egger. A.E., Ponce, D.A., 2008, Structures controlling geothermal circulation identified
through gravity and magnetic transects, Surprise Valley, California, Northwestern Great
Basin: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 32, p. 279-283.
Glen, J.M.G., Liberty, L., Peacock, J., Gasperikova, E., Earney, T., Schermerhorn, W., Siler, D.,
Shervais, J., Dobson, P., 2018, A geophysical characterization of the structural framework
of the Camas Prairie geothermal system, southcentral Idaho: Geothermal Resources Council
Transactions, v. 42, p. 466-481.
Hammond, W.C., and Thatcher, W., 2005, Northwest Basin and Range tectonic deformation
observed with the Global Positioning System, 1999-2003: Journal of Geophysical Research,
v. 110, B10405.
100
Hammond, W.C., and Thatcher, W., 2007, Crustal deformation across the Sierra Nevada, northern
Walker Lane, Basin and Range transition, western United States measured with GPS, 2000-
2004: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 112, B05411.
Hammond, W.C., Kreemer, C., and Blewitt, G., 2009, Geodetic constraints on contemporary
deformation in the northern Walker Lane: 3. Central Nevada seismic belt postseismic
relaxation, in Oldow, J.S., Cashman, P.H., eds., Late Cenozoic Structure and Evolution of
the Great Basin Sierra Nevada Transition: Geological Society of America Special Paper
447, p. 33–54.
Hardyman, R. F., and Oldow, J. S., 1991, Tertiary tectonic framework and Cenozoic history of the
central Walker Lane, Nevada, in Raines, G. L., Lisle, R. E., Schafer, R. W., and Wilkinson,
W. H., eds., Geology and ore deposits of the Great Basin: Reno, Nevada, Geological
Society of Nevada Symposium Proceedings, v. 1, p. 279-301.
Henley, R.W., Brown, K.L., 1985, A practical guide to the thermodynamics of geothermal fluids
and hydrothermal ore deposits, in Berger, B.R., Bethke, P.M., ed., Geology and
geochemistry of epithermal systems: Reviews of Economic Geology, v. 2, p. 25–43.
Henry, C.D., Mcgrew, A.J., Colgan, J.P., Snoke, A.W., and Brueseke, M.E., 2011, Timing,
distribution, amount, and style of Cenozoic extension in the northern Great Basin: Geologic
Society of America Field Guide, v. 21, 40 p., doi: 10.1130/2011.0021(02).
Henry, C.D., and John, D.A., 2013, Magmatism, ash-flow tuffs, and calderas of the
ignimbrite flareup in the western Nevada volcanic field, Great Basin, USA: Geosphere, v. 9,
p. 951–1008, doi: 10.1130/GES00867.1.
Hickman, S.H., and Davatzes, N.C., 2010, In-situ stress and fracture characterization for planning
of an EGS stimulations in the Desert Peak geothermal field: 35th Workshop on Geothermal
Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 14 p.
Hinz, N.H., Faulds, J.E., Siler, D.L., Tobin, B., Blake, K., Tiedeman, A., Sabin, A., Blankenship,
D., Kennedy, M., Rhodes, G., Nordquist, J., Hickman, S., Glen, J., Williams, C., Robertson-
Tait, A., Calvin, W., 2017, Stratigraphic and structural framework of the proposed Fallon
Forge Site, Nevada: Proceedings, 41st Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering,
Stanford University, Stanford, California, 12 p.
Hudson, M,R., John, D.A., Conrad, J.E., McKee, E.H., 2000, Style and age of late Oligocene-early
Miocene deformation in the southern Stillwater range, west central Nevada:
Paleomagnetism, geochronology, and field relations: Journal of Geophysical Research, v.
105, p. 929-954.
Humphreys, E.D., 1995, Post-Laramide removal of the Farallon Slab, western United States:
Geology, v. 23, p. 987-990.
101
John, D.A., 1992, Late Cenozoic volcanotectonic evolution of the southern Stillwater Range, west-
central Nevada, in Craig, S.D., eds., Structure, Tectonics, and Mineralization of the Walker
Lane: Geologic Society of Nevada, p. 64-92.
John, D.A., 1995, Tilted middle Tertiary ash-flow calderas and subjacent granitic plutons, southern
Stillwater Range, Nevada: Cross sections of an Oligocene igneous center: Geologic Society
of America Bulletin, v. 107, p. 180-200.
Kelbert, A., Meqbel, N., Egbert, G.D., Kush,T., 2014, ModEM: A modular system for inversion of
electromagnetic geophysical data: Computers and Geoscience, v. 66, p. 40-53.
Kratt, C., Coolbaugh, M., Sladek, C., Zehner, R., Penfield, R., and Delwiche, B., 2008, A new gold
pan for the west: Discovering blind geothermal systems with shallow temperature surveys:
Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 32, p. 153–158.
Kratt, C., Coolbaugh, M., Peppin, B., and Sladek, C., 2009, Identification of a new blind
geothermal system with hyperspectral remote sensing and shallow temperature
measurements at Columbus Salt Marsh, Esmeralda County, Nevada: Geothermal Resources
Council Transactions, v. 33, p. 481–485.
Kratt, C., Sladek, C., and Coolbaugh, M., 2010, Boom and bust with the latest 2m temperature
surveys: Dead Horse Wells, Hawthorne Army Depot, Terraced Hills, and other areas in
Nevada: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 34, p. 567–574.
LaFehr, T.R., 1991, An exact solution for the gravity curvature (Bullard B) correction: Geophysics,
v. 56, p. 1179-1184.
Lautze, N., Thomas, D., Hinz, N., Apuzen-Ito, G., Frazer, N., and Waller, D., 2017, Play fairway
analysis of geothermal resources across the State of Hawaii: 1. Geological, geophysical, and
geochemical datasets: Geothermics, v. 70, p. 376-392.
MacCready, T., Snoke, A.W., Wright, J.E., and Howard, K.A., 1997, Mid-crustal flow during
Tertiary extension in the Ruby Mountains core complex, Nevada: Geologic Society of
America Bulletin, v. 109, p. 1576-1594.
McGrew, A.J., Peters, M.T., and Wright, J.E., 2000, Thermobarometric constraints on the
tectonothermal evolution of the East Humboldt Range metamorphic core complex, Nevada:
Geologic Society of America Bulletin, v. 112, p. 45-60.
Marrett, R., and Allmendinger, R.W., 1990, Kinematic analysis of fault-slip data: Journal of
Structural Geology, v. 12, p. 973–986.
Micklethwaite, S., and Cox, S.F., 2004, Fault-segment rupture, aftershock-zone fluid flow, and
mineralization: Geology, v. 32, p. 813–816.
102
Moeck, I.S., Beardsmore, G., Harvey, C.C., 2015, Cataloging worldwide geothermal systems by
geothermal play type: World Geothermal Congress Proceedings, Melbourne, Australia, 9 p.
Morris, A., Ferrill, D.A., and Henderson, D.B., 1996, Slip-tendency analysis and fault reactivation:
Geology, v. 24, p. 275–278.
Muller, S.W.M., and Ferguson, H.G., 1939, Mesozoic stratigraphy of the Hawthorne and Tonopah
quadrangles, Nevada: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 50, p. 1573–1624, doi:
10.1130/GSAB-50-1573.
Nash, G.D., and Bennett, C.R., 2015, Adaptation of a petroleum exploration tool to geothermal
exploration: Preliminary play fairway model of Tularosa Basin, New Mexico, and Texas:
Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 39, p. 743-749.
Oldow, J.S., 1981, Structure and stratigraphy of the Luning allochthon and the kinematics of
allochthon emplacement, Pilot Mountains, west-central Nevada: Geological Society of
America Bulletin, v. 92, p. 888–911.
Oldow, J.S., 1984, Evolution of a late Mesozoic back-arc fold and thrust belt, northwestern Great
Basin, U.S.A, in Carlson, R.L., and Kobayashi, K., eds., Geodynamics of back-arc regions:
Tectonophysics, v. 102, p. 245-274.
Orenstein, R., Delwiche, B., and Lovekin, J., 2014, The Don A. Campbell geothermal project –
development of a low-temperature resource: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions,
v. 38, p. 91-88.
Payne, J.F, Bell, J.W, Calvin, W., and Spinks, K., 2011, Active fault structure and potential high
temperature geothermal systems: LiDAR analysis of the Gabbs Valley, Nevada, fault
system: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 35, p. 961–966.
Payne, J.F., 2013, Characterization of a blind geothermal prospect through LiDAR analysis and
shallow temperature survey, Gabbs Valley, Nye and Mineral Co., NV [MS. thesis]:
University of Nevada Reno, 113 p.
Peacock, J. R., Glen, J., Ritzinger, B., Earney, T., Schermerhorn, W., Siler, D., and Anderson, M.,
2018, Geophysical Imaging Geothermal Systems Spanning Various Geologic Settings,
Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 42, p. 514-523.
Peiffer, L., Wanner, C., Spycher, N., Sonnenthal, E.L., Kennedy, B.M., and Iovenitti, J., 2014,
Optimized multicomponent vs. classical geothermometry: Insights from modeling studies at
the Dixie Valley geothermal area: Geothermics, v. 51, p. 154–169, doi:
10.1016/j.geothermics.2013.12.002.
Powell, T., and Cumming, W., 2010, Spreadsheets for geothermal water and gas geochemistry:
35th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering Stanford University, Stanford,
California, February 1-3, 2010. SGP-TR-188.
103
Salmon, J.P., Meurice, J., Wobus, N., Stern, F., and Duaime, M., 2012, Guidebook to Geothermal
Power Finance: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, p. 1-61.
Shervais, J.W., Glen, J.M., Nielson, D., Garg, S., Dobson, P., Gasperikova, E., Sonnenthal, E.,
Visser, C., Liberty, L.M., Deangelo, J., Siler, D., and Evans, J.P., 2016, Geothermal play
fairway analysis of the Snake River Plain: Phase 1: Proceedings, 41st Workshop on
Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 7 p.
Spycher, N, L. Peiffer, S. Finsterle and E. Sonnenthal, 2016, GeoT user’s guide: A computer
program for multicomponent geothermometry and geochemical speciation, version 2.1:
LBNL Report, Rev. 1, June 6, 2016, 42 p.
Proffett, J.M., 1977, Cenozoic geology of the Yerington district, Nevada, and implications for the
nature and origin of Basin and Range faulting: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v.
88, p. 247–266.
Schwering, P.C., Karlin, R.E., 2012, Structural interpretation and modeling of the Dixie Meadows
geothermal prospect using gravity and magnetic data: Geothermal Resources Council
Transactions, v. 36, p. 53-58.
Shevenell, L., and DeRocher, T., 2005, Evaluation of chemical geothermometers for calculating
reservoir temperatures at Nevada geothermal power plants: Geothermal Resources Council
Transactions, v. 29, p. 303–308.
Shevenell, L.A., and Coolbaugh, M.F., 2011, A new method of evaluation of chemical
geothermometers for calculating reservoir temperatures from thermal springs in Nevada:
Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 35, p. 657–661.
Schwartz, F.W., and Zhang, H., 2003, Fundamentals of Ground Water: New York, New York, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 583 p.
Sladek, C., Coolbaugh, M.F., and Zehner, R.E., 2007, Development of 2-meter soil temperature
probes and results of temperature survey conducted at Desert Peak, Nevada, USA:
Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 31, p. 363-368.
Sladek, C., Coolbaugh, M.F., and Kratt, C., 2009, Improvements in shallow (two-meter)
temperature measurements and data interpretation: Geothermal Resources Council
Transactions, v. 33, p. 535-541.
Sladek, C., Coolbaugh, M.F., Penfield, R., Skord, J., and Williamson, L., 2012, The influences of
thermal diffusivity and weather on shallow (2-meter) temperature measurements:
Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 36, p. 793-798.
104
Sladek, C., and Coolbaugh, M.F., 2013, Development of online map of 2 meter temperatures and
methods for normalizing 2 meter temperature data for comparison analysis: Geothermal
Resources Council Transactions, v. 37, p. 333-336.
Snoke, A.W., McGrew, A.J., Valasek, P.A., and Smithson, S.B., 1990, A crustal cross-section for a
terrain of superimposed shortening and extension: Ruby Mountains-East Humboldt Range
metamorphic core complex, Nevada, in Salisbury, M.H., and Fountain, D.M., eds., Exposed
Cross-Section of the Continental Crust: Kluwer Academic Publishers, v. 317, p. 103-135.
Stewart, J.H., and Carlson, J.E., 1978, Geologic Map of Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey and
Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, scale 1:500,000 (not part of any formal series,
printed and distributed by the U.S. Geological Survey, G75163, reprinted, 1981, G81386).
Stewart, J.H., 1978, Basin-range structure in western North America: A review, in Smith, R.B.,
Eaton, G.P., eds., Cenozoic Tectonics and Regional Geophysics of the Western Cordillera:
Geologic Society of America Memoirs, v. 152, p. 1-31.
Stewart, J.H., 1988, Tectonics of the Walker Lane belt, western Great Basin: Mesozoic and
Cenozoic deformation in a zone of shear, in Ernst, W.G., ed., Metamorphism and crustal
evolution of the western United States: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, p.
681-713.
Stewart, J.H., 1998, Regional characteristics, tilt domains, and extensional history of the later
Cenozoic Basin and Range Province, western North America, in Faulds J.E., and Stewart,
J.H., eds., Accommodation Zones and Transfer Zones: The Regional Segmentation of the
Basin and Range Province: Geological Society of America Special Paper 323. p. 47–74,
doi: 10.1130/0-8137-2323-X.47.
Stewart, J.H., Sarna-Wojcicki, A., Meyer, C.E., and Elmira, W., 1999, Stratigraphy,
tephrochronology, and structural setting of Miocene sedimentary rocks in the Cobble Cuesta
area, west-central Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 99-352, 21 p.
Sullivan, W.A., and Snoke, A.W., 2007, Comparative anatomy of core-complex development in the
northeastern Great Basin, U.S.A: Rocky Mountain Geology, v. 42, 29 p.
Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., and Sheriff, R.E., 1990, Applied Geophysics: Cambridge, New York,
Cambridge University Press, 792 p.
Thatcher, W., 2003, GPS Constraints on the kinematics of continental deformation: International
Geology Review, v. 45, p. 191–212, doi: 10.2747/0020-6814.45.3.191.
Trexler, J.H., Cashman, P.H., Henry, C.D., Muntean, T., Schwartz, K., TenBrink, A., Faulds, J.E.,
Perkins, M., and Kelly, T., 2000, Neogene basins in western Nevada document the tectonic
history of the Sierra Nevada – Basin and Range transition zone for the last 12 Ma, in
Lageson, D.R., Peters, S.G., and Lahren, M.M., eds., Great Basin and Sierra Nevada:
Geologic Society of America Field Guide 2, p. 97-116.
105
Truesdell, A.H., and Fournier, R.O., 1976, Conditions in the deeper parts of the hot spring systems
of Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming: U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 76-428,
29 p.
U.S. Geological Survey, 2006, Quaternary fault and fold database for the United States:
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/qfaults/ (accessed January 2017).
Ussher, G., 2000, Understanding the resistivities observed in geothermal systems: Proceedings
World Geothermal Congress 2000, Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan, May 28-June 10, 6 p.
Vozoff, K., 1991, The Magnetotelluric Method, in M.N., Nabighian, ed., Electromagnetic Methods
in Applied Geophysics: Society of Exploration Geophysics, p. 641–712.
Wallace, R.E., 1979, Strain pattern represented by scarps formed during the earthquakes of October
2, 1915, Pleasant Valley, Nevada: Tectonophysics, v. 52, p. 599.
Wannamaker, P.E., Caldwell, T.G., Jiracek, G.R., Maris, V., Hill, G.J., Ogawa, Y., Bibby, H.M.,
Bennie, S.L., and Heise, W., 2009, Fluid and deformation regime of an advancing
subduction system at Marlborough, New Zealand: Nature, v. 460, p. 733–736, doi:
10.1038/nature08204.
Wannamaker, P.E., Maris, V., Hasterok, D.P., and Doerner, W.M., 2011, Crustal Scale Resistivity
Structure, Magmatic-Hydrothermal Connections, and Thermal Regionalization of the Great
Basin Tectonic/Geothermal Correlations with Deep Resistivity: Geothermal Resources
Council Transactions, v. 35, p. 1787–1790.
Wannamaker, P.E., Maris, V., Sainsbury, J., and Iovenitti, J., 2013, Intersecting Fault Trends and
Crustal-Scale Fluid Pathways Below the Dixie Valley Geothermal Area, Nevada, Inferred
From 3D Magnetotelluric Surveying: Proceedings, 38th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir
Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, v. 38, p. 1303–1311.
Wannamaker, P.E., Moore, J.N., Pankow, K.L., Simmons, S.D., Nash, G.D., Maris, V., Batchelor,
C., and Hardwick, C.L., 2015, Play fairway analysis of the Eastern Great Basin extensional
regime, Utah: Preliminary implications: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 39,
p. 793-802.
Wannamaker, P.E., Pankow, K.L., Moore, J.N., Nash, G.D., Maris ,V., Simmons, S.F., Hardwish,
C.L., Trow, A., and Allis, R., 2017a, Phase II activities in play fairway analysis for
structurally controlled geothermal systems in the Eastern Great Basin extensional regime,
Utah: 42nd Workshop of Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford,
California, SGP-TR-212, p. 1-12.
Wannamaker. P.E., Moore, J.N., Pankow, K.L., Simmons, S.F., Nash, G.D., Maris, V., Trow, A.,
and Hardwick, C.L., 2017b, Phase II of play fairway analysis for the eastern Great Basin
106
Wells, S.G., McFadden, L.D., Poths, J., and Olinger, C.T., 1995, Cosmogenic 3He surface-
exposure dating of stone pavements. Implications for landscape evolution in deserts:
Geology, v. 23, p. 613–616.
Wernicke, B., 1992, Cenozoic extensional tectonics of the US Cordillera, in Burchfiel, B.C.,
Lipman, P.W., and Zoback, M.L., eds., The Cordilleran Orogen: conterminous U.S:
Boulder, Geologic Society of America, The Geology of North America, v. G-3, p. 553-581.
Wesnousky, S.G., 2005a, Active faulting in the Walker Lane: Tectonics, v. 24, p. 1–35, doi:
10.1029/2004TC001645.
Wesnousky, S.G., 2005b, The San Andreas and Walker Lane fault systems, western North
America: Transpression, transtension, cumulative slip and the structural evolution of a
major transform plate boundary: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 27, p. 1505–1512.
Wesnousky, S.G., Barron, A.D., Briggs, R.W., Caskey, S.J., Kumar, S., and Owen, L., 2005,
Paleoseismic transect across the northern Great Basin: Journal of Geophysical Research, v.
110, p. 1–25, doi: 10.1029/2004JB003283.
Wesnousky, S.G., Bormann, J.M., Kreemer, C., Hammond, W.C., and Brune, J.N., 2012,
Neotectonics, geodesy, and seismic hazard in the northern Walker Lane of western North
America: Thirty kilometers of crustal shear and no strike slip?: Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, v. 329–330, p. 133–140, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2012.02.018.
Wyld, Sandra. J., 2002, Structural Evolution of a Mesozoic backarc fold-and-thrust best in the U.S.
Cordilleran: New evidence from northern Nevada: Geological Society of America Bulletin:
v. 114, p. 1452-1468.
Zehner, R.E., Tullar, K.N., and Rutledge, E., 2012, Effectiveness of 2-meter and geoprobe shallow
temperature surveys in early stage geothermal exploration, Geothermal Resources Council
Transactions, v. 36, p. 835-841.
Zoback, M.L., 1989, State of stress and modern deformation of the northern Basin and Range
province: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 94, p. 7105-7128.
Zoback, M.D., Barton, C.A., Brundy, M., Castillo, D.A., Finkbeiner, T., Grollimund, B.R., Moos,
D.B., Peska, P., Ward, C.D., and Wiprut, D.J., 2003, Determination of stress orientation and
magnitude in deep wells: International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, v.
40, p. 1049-1076.
107
APPENDIX A: Complete lithologic unit descriptions of southeastern Gabbs Valley area for
PLATE 1
Label Unit Name Description Age Thickness
Qp Playa deposits High albedo surface composed of fine-grained sand, silt, Holocene <100 m
and clay with localized evaporite deposits in western
portion of basin.
Qe Eolian Sand sheets generally <50 cm in thickness. Holocene <3 m
deposits
Qa Active stream Active and recently abandoned stream channels. Holocene <20 m
channel
deposits
Qay Young Basin-fill alluvium composed of sand, silt, and clays. Light Holocene <30 m
alluvium and color in imagery, smooth surface, and not typically offset
basin deposits by fault scarps.
Qao Old basin Basin-fill alluvium composed of sand, silt, and clays. Holocene to <100 m
deposits Displays moderately dark tone in imagery, smooth surface, middle
and contains fault scarps. Pleistocene
Qfy Young Fans displaying light-mid gray tone and smooth texture Holocene <100 m
alluvial fans with active stream channels and abandoned anastomosing
gullies. Interfluves are round, ~1-2 m high, and form
debris flow levees lacking desert pavement. Interfluves are
composed of pebble to cobble sized clasts and lesser
boulders (<1 m). Fluves display dendritic pattern, are
spaced tightly, contain fine sediment, and range from
active stream channels with vertical levees to abandoned
gullies. Unit incises Petrified Springs fault scarp.
Qfi Intermediate Fans with moderately dark tone and rough texture. Holocene to late <100 m
alluvial fans Interfluves are broad, relatively flat, and composed of Pleistocene
pebble to cobble sized clasts forming a desert pavement.
Fluves contain fine sand and silt deposits with well-
rounded channel margins and are mostly abandoned stream
gullies. Surface is offset by a 2-4 m scarp that displays
apparent dextral offset (<90 m) at the Petrified Springs
fault.
Qfo Old alluvial Fan surface displaying light tone and smooth texture. Middle to late <100 m
fans Contains broad flat interfluves that form linear ridges. Pleistocene
Interfluves are deeply incised by fluves (<6 m). Fluves are
spaced far apart and bound by gently rounded margins.
Surface is composed of a well-developed desert pavement
of pebble to cobble sized clasts that are almost all covered
in desert varnish.
QTf Fan alluvium, Undivided fan alluvium. In cross sections only. Holocene to late <1000 m
undivided Pleistocene
Tcg Cobble Rounded to subrounded cobbles, boulders, and pebbles Pliocene- latest < 200 m
conglomerate composed of intermediate lavas with lesser clasts of tuff of Miocene (Ekren
Gabbs Valley and Mesozoic granodiorite and sedimentary and Byers, 1986a;
rocks (Ekren and Byers, 1986a). Payne, 2013)
Tb Basalt Dark gray aphanitic basalt containing sparse phenocrysts Miocene <10 m
of olivine and clinopyroxene (Ekren and Byers, 1986a).
Te Esmerelda Tannish brown to yellowish brown, thin to thickly bedded Miocene- 9.24 to < 1,500 m
formation lacustrine sandstone and siltstone, fluvial and deltaic 12.96 Ma
sandstone, and conglomerate, with ubiquitous beds of (Stewart, 1999)
tephra (Ekren and Byers, 1986a).
Tes Loess-like Light toned, pale-brown to orange-brown, cross-bedded Miocene <200 m
sandstone fine sand and silt deposits. Readily erodes and incised by
channels in dendritic pattern. Derived from re-worked
quartz latite ash (Ekren and Byers, 1985a).
Trl Rhyolite of Purple to light gray flow-laminated rhyolite. Miocene- <10 m
Gabbs Valley 19.2±0.7 Ma
108
Tlfbx Volcanic Boulder to pebble sized clasts composed of distinct Miocene- 0-150 m
breccia red/oxidized vesiculated andesitic-basalt lavas. 15.0±0.5 to
22.5±0.6 Ma
Tlfp Hypersthene Dark gray andesite composed of few small phenocrysts of Miocene- 0-50 m
andesite plagioclase, orthopyroxene, and clinopyroxene. 15.0±0.5 to
22.5±0.6 Ma
Tlfl Flow- Cliff-forming brownish-purple dense flow-laminated Miocene- 0-30 m
laminated rhyolite or silicic quartz-latite with phenocrysts of 15.0±0.5 to
quartz-latite plagioclase and biotite. 22.5±0.6 Ma
Tlfb Biotite White and slope-forming nonwelded ash-flow tuff or Miocene- 0-20 m
rhyolite tuffaceous sediment with biotite phenocrysts in an ashy 15.0±0.5 to
matrix. 22.5±0.6 Ma
Tlfq Hornblende Light gray unit with large hornblende phenocrysts 1-4 cm Miocene- 100-200
quartz-latite long. 15.0±0.5 to m
22.5±0.6 Ma
Tml Mafic lavas Mapped to include two distinctive lithologies: the most Miocene 0-75 m
common type is a greenish-gray hornblende andesite and
the other is a gray hornblende andesite (Ekren and Byers,
1986a).
Tcm Tuff of Multiple flow; simple cooling unit of silic quartz latite and Miocene 0-80 m
Copper rhyolite tuff; light reddish gray on fresh surface,
Mountain weathering brownish gray and brown. The most
distinguishing characteristic of this tuff is abundant
accessory sphene, as many as 16 grains per thin section.
Phenocrysts 28-44% total composition: quartz, 3-25%;
alkaline feldspar, 20-30%; plagioclase feldspar, 35-50%;
biotite, 6-9%; hornblende, 1-4%; clinopyroxene, trace-3%;
olivine, 1-2% (Ekren and Byers, 1986a)
Tp Hu-Pwi Tuffs are characteristically deficient in quartz, contain an Oligo-Miocene- <1,000 m
rhyodacite abundance of ferromagnesian minerals, and display perlitic dated between
Pointsettia gray pumice fragments as long as 20 cm. Composed of 30- 22.6-23.3 Ma
109
Tuff Member, 50% phenocrysts: plagioclase (75-85 % total), biotite (6-13 using K-Ar
undivided %), hornblende (trace), clinopyroxene (2-9 %), and methods (Ekren
orthopyroxene (trace). The four units contain essentially and Byers, 1980)
the same phenocryst assemblage and show the same
variations in color, grading from light gray, where
nonwelded or weakly welded, to light brown and brownish
or reddish gray where moderately to densely welded
(Ekren and Byers, 1985a, 1986a).
Tpc Unit C Simple cooling unit of rhyodacite tuff. Oligo-Miocene- 0-150 m
22.6-23.3 Ma
Tpb Unit B Simple cooling unit of rhyodacite tuff that is typically Olio-Miocene- 0-70 m
lighter color than underlying and overlying cooling units; 22.6-23.3 Ma
contains zones in which pumice is pale brown and tuff
matrix is light gray.
Tpa Unit A Simple cooling unit of rhyodacite tuff. Oligo-Miocene- 0-400 m
22.6-23.3 Ma
Tlp Lavas of Gray-purple propylitically altered series of lavas of Oligo-Miocene 0-400 m
Pointsettia intermediate composition. The unit contains 20-30%
Mine phenocrysts: plagioclase feldspar, hornblende,
clinopyroxene, and orthopyroxene that are set in a silicic
groundmass (Ekren and Byers, 1986a).
Tgv Tuff of Gabbs Three major cooling units of highly differentiated rhyolite Oligocene- dated <400 m
Valley, tuff. at 25.15 ±0.06
undivided Ma (Henry and
John., 2013)
Tgv3 Unit 3 Tgv3 is a simple cooling unit of red, densely welded tuff as Oligocene- 25.15 <30 m
much as 30 m thick. Tgv3 contains 8%phenocrysts: quartz, ±0.06 Ma
28%; alkali feldspar, 41%; plagioclase feldspar, 28%;
biotite, 1.5%; opaque minerals, 1.5% (Ekren and Byers,
1986a).
Tgv2 Unit 2 Tgv2 is a compound cooling unit of alternating moderately Oligocene- 25.15 30-300 m
and densely welded pinkish-gray and red devitrified tuff ±0.06 Ma
having a white, partly welded zone locally at base, unit has
numerous lithic fragments of rhyolite and intermediate lava
throughout; it contains 20-35% phenocrysts: quartz, 25%;
alkali feldspar, 39%; plagioclase feldspar, 31%; biotite,
<1% (Ekren and Byers, 1986a).
Tgv1 Unit 1 Tgv1is a simple cooling unit of red to reddish-gray, Oligocene- 25.15 30-65 m
densely welded tuff characterized by abundant lithic ±0.06 Ma
fragments of rhyolite and intermediate lava and a thick
(<30 m) black basal vitrophere. Tgv1 is composed of 4-
11% phenocrysts: quartz, 9-34%; alkalai feldspar, 32-46%;
plagioclase feldspar, 19-42%; biotite, trace; hornblende, 0-
5%; opaque minerals, trace (Ekren and Byers, 1986a).
KJgd Granodiorite Fine-medium-grained and contains abundant hornblende, Cretaceous- dated
biotite, clinopyroxene, and only interstitial quartz (Ekren at 158±4 Ma and
and Byers, 1985a). The relative proportions of phenocrysts 155±7 Ma (Ekren
in KJgd are: quartz, 5-14%; alkali feldspar (perthite and and Byers, 1984)
cloudy orthoclase), 15-30%; plagioclase feldspar (in some
rocks extensively saussuritized), 34-48%; hornblende, 50-
30%; biotite 10-14%; clinopyroxene, 4-18% (Ekren and
Byers, 1985a).
^vc Metasediment Metasedimentary rocks (^vc) consisting of volcaniclastic Triassic
ary facies within the Luning Formation (Muller and Ferguson,
volcaniclastic 1939). Consists of gray, thin-bedded, laminated siltstones,
rocks claystones, sandstones, and pebbly conglomerates (Ekren
and Byers, 1985a). Sandstone and conglomerate layers
display clasts that are moderate to well-rounded and well-
to poorly-sorted.
110