PEER COUNSELING: THE END OF ANALYSIS AND

THE BEGINNING OF ECOLOGY

BY CAREEN JUNE COETZEE

SUBMITTED IN PART FUFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS IN COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY

IN THE

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

AT

RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY

SUPERVISOR: DR A. BURKE

DECEMBER 1999
 ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank:

Dr Burke, my supervisor for his ongoing encouragement
and his time and support.
- Annette for her encouragement, support, and faith in me
during the whole process. She was my pillar of
strength.
Linda, Michelle and Glen for the work we did together,
it would not have been possible without you.
All the peer counselors without whom this would not
have been possible.
- Mr Burkinbach and the teachers at Willow Ridge.
My Mom and Dad for their support and understanding,
Liesel for her help during the whole process.
 iii

TABLE OF CONTENT

PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

LIST OF TABLES vi

ABSTRACT vii

CHAPTER

1. PEER COUNSELING: AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.2 OVERVIEW OF DIFFERENT PROGRAMS 1

1.2.1 PEER HELPER ASSOCIATIONS 9

1.3 CONCLUSION 10

2.GROUP SOCALIZATION IN ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT 12

2.1 INTRODUCTION 12

2.2 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORISTS 12

2.2.1 INTRODUCTION 12

2.2.2 PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 13

2.2.3 COGNITIVE AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT 15

2.2.4 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY 19

2.2.5 ECO-SYSTEMIC APPROACHES 20

2.3 SOCIALIZATION 21

2.3.1 INTRODUCTION 21

2.3.2 THE PEER GROUP'S ROLE IN SOCIAL 23

DEVELOPMENT

2.3.3 THE ECOLOGICAL GROUP 26

 iv

2.4 CONCLUSION 30

3.DEFINING PEER COUNSELING 31

3.1 INTRODUCTION 31

3.2 DEFINING PEER COUNSELING 31

3.3 RATIONALE 35

3.3.1 THE RATIONALE BEHIND THE NEED FOR 35

PEER COUNSELORS

3.3.2 CHILDREN AS POTENTIAL HELPERS 37

3.4 SELECTION OF THE CANDIDATES 39

3.5 TRAINING OF THE CANDIDATES 41

3.6 EVALUATION AND EFFECTIVENESS 44

3.7 OTHER ASPECTS TO CONSIDER 47

3.7.1 THE ROLE OF THE PROFESSIONAL 47

COUNSELOR

3.7.2 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 47

3.7.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 48

3.8 CONCLUSION 50

4.EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 52

4.1 INTRODUCTION 52

4.2 AIM OF THE STUDY 53

4.3 RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY 54

4.4 METHOD 54

4.4.1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 54

4.4.2 PARTICIPANTS 56

4.4.3 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 57

4.4.4 PROCESS 58
PROCESS 62

5.1 INTRODUCTION 62

5.2 APPLICATIONS AND INTERVIEWS 62

5.3 THE SELECTION PROCESS 63

5.4 THE TRAINING WEEKEND 67

5.4.1 THE PAINTING 67

5.4.2 THE DRUMMING 71

5.4.3 BODY SCULPTURE 72

5.4.4 METOPHORICAL OBJECT 72

5.4.5 ECOLOGICAL MAP 94

5.4.6 ROLE PLAYS 96

5.4.7 FEEDBACK 101

5.5 QUANTITATIVE RESULTS 106

5.6 COMMENT'S ON THE GROUP PROCESS

AND OUTCOMES 109

THE END OF THE BEGINNING 110

REFERENCES 117

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX C
 VIII

%;.
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE Page
5.1 Frequency of Responses on the Peer 107
Facilitator Effectiveness Inventory
Questionnaire of Group One.

5.2 Frequency of Responses on the Peer 108

Facilitator Effectiveness Inventory
Questionnaire of Group Two.
 vii

ABSTRACT

A Peer Counseling Program was implemented at a High school

in Pretoria. The program was run over a thirteen-month
period. During this period two groups of peer counselors
were trained. In the first year 15 pupils were selected,
and in the second year 16 pupils were selected. Both of the
groups were put throUgh the following: answering of a
questionnaire, a personal interview, and the training
process. Ongoing supervision was provided in the form of
group discussions and individual supervision over this
thirteen-month period. On completion of the thirteen-month
program eqch peer counselor completed a Peer Facilitators
Effectiveness Inventory Questionnaire.

The findings of this questionnaire indicated that both of

the groups had found this experience to be positive,
although the second group found the experience to be more
positive. The reasons for this were that the second group
were selected earlier in the year, they received more
support and one might speculate the: there had been a
culture of helping established in the school.

This study has shown that peer counseling is an effective

means of making use of the resources available in the
community, decreasing the size of the gap between adult
counselor and adolescent, as well as reaching a wider
population where help is needed. This study creates an
opportunity for the implementation of peer counseling
programs in more schools in South Africa.
 CHAPTER 1
PEER COUNSELING: AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

According to Carr (1977), peer counseling is well established

internationally and appears to be having a significant impact on
the persons involved as well as on the broader community. Due to
many different reasons, one of these being the ethical
consideration, international organizations prefer to name their
programs, by making use of the term 'peer helpers' rather than
that of 'peer counselor'. There are a number of organizations
internationally that make use the term peer helper.

This chapter will give an overview of some of the different

programs that have been established in the U.S., Canada,
Australia, Thailand, etc. Interestingly, very little literature
was found on peer helping programs in South Africa, thus
indicating the need for these kinds of programs in a country
like South Africa with such a diverse population, and varying
•
problems.

1.2 AN OVERVIEW OF DIFFERENT PROGRAMS

One of the counseling programs that were implemented happened in

an Urban High School setting in St Louis Public School System,
during the implementation of this program the following
selection process was used, by the trainers. Twelve students
were selected, they were selected based on the following
criteria:
Junior or senior in high school.
Enrolled in a psychology or social science course.
 2

Identification by teachers and counselors as possessing high

leadership abilities, character traits and a desire to help
others.
High score in Interpersonal Relationship Rating Scale.

They made use of a clinical psychologist, two counselors, and a

social worker to facilitate the process over a 16-week period.
The group was used for training purposes.

The training process at this Urban High School Setting in St

Louis Public School System, consisted of thirty-two sessions,
two per week and included the following stages:
Stage one: Team building and the development of group
cohesion.
Stage two: Development of understanding and awareness of self
and others.
Stage three: Development of effective feedback procedures.
Stage four: Development of leadership skills.

The school counselor and the social worker assigned the peer
counselor's to students. This can be criticized in the same
respect that it did not allow the counselor's to find their own
ways of making themselves known to the school, and it did not
allow the student to select the counselor that they might feel
more comfortable talking too. This method of allocating
counselor's students does not allow the peer counselor's to
`own' the program and therefore might not receive as much
dedication.

The students were encouraged to stay with the peer counselor for
nine weeks. On evaluation they found that both the student and
the peer counselor gained in problem solving ability and
communication skills.
 3

This program is currently being replicated in other schools, to

establish the most effective model. This model falls short in
that it fails to mention any form of follow up, or supervision
for the peer counselor's.

Snadowsky and Meyer (1975) saw the importance of establishing

peer-counseling programs in their study of college students.
Snadowsky and Meyer found that peer counseling offered an outlet
for adolescents who were reluctant to see a professional.

Research has showed that college students can serve as

therapeutic agents with training and that they can be of use to
the students in this role.

Snadowsky and Meyer (1975) had concerns regarding the fact that
the majority of research had gone into documentation of
counsel's personal growth, and there was little research done
concerning the personal growth of the counselor.

At Brooklyn College USA in 1973 a formal 'Basic training for

Peer Counselor's' was developed. Training included individual
and group supervision; they did not provide further information
on the particular training program. The main concern of
Snadowsky and Meyer (1975) was to see the level of personal
growth that occurred in the counselor, they evaluated sixteen
students and the results were very positive. The findings were
that the peer-counseling program had contributed significantly
towards meeting of the counselor's expectations. The
participants not only emphasized factors of personal growth but
they also reported that the program satisfied their needs for
intellectual growth and inquiry. The students noted that they
were could put the learning that they had acquired into practice
in their classrooms.
 4

Zwiberman and Hinrichsen (1977) were concerned about the content

and the outcome of the training which paraprofessional were
receiving, and felt the need to examine empirically the content
and outcome of training programs for paraprofessionals. They
• then studied these different training programs in relation to
the training of peer counselors, by making use of a human
sexuality context. They implemented a program at the University
of Miami in the current counseling center, known as the 'Open-
Door'. The students who volunteered at the center were from a
variety of academic backgrounds and were trained by the
counseling center's psychologists. The content of their program
was 'human sexuality'. These researchers made use of a control
group in their study. The research showed that the program had
reoriented the counselors response to problems related to
sexuality, the counselors also responded with a comprehensive
counseling orientation.

Garbarino and Jacobson (1978) saw the need to use youth as a

resource in meeting the problem of maltreatment in youth. The
project that they implemented was .mode up of four aspects,
namely a 'hotline', Youth self-help Group, a Youth Resource
Pamphlet, and finally a Youth Awareness aspect.

The first aspect of the 'hotline' is based at the Youth-Helping-

Youth Bureau offices in Nebraska. The Youth-Helping -Youth
Bureau trains teenagers to become peer helpers in different
areas. Their findings indicate that because the service was
staffed by youth, it was more readily used by maltreated youths
that are likely to distrust adults. So the fact that it is a
generic service makes it easier to use by youth who are
reluctant to specify abuse or neglect as a problem.
 5

The second aspect of this program is the Youth-Self-Help Group,

the youth are referred by a number of resources including the
`hot-line'. The Youth Self-Help Group has the following goals:
The provision of a safe supportive place where the youth feel
that they can talk about the maltreatment.
To assist them in developing strategies that will help them
cope.
As a means to bridge the gap between the youth and the
professional counselor, should the case require intervention
of this kind:
Encourage the development of skills so that the cycle of
abuse might not continue.

The third aspect of this project is the 'Youth Resource

Pamphlet', and is one way of distributing message. This is often
a concern for a project like this, as children who partake in
groups might be fearful of being rejected if they discuss the
idea of belonging to such a group with people outside of this
environment. This pamphlet described maltreatment, stated the
grounds for initiating action, and suggested ways to help,
included the relevant contact numbers.

The final aspect of this project is 'Youth Awareness', here

there was a sponsored competition where the children had to
write an essay on 'Child Abuse and Neglect: How Youth can help?'
Prizes were awarded for the best essay.

Lasseigne and Martins (1979) identified the important role that

peer counseling can have on the adolescent's identity and on the
expression of altruism. Their research was implemented in an
educational environment, with an educational approach.

They researched two groups of students, one control group of

twenty students, and one experimental group of twenty-one
 6

students. During the training process both groups received

training in activities aimed at developing insight into basic
psychological processes and sensitivity need for effective
classroom teaching. During the second part of the training
process the only the experimental group received training in the
following:
Effective responses in order to help others explore their
feelings and beliefs.
How to listen and respond in an empathetic manner.
The importance of understanding non-verbal communication and
making use of referral sources.

They also evaluated empathy level and listening skills of the

two groups, by making use of the "Relationship Inventory by
Barrett-Lennard (1962)". Their findings indicated that there was
a significant difference in empathy and response, between the
experimental and control group. The results were therefore
indicative that peer counseling training could increase the
level of empathy and listening skills in the peer counselor. The
research also indicated that the students were interested in
self-discovery and that by learning to listen to others they had
started listening to themselves.

Wassef, Mason, Collins, Boyle, and Ingham (1996) were concerned

that not sufficient emphasis had been placed on the student's
perceptions of their improvement. The focus therefore of their
program was on how the student saw their improvement and how
acceptable the program was after three years.

They implemented a volunteer-facilitated peer support group in a

Southwestern high school in America. If a student felt that
he/she had behavioral or emotional problems he/she could seek
help. People in the school who felt that a student had problems
 7

they could refer the student to the program. The school

counselor would decide if help was needed.

According to the different needs separate groups were

established, and the counselor and the student would decide in
which group the students would participate. Participation in the
group was on a volunteer basis. Those that chose to withdraw
from the group were not penalized. At the end of each semester
the participants were provided with a Self-Assessment
Questionnaire, which was then posted to one of the researchers.
The findings of the study were as follows:
Gains in psychological status.
Improvement in self-concept.
The students indicated more improvement in the internal and
interpersonal arena's than in school performance.
Most of the students said that they would recommend a friend
to the group, but only two-thirds actually asked a friend to
join.

Wassef, Mason, Collins, O'Boyle and Ingham (1996), made an

important deductions from this study which suggest that such
peer support groups could create an understanding of the
importance of the support systems, and could create trust in the
professional counselor. In the long term it might create an
appreciation of the seriousness of psychological distress, and
realization that suffering and distress are not part of normal
adolescence.

The results of this study showed that high school students who
partake in these kinds of in-school volunteer-facilitated
support group found the process to be helpful (Wasseff et al.,
1996).
 8

This program was positive in the following aspects, it prevents

students from dropping out of school, the use of drugs, and
encourages the attendance of future in-school programs, and
there was an increased level of comfort in the group. The
results indicated that the program was a step in the right
direction with regards to solving the problems of emotional
diStress and behavioral problems in a high school. It indicated
that participation in a group does have a positive affect on the
group members.

The peer helpers model, designed by Carr and Sanders (1979), and
De Rosenroll, Sandres and Carr (1993), focuses on adolescents
getting help by learning from their own experiences. They do not
impose specific values, but allow the adolescents to take the
lead. This is achieved by making use of prompting questions.

The learning model not only supports adolescent learning but

challenges adolescents to deeper levels of reflection,
understanding, search for personal and communal meaning, and
action planning.

Carr's (1996) research found that when adolescents help others

talk about their experience, in a positive manner, they took a
more active role in their ability to benefit from the transition
they experience within their lives.

The International School of Bangkok, have a peer helping program

in place based on "Kids helping Kids", by Trevor Cole and are
developing one in their elementary school.

At an international conference held in 1995 it was encouraging

to see the kinds of peer helping programs that have been
implemented around the world (Carr, 1996).
 9

Here were some of the professional and peer supporters that were
at the conference and spoke about the work that they had been
doing in their respective parts of the world.
In Australia, Becker and Steinke, (Carr, 1996) started a program
called Chronic Illness Peer Support (CHIPS). This program is
based at the Royal Children's Hospital in Parkville, Australia.
All children between the ages of thirteen and twenty four are
welcome to join, they meet once a week for an eight week period
to discuss issues such as drug side-effects, relationships with
their families and friends, dealing with pain, and feelings of
isolation. A unique part of the CHIPS program is that it is run
entirely by peer supporters.

In West Africa, Nelson Agyeman from the Youth for Population

Information and Communication in Ghana implemented a peer
helpers program. This program started in 1987, they now have
3000 peer volunteers, who are trained to help young people with
healthy development, life planning, and decision making.

1.2.1 PEER HELPER ASSOCIATIONS

In The United States, The National Peer Helper Association

organizes a yearly conference, a quarterly journal and sets
standards for peer program in the United States. The Ontario
Peer Helpers' Association in Canada is a network of peer helping
programs associated with school in Ontario. These are a two of
the organizations that have a vested interest in peer helping
and are doing very necessary and meaningful work. One might
consider the impact an association such as this can have in
South Africa.

The motto of the Peer Helpers of Ontario is "Together we can

make a difference".
 10

Their membership consists of 419 secondary schools and 97

elementary schools across Ontario, Canada. At the time this
article was published on the Internet they had approximately
10000 peer helpers from Grade 5 to post secondary. Their primary
focus is to provide a structure and network for the peer helping
programs found in Ontario.

They do not only focus on the individual they also consider the
community and the benefits for the 'province', the school and
the peer helper.

According to the Peer helpers of Ontario the benefits are

abundant. The peer helper gains training in communication,
problem solving, decision-making and time management. The peer
helpers also benefit on a personal level by gaining a better
sense self- awareness, as well as on a professional level in
that they might be able to make use of the skills that they have
acquired to find work, or within their working environment.

The individual also gains from this kind of helping, in that

they find a person who will listen, support, encourage, assist,
and this might lead to an increase in self esteem.

According to the Peer Helpers of Ontario the school benefits in

that peer helping encourages a positive school environment,
creates and awareness of social issues. The community benefits
in that they have support for charitable and service group,
families in need and they can create an opportunities to promote
abilities of young people. Finally the 'province' benefits in
that there is a place where schools can share ideas and discuss
issues of concern.
1.3 CONCLUSION

From the literature one can see the effectiveness of peer

counseling/helping on an international level. Not only has the
literature indicated the effectiveness of peer
counseling/helping, it has shown that there is a way of reaching
more people who need help. The literature showed that
adolescents can be trained as effective helpers and that not
only did the counselee benefit from this in a positive manner
but the counselor did as well. The counselor indicated that they
found benefits in aspects of personal growth and self-concept.

When one takes into consideration the high incidence of child

abuse, drug abuse, teen suicides and abandoned children in South
Africa, including the fact that there are insufficient
counselors to meet these needs and the concept of peer
counseling/helping appears to be a viable reality.

Adolescents are currently helping one another. Professional

Counselors can utilize this opportunity to close the gap
between the professional counselor and the adolescent.
Chapter two will explore the literature on socialization of
the adolescent and the influence of the peer group in this
socialization process, and provide a theoretical basis for
peer counseling.
 !?

CHAPTER 2
GROUP SOCIALIZATION IN ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Human Oeveiopment nas been an issue of concern for many

decades The ^f human .development that is of concern in
this dissertation is aimed at indicating how socialization can
influence the develdpmental process of adolescence.
Developmental theorists, dating back decades, feel that peers
play an important role in social development. The purpose of
this chapter is to show what the literature says about this
process.

Harris (1995) went so far as far as to say that parents no

longer have an effect on their child's development, and that
socialization is context specific. This refers to Harris'
beliefs that out-side of the home socialization takes place in
peer groups. It is important that we do not confuse social
development with moral development. Socialization can
therefore be defined as the changes that an individual under
goes in order to form part of a social group, by learning and
adapting their behavior to the groups (Louw, 1991).

The questions therefore remain, what role do peer's play in

the social development of the adolescent? How can we as
counselors encourage positive peer interaction?

2.2 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORISTS

2.2.1 INTRODUCTION

In order to get a better perspective on the role that peers

play in the social development of adolescents this chapter
 13

ti
will examine the different developmental perspectives. The
following schools of thought will be considered psychosocial,
cognitive and moral development, social learning theory, and
finally a systemic perspective as well as the impact of groups
on socialization.

In the 1960's it was seen as unproductive to study peer

relationships, but with the introduction of Carmichael's
Manual of Child Psychology (Mussen, 1970), this perception was
changed. Researchers (Hartup, 1970) saw that not only were
peer relationships important in development, but they also
found that the academic performance of children who were
rejected by their peers was influenced. Earlier it was
believed that poor academic performance was only linked to
cognitive development but now one can assume that social
development can also be linked to it.

When one takes one of the most influential theorists in to

consideration, namely Freud, we note that he sees moral
development as a conflict between the ego and the superego.
Freud does not really address the issue of socialization in a
manner that can impact on this dissertation.

2.2.2 PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Erikson's (1963) theory of development is divided into eight

stages. During each of these stages.the individual experiences
a crisis. This crisis is brought about by the conflicting
choices that the individual has to make. The choice is between
what they want and what society expects of them. Erikson
(1968) looks at the identity crisis that is the focal issue
for him during the adolescent stage of development. Erikson
refers to this 'identity crisis' as an in-between stage for
the adolescent, where they are still trying to determine what
 14

ti
demand are placed on them by society and their own personal
demands. It is during this time that the adolescent seeks role
models and ideas to have faith in. This is where the peer
group begins to play an important role, because if parents are
absent either physically or emotionally the adolescent will
need to find role models within their peer group. This can
lead to either a positive or negative outcome. "This period
can be viewed as a psychosocial moratorium during which the
young adult through free role experimentation may find a niche
in some section of his society, a niche which is firmly
defined and yet seems to be uniquely made for him" (Erikson,
1968,p. 156).

Erikson, sees this as a time when the adolescent is placed in

a paradox; does he do as is expected of him by society and
risk making a fool of himself, or does he act 'shamelessly' in
the eyes of his elders.
During this time adolescents look to each other for help by
forming cliques and by creating stereotypes for themselves and
for their ideals. They begin to form bonds against their
enemies, often this is the adult, and it is during this time
that they also test each others loyalties and their
conflicting values (Erikson, 1968). The adolescent then has
the task of establishing a feeling of identity, and this
consists of three components:
The individuals certainty about his own abilities (i.e. an
answer to the question: Who am I?),
The individuals certainty about his social identity (i.e. an
answer to the question: To which group(s) do I belong?)
Finally the individuals certainty about his own values and
ideals (i.e. an answer to the question: What do I wish to
achieve?) (Louw, 1991).
 15

This is where the peer group plays an important role in social

development. It is within this group that the adolescents
develop their sense of 'who' they are.

2.2.3 COGNITIVE AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Piaget (1928, 1932, 1976) focuses more on the cognitive and

moral development of the adolescent. Piaget's theory proposes
that children learn through interaction and transfer of
knowledge in social situations. His theory is divided into the
following concepts:
Maturation of physical structures: adolescence is a time
when this is most prevalent, and therefore has significant
impact on the individual. Adolescents need to interact with
others who are experiencing similar kinds of change. Their
peers therefore come into play in a way that has not
happened in earlier childhood.
Environmental factors: here the adolescents have to learn
about society and what is expected of them. They now need to
determine where their place is and how they might find a way
to fit into this place.
Equilibrium: Piaget explains this concept of equilibrium as
an attempt to solve problems. When existing knowledge and
cognitive structures are sufficient to cope with the stimuli
from the environment, then there is equilibrium. It is when
there are inconsistencies in knowledge and the environment
then there is disequilibrium. It can be said that the
adolescent is experiencing this phase of disequilibrium, and
it is during this time that the adolescent needs to test out
ways that will allow him/her to re-establish this state of
equilibrium. Again the peer group plays an influential role;
it allows the adolescent to express his/her feelings and to
find alternative ways of dealing with the disequilibrium.
 16

Function: this phase is divided into different stages. The

first stage is organization, which refers to the fact that
the individual functions as a whole, and adaptation, which
is the tendency of the individual to adjust to the
environment. Adaptation is further divided into assimilation
and accommodation. Assimilation refers to changes made to
certain elements of the environment that make adaptation
possible. Here the adolescent is placed in a situation where
they are unsure of what changes to make and the consequences
of the changes that they will make. Accommodation, is the
simultaneous change in the organisms cognitive structure.
Content: this describes an action that is the result of an
interaction between a situation, (in which the action
occurs) and the individuals cognitive structure.
Structure: when adaptation occurs, the environmental content
is always incorporated into existing schema.

Even though Piaget (1928, 1932, 1976) focuses mainly on

cognitive and moral development, one is able to understand
from his theory why adolescence experienced as a difficult
developmental stage. This might allow one to understand why
peers are of primary importance and need to be acknowledged.

The fourth stage of Piaget's (1928, 1932, 1976) theory, is

formal operational stage. This stage applies specifically to
adolescence. It is during this stage that he feels that the
adolescent is able to think in a logical manner and to make
deductions. Just considering this explanation one might
immediately begin to consider how much more complex the
adolescents world is than previously considered. The
adolescents now start asking questions that do not always have
answers. They begin to see the difference between the actual
and the possible, and begin to see the world from a different
perspective. The adolescent begins to see that there are
 17

ti
different combinations for problems, there are many solutions
to one problem, and that there is a need to understand the
consequences of their actions when deciding on which solution
to choose. If the adolescent is not given the opportunity to
make decisions, they are not allowed to formulate the solution
for themselves and so they might reject the advice. Who better
to 'bash' this out with than another peer? (Louw et al.,1991).

On examination of Piaget's description of the formal

operational characteristics one can see that thought is
explored and, it is therefore possible to show the
relationship between these characteristics and the process of
identity development. They can be seen in the adolescents
ability to think abstractly about certain hypothetical
situations and to the fact that the adolescent can now find
alternatives especially with regards to career choice. The
adolescent now begins to think about various ideas, values and
ideologies in order to construct a personal value system.
Finally it allows the adolescent to think about their own
characteristics, this then allows the adolescent to formulate
an identity and determine their role in society (Louw, 1996).

A quotation from Piaget's (1932) book on The Moral Judgement

of Children demonstrates the persistent influence of
Durkheim's famous dichotomy and his idea that the group has an
influence over the individual:

"As Durkheim himself has pointed out, one cannot explain

the passage from the focused conformity of 'segmented'
societies to the organic solidarity of differentiated
societies without invoking the diminished supervision of
the group over the individual as a fundamental
psychological factor. The 'denser' the community, the
sooner will the adolescent escape from the direct
 18

N■
constraint of his relations and, coming under a number of
fresh influences, acquire his spiritual independence by
comparing them with one another. The more complex the
society, the more autonomous is the personality and the
more important are the relations of co-operation between
equal individuals" (Piaget, 1932,p. 336).

According to Piaget (1928, 1932, 1976) peer relations are

essentially symmetrical. It is only through peer collaboration
that the ideal setting is created to produce both cognitive
conflicts and conflict resolution, which are seen as essential
elements of cognitive development.

According to Foot, Shute and Morgan (1990), it is only during

situations where peers collaborate that they creating social
and cognitive conflict and can then reap the benefits from
both. Aspects such as improved communication, a greater
awareness of other people's perspective are some of the social
benefits. While on the other hand they have an increased
ability to examine their own ideas, then to modify them and
feed back these ideas to others. The change is triggered by
the interaction between peers, but it is the adolescent that
achieves this change.

Kohlberg's (1987) theory of moral development is divided into

three levels: preconventional level, conventional level, and
post conventional level. For the purpose of this review only
two and three will be taken into consideration due to the fact
that these levels focus on adolescence. The conventional level
is further divided into two stages, which apply to
adolescence: Firstly the 'good boy/girl' orientation, where
good behavior is approved of and is helpful to the individual.
The individual therefore tries to avoid criticism and gain
approval. Secondly the 'law and order' orientation, where
 19

correct behavior is associated with doing one's duty, having

respect for authority and upholding of existing social laws.
It can be implied that this is a troublesome theory as this is
a stage of development when adolescents are least likely to
conform to strict social laws. Adolescents are more likely to
conform to the 'laws' of their peer groups (Louw 1996,
Adelson, 1980).

The next level of Kohlberg's theory when applied to

adolescence is the post conventional level. This level is also
divided into two stages. The first stage is the social
contract orientation when the laws of society are maintained
but the individual learns that they can be changed if
rationally and socially justifiable. If there is a conflict
between the individual and society, society wins. The second
stage of the post conventional level is orientation in
accordance with universal ethical principles. Here the
conscience comes into play, the individual judges behavior on
both societies laws and his social conscience (Louw et al.,
1991, Adelson, 1980).

2.2.4 THE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

The social learning theory is exactly that, namely that

development occurs through learning in a social context. Here
one can understand the importance of peers in development
because they learn correct behavior „through peer interaction.
Adolescents observe what others do and then follow in a
similar manner. The fact that the extended family is starting
to become something of the past also allows for more learning
from their peers. Parents are not around as much as they were
in the past. During adolescence the values that are learned
are no longer just accepted, they are evaluated and it is
 20

tii
during this stage that adolescent relies on his peers for
support (Adams, 1980).

2.2.5 ECO SYSTEMIC APPROACHES

-

From an Eco-systemic perspective, the treatment of the

individual is seen in the context of the interaction between
the individual and their environment. The aspect of
development in respect of the adolescent is multifocused when
working from a systemic perspective.
From an ecosystemic perspective there is no direct indication
that peers influence the adolescents developmental process,
but the fact that a system interacts results in certain
behavior. One can assume that the adolescent's peer group is a
system and this system will impact on their behavior and visa
versa.

Due to the fact that there is no information that points

directly at how the ecology impacts on the adolescent's
development, this aspect of therapy will be considered. Taking
into consideration the way the way the ecosystemic approach
looks at therapy might shed some light on how the ecology is
involved in the development of the adolescent. It might help
to show how peers influence the development of the adolescent.

Ecosystemic therapy takes the following systems into

consideration; physiological, individual psychology,
individual/physical environment, dyadic relationships, family
system, extended family and social network, and finally the
social role and cultural influences. The development of the
adolescent therefore includes all of these systems, and the
peer group is part of them.

The therapist when working from an ecosystemic epistemology

seeks to invoke this social sanction between these systems.
According to Becvar and Becvar (1998) the non-systemic
developmental theorists work from a linear perspective, this
creates confusion in the systemic therapists when apply them
in a clinical setting. When working from a systemic
perspective we find they see moments not in isolation but as
an ongoing interactive process. The systemic therapist does
not focus on the developmental milestones of one adolescent
but rather tries to capture the complexity of the many systems
that make up the adolescent's world. The systemic therapist
understands that each person is unique, therefore one model
cannot be applied to all, and can therefore vary from system
to system. This does not imply that the systemic therapist has
a perfect 'model', but the model can be adapted through
periodic revision, allowing reflection on the developmental
process of society and how these changes influence
individuals, families, and communities.

Becvar and Becvar (1988) proposed the use of what they called
the dynamic process model of family development. This model
allows for a three-dimensional perspective and assumes
continued growth, change, and development. It focuses on
family process rather than content and is consistent with a
cybernetic epistemology.

2.3 SOCIALIZATION

2.3.1 INTRODUCTION

Due to the fact that the family structure has changed to a

great extent in the recent past, one may be led to believe
that the adolescent no longer learns a significant amount from
their parents and society. Thus the individual is more
dependent on their peer 'society' when referring to the social
laws.
Douvan and Adelson (1966) see the adolescent's peer group as
one of the most important determinants in his development of a
value system. The group sets standards and behavioral limits
to which the adolescent conforms because acceptance by the
peer group is very important.

Although the values of the peer group may be in conflict with

those of the parents, such a conflict is not inevitable.
Conformity to the values of the peer group could reinforce the
values that the adolescent has learnt from the parents because
parents usually encourage their adolescent children to
fraternize with those peers who have values similar to their
own. The question remains that with the changing family
structure how much influence can the parents instill on the
adolescent when they are not around as much as the peers are?

Carl Rogers (1951) looked at the different concepts of self,

namely self-concept, self-image, ideal-self and self esteem.
He made us aware of the fact that these are influenced by
factors such as the evaluation of the child by others, and by
the comparison that the child makes between themselves with
others. There is continued evaluation happening in the peer
group. In order to be considered 'cool' the adolescent must
dress correctly, speak the language of the group, etc.

The literature (Rogers, 1951, Douvan and Adelson, 1966, Louw,

1996, Piaget, 1928, 1932, 1976, Kohlberg, 1987) proposes that
through social interaction not only does the adolescent learn
conflict resolution, but there is also exchange of ideas
between peers of equal status. This results in co-operative
exchange of ideas and encourages the child to communicate and
plan strategies. Thus this process of interaction influences
the adolescent's thinking. Adolescents are also better able to
 23

solve problems when communicating with their peers or with

adults. This allows the importance of the communicative
process to be emphasized.

According to the theories interaction is not only important or

desirable, but also necessary for cognitive development.
Bruner (1985, p.32) described the world of the adolescent when
he said:
"That world is a symbolic world in the sense that it
consists of conceptually organized, rule-bound belief
systems about what exists, about how to get to goals, about
what is to be valued. There is no way, none in which a
human being could possibly master that world without the
aid and assistance of others, in fact, that world is
others".

2.3.2 THE PEER GROUP'S ROLE IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

According to Coleman (1980), peer groups can be divided into

the following: the clique, the crowd, and the gang.
The importance of belonging to a peer group has changed due to
the changing family and social structure, and conforming to
this group is made stronger by the fact that adolescents lack
independence, self-confidence, and self-identity. From as
early as three months there is evidence that children react in
the presence of their peers (Field, 1979a; Fogel, 1979; Rubin
& Ross, 1982).

According to Louw (1996), interaction with, and conforming to,

this peer group has the following positive influences:
• Within the peer group the adolescent has the opportunity to
learn and experiment with roles, which helps to develop
effective social functioning.
 The peer group offers opportunities for communication with
the opposite sex and for forming close friendships.
The peer group is a source of sexual information and helps
the individual to develop norms for sexual activity.
Identification with the group facilitates emancipation from
the family home.
In the group the adolescent can speak freely about his
fears, feelings of confusion, ideals and dreams, and thus
finds release for his emotional tension.
The group offers the adolescent who is experiencing problems
in his relationship with his parents, warm and friendly
companionship, thus providing him with a feeling of
security, acceptance and understanding.
The group provides the adolescent with behavioral norms for
this transitional stage; thus he develops a group identity.
If the group has a high status, it offers the adolescent the
opportunity to share in its status.
The group contributes to the adolescent's formation of his
identity. The members of the group help the adolescent to
resolve the conflicts within himself and with others, and
the group is a source of feedback on his personality traits,
his appearance and behavior.
The group offers opportunities for participation in
recreational activities.
The group is an important agent for socialization.

Peer groups as we all know do not only have positive impacts

on the adolescent, there are also negative aspects to be
considered (Louw, 1996):
If an adolescent attempts a heterosexual relationship or
attempts to join a group and is mocked or rejected by the
group, they might be overwhelmed by anxiety and therefore
 25

avoid such situations. It the adolescent has such an

experience it might hamper their development.
The adolescent could against their better judgement get
involved in reckless and antisocial behavior due to pressure
to belong in their peer group. Peers can influence the
adolescents value judgements.
Social isolation/rejection by peers who belong to a specific
group may develop.
Rigid conformity might limit the ability to be an
individual.
Clashes may occur due to differences in socio-economic
status.
Parents may pressurize the adolescent not to associate with
the peer group and this could result in conflict.
The adolescent might feel the need to be somebody that they
are not (i.e. wear a mask) in order to belong to the group,
this could prevent emotional intimacy if taken too far.

The natural development of the 'group' in adolescence needs to

be utilized, especially in the changing society we are living
in at present. The positive aspects of the 'group' need to be
encouraged and developed. Adolescents find security in their
friendships and turn to them in times of need. Creating
positive peer pressure, through the implementation of a peer-
counseling program can curb the negative aspects.

It is when adolescents engage in conversations with their

peers and a space of safety is provided that they can talk
openly. Whether it is due to the fact that they are of the
same age, or that they share similar issues is not important,
it is that they learn to communicate and interact with others.
 26

According to Damon (1984), when engaging with their peers

adolescents develop new patterns of thought due to the fact
that peer dialogue is naturally a co-operative exchange of
ideas. Through peer interaction one might find verification of
ideas, the planning of strategies in advance, and the symbolic
representation of intellectual acts. This then eventually
leads to co-operative peer exchange and the adolescent's own
thinking pattern is influenced. That is the adolescent
internalizes the experience that they have when interacting
with a peer. This then modifies the adolescent's intellectual
ability, and this is usually for the better.

2.3.3 THE 'ECOLOGICAL' GROUP IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Groups play an important role in the development of the

adolescent, in that the group helps to reduce the feelings of
isolation experienced by the adolescent. In the adolescent
world it is important to 'belong' to a group, this creates
recognition and acceptance. Brown (1994) stresses the
importance of groups, with specific reference to belonging and
the need for contact, she says that these play a role in the
developmental process. Groups play different roles in
children's lives and provide a safe space for feedback. The
group allows adolescents to experience acceptance, this group
allows them to feel approval and a sense of belonging, and it
also allows them to be part of a group that places value on
their group members and not to feel so isolated and alone. The
group creates a space for open expression of uncomfortable
feelings, knowing that other members will not think them
weird, tell them that they shouldn't feel the way they do
(Brown, 1994).

Brown (1994) speaks of the group on a specific level, namely

in a specific therapeutic context. Many of the ideas that have
 77

arisen from the work that she has done with children in
therapeutic contexts can be taken into account when
considering the adolescent 'peer group'. One can utilize the
aspect of cohesiveness and positive coping mechanisms when
working with adolescence.

Altruism has been identified as a positive coping mechanism,

used by adolescents. If peers influence each other's as widely
as implicated by the literature, one might consider putting
this altruistic behavior into practice, to achieve aspects
such as positive peer pressure.

Altruism needs to be understood in this context- by helping

others you help yourself, which is how peer counseling can be
utilized. Adults often forget that adolescents are quite
capable of helping others and we, as adults need to move away
from seeing adolescents as being helpless.

Freud and Dann (1951) provided vivid illustrations of children

whose early life experience caused them to direct their
altruism almost exclusively towards their peers. They found
six 3 year old German-Jewish children living by themselves in
a concentration camp. They were then cared for in a relocation
center. Their attachments were exclusively to each other.
Furthermore, their compassion and care towards each other was
frequent and intense (Zahn-Waxler, Iannotti & Chapman, 1982).

Bryant and Hansen (In Foot, 1990), found in their study of

peers as teachers of altruism, that the 'peer therapist' was
valuable when working with children who exhibited antisocial
or asocial behavior-they saw this as a means of promoting
prosocial behavior.
 28

Zahn-Waxler, Iannotti, Chapman, (In Rubin and Ross, 1982)

conclude that parents and peers play a significant role in the
socialization of altruism.

Peers can act as socializers in the following ways: through

modeled behavior, and this is by direct learning, where the
adolescent observes another adolescent's performing a specific
task and does exactly what the other adolescent did: through
observing another child perform a specific task, and then
applying that learned behavior when the time is appropriate
and finally through emotional responses, namely when an
adolescent performs a task, or behaves in a certain manner and
this is either accepted by others, being a positive form of
emotional reinforcement, or rejected and therefore being
unacceptable emotional response.

Whitman, Spendlore and Clarke (1984) during a review of

college counseling programs, found that not only did college
students make excellent peer counselors but the actual act of
counseling was also an effective strategy of self-help. This
showed that adolescents can help themselves by helping others.
Riessman (1965) then formulated the notion of the 'helper
therapy principle'. This principle was applied very
successfully in the health care system by AA and many other
groups of patients with chronic problems (Whitman, 1988).

Frank (1996) looked at some of the outstanding work that

caring teachers in America had achieved with troubled youth.
Those who felt inferior, deprived and ashamed often express
their feelings through vandalism and stealing. Through his
work Frank (1996) found that long-range programs in supportive
environments like a 'chance for youth', are the kinds of
programs that could prevent at risk behaviour. These kinds of
 29

programs will assist the adolescent by supporting their

resiliency and by rehabilitating them in the long run.

In the group setting adolescents can gain a sense of

confidence, they share alternatives and get support when
making decisions. They can be expressive in any way without
the fear of being ridiculed or punished by others.

Rubin (1982) noted that children who interact with peers more
often appear to be socially and cognitively more competent.
His study also provided evidence that lack of social
interaction was accompanied by developmental 'costs'.

The research suggests that 'play' which happens between

adolescents within the group, can assist in both cognitive and
moral development, as well as developing of social and
creative skills. Adolescent form of 'play' is different, but
it is none the less important and some .space must be allocated
for this to happen.

As adolescents age and spend more time with their peers, they
begin to discover different models. In a group of peers, one
child is not given the authority to make all the rules for the
other adolescents. Rules made by the group need to be a
product of mutual agreement. Agreement, according to Piaget,
can only be achieved when children discuss their opinions with
each other in a co-operative manner. When socializing with
their peer's adolescents experience a true exchange of ideas
and start to understand the reason for other children's
opinions. Relationships between peers are characterized by
reciprocity; this in effect means that each adolescent expects
to have an equal part in the decision making process and in
return grants this right to other adolescents. Piaget defined
this relationship as one of mutual respect (Berndt, 1982).
 30

As Myrick (1985, p.113) indicates,

"There is no way to prevent students from helping other
students. They talk *with each other. They share their
thoughts and feelings as part of 'going to school'."
However, when peers are given more structured opportunities
to learn about themselves and others and when they are
given a chance to be part of an organized peer facilitator
program, then an even more positive impact can take place."

2.4 CONCLUSION

In conclusion when one considers the definition of adolescence

as being the period between puberty and adulthood, then we see
that this is how the adolescents experience themselves. They
are in a state of confusion as they are developing their sense
of identity and trying to find their 'place' in society.

The literature (Piaget, 1928, 1932, 1978,Rubin, 1982, Myrick,

1985,Frank, 1996) shows the importance of peer groups in this
developmental stage, so why then not make use of an already
established group to create an environment that is safe for
the adolescent during this "in-between" stage. The literature
shows how important these groups are and the role that they
play in the adolescent's life.

The need to belong cannot be stressed enough and, as

counselors we need to make use of the positive components in
these already well established groups, and implement them into
our work with adolescents.
 31

CHAPTER 3
DEFINING PEER COUNSELING

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The definition for peer counseling is broad and includes

numerous descriptions that can be used as alternatives for the
concept of 'counseling'. This chapter examines the
alternatives that can be used to replace the word
`counseling'. The reasons for establishing a peer-counseling
program will also be examined, as will the process involved in
selecting, training and evaluating such a program.

3.2 DEFINING PEER COUNSELING

When trained and supervised individuals offer listening

support, alternatives and other verbal and non-verbal
interactions to peer group members, they can be seen as peer
counselors. Peer counseling is a process. The literature makes
use of the term 'paraprofessional', and it refers to an
individual who has not received extensive professional
training, has been selected specifically for that particular
program, is trained by other professionals and is provided
with ongoing supervision. The above definitions are of
particular importance in the respect that they both refer to
the following important issues: selection, training, and
supervision this will be examined more closely later on.

Peer Teaching is one of the 'descriptions' that can be

alternated with the concept 'counseling'. Whitman (1988)
defines peer teaching as fellow students teaching other
students in a planned situation that is directed by a teacher.
Peer Tutoring is another 'description' that is used around the
concept of 'counseling' and can is defined on a very basic
 32

level as children teaching other children on a one-to-one

basis (Ehly and Larsen, 1980).

"Peer tutoring describes those situations in which a person

provides instructional assistance and guidance to another
person" (Whitman, 1988, p.9). On consideration of this
definition, one might note that a relationship has developed
and children often present with learning problems and
therefore the peer tutor is the first point of contact. On
closer examination one might find something else bothering the
child. This problem could have added to, or created the
learning problem. There is now an opportunity for the peer
tutor to develop a trust relationship with the child.

The term peer collaboration refers to children of roughly

equal ability who work together. There is no specific leader
and the children all assist each other. This allows them to
create solutions together and to share knowledge (Damon,
1984).

Due to the fact that the children were selected on the basis
of being able to bond with other group members self help
groups also need to be included in this review. Self-help
groups are composed of members who share common problems or
needs. In these groups, where the focus is on emotional
support, there may or may not need to be a professional
leader. The group was selected on the basis that they all had
a common goal, being that they all wanted to create a helping
culture in their school.

As discussed in the previous chapter, groups are an important

developmental patt in adolescence. Groups provide emotional
support, and they give members a sense of belonging.
 33

In such groups people can gain the following:

Positive personal identification within the peer group,
Altered attitudes as a result of being around people who
emphasize the importance of taking collective and
constructive action to address the common challenges and
problems faced by the group,
Confidence with regards to the way they communicate with
others because of the common experience shared by the group
members,
Avoidance of cultural, racial, and ethnic barriers that
traditional counseling settings often manifest, and
Creation of opportunities and experience that generally
improve their socialization.

In the work of the professional counselor we understand that

counseling should facilitate a process where the clients learn
to help themselves rather than depending on the counselor.
This idea brings about the concept of self-help. Self help
does not claim that there is no need for the counselor or
other professionals, it refers to the idea that we can lift
the burden off the professional counselor and by doing this
reach more people.

The term Peer Helpers, is a 'description' that can be

alternated with the term counseling and, has become a more
acceptable term due to ethical issues when working with
adolescents, and is defined as:
"A process in which caring persons other than licensed or
certified professional counselors assist others to think
about ideas and feelings, to explore alternatives to
situations, and to make responsible decisions. When these
caring persons are trained to provide special assistance,
they might be referred to as peer helpers"(Myrick,
1988,p.1).
 34

The term 'Peer facilitator' has been used extensively before

the term 'peer helper' was introduced. "The term 'peer
facilitator' deserves special attention. This term is becoming
more popular because it presents fewer problems to students
who are systematically organized to help others. The term
`peer counselor' has been used in the past, but this has
presented more problems. Some parents for example have been
complaining that they do not want their children 'counseled'
by other students (Myrick and Erney, 1979, 1985).

Peer facilitator aids are an alternate method of organizing

and making use of peer facilitators. Many schools have
students who work as assistants in the office. These students
carry out traditional tasks such as filing and answering
phones. One must take note of the fact that these students can
do a lot more.

When making use of the term 'helper' Myrick (1988) emphasizes

the fact that the term 'peer helper' is associated with
aspects such as 'same general group people', by this is meant
that they were about the same age, status, or sociological
makeup.

3.3 RATIONALE

3.3.1 THE RATIONALE BEHIND THE NEED FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION

OF PEER COUNSELORS IN SCHOOLS

The literature (Myrick, 1988, Louw, 1996) shows strong support

for the concept of peer counseling in schools. Currently in
South Africa there is a shortage of trained professionals, and
 35

those who are trained, are not always able to reach those who
need help.

Adolescents feel that the last person that they might turn to
when they need help is an 'adult'. The reasons behind this may
be many; the child may have had an unpleasant encounter with
another adult, and therefore their perception might have been
colored by that knowledge that they gained from that previous
encounter. Adolescents often perceive the adult as one who
might judge them, or punish socially unacceptable behavior
this kind of counseling experience might impede the counseling
relationship.

A peer counselor is a member of the adolescents 'group'. This

means that they are more or less the same age, thus the
adolescent therefore feels that the peer counselor will be
better equipped to understand the adolescent's problems. This
is the adolescent's perception and does not imply that the
professional does not understand, but professional counselors
need to find other ways of reaching the adolesceht. The peer
counselor attends school with the adolescent and is therefore
more accessible to the adolescent.

"This does not mean that counselors, psychologists, and

social workers provide worthless or ineffective services;
many studies document the benefits individuals derive from
traditional counseling services.Jlowever, these results
suggest that relying too much on the traditional counseling
paradigm has failed to promote the types of individual and
systemic changes necessary to improve the overall quality
of the nations mental health and social well-being (Lewis,
Lewis, Daniels, D'Andrea, 1998, p.3).
 36

The important issue here is that the peer counselor is able to

develop a relationship based on trust with the adolescent. The
adolescent can thus be referred to the professional counselor
by the peer counselor, bridging the gap between the adolescent
and the professional.

In recent years there has been a significant paradigm shift

with regards to counseling, with the emphasis on facilitating
change in the individual's environment. The aim of peer
counseling is not only to allow for the individual to be
affected by change, but for the culture of the school to be
shifted. Thereby facilitating change both within the
individual and their environment.

"Given the tremendous disparity between the number of

people who need mental health services and the number of
those who actually receive help, numerous suggested that
the traditional paradigm cannot meet this nation's
psychological needs." (Lewis et al, 1998, p.2)

Within this new paradigm shift the idea of counseling is

directed at empowering the client. This empowerment promotes
changes within the groups, organizations and systems. School
counselors for example are continually striving to influence
the interplay between students and their environments, their
families, peers, neighborhoods, and.classroom, in effect act
as 'community counselors' (Lewis et al, 1998). It is thus
through making use of the peer counseling program that the
professional counselor can meet more peoples needs.

Lewis, et al (1988), speak of the community counseling

framework, they feel that people should focus on primary
prevention and should concentrate on the developmental and
cultural needs of the children. They feel that the school
 37

setting is an ideal environment to implement a community

counseling framework.

Finally an aspect that one might tend to over look, but that
can be of major importance, is that of the 'helper-therapy'
principle. This refers to the concept that by helping others
one helps oneself. Research indicates that people, who are
involved in self-help projects, have several positive changes
on a personal level. These changes include an increase in the
sense of purpose and self-esteem, the development of more
effective interpersonal and problem-solving skills, and
enhanced pride in their identification with other members in
the group.

Adolescence may find the concept of helping others of

particular interest. They can also be identified as part of a
group that has some kind of recognition in their school.

3.3.2 CHILDREN AS POTENTIAL HELPERS

In chapter two the literature review looked at the impact of

peers on social development. One needs to take note of what
the literature say about children as helpers.
As Damon (1984, p.331) has pointed out that,
"Psychological and educational research has established
beyond a doubt that children can have a powerful influence
upon one another's intellectual development, and yet formal
educational programs with their emphasis on competition,
one-way transmission of information from teacher to pupil,
and private study, seem to spurn any hint of co-operative
learning. It is thus not hard to understand why Damon
referred to peer based learning as the 'untapped
potential'".
 38

The concept of co-operative learning is not new. Children have

been working on projects together for years. This kind of
environment creates a space for interaction, feedback and
sharing. This can lead to an improvement in the quality of
school life as well as an improvement of relationships.

Cambourne (1987, p.43) quotes a student's comment to

illustrate the different classroom organization.
"I guess I learn a lot from talking with other kids.
Sometimes I talk with the teacher, but you're only supposed
to do that when others in the class haven't been able to
help you. Usually I just have a go and then share my go
with someone else. In this class you can always put hard
things away and come back to them later when you learn a
bit more about how it's done".

In general, reports (Cohen, Rubin, Ross, 1982) of cooperative

classroom endeavors have indicated an improvement in student
productivity, and the development of a more favorable
classroom climate.

Today the issue of peers not having role models that are
within their current environment is quite a problem. The peer
counselor might be able to fill this gap in the adolescent's
life. The counselor might have a positive impact on peer
pressure. Modeling is one way that children learn and in
Bandura's (1971) social learning theory, emphasis is placed on
the importance of role models in learning and in the social
development of the adolescent.

Adults need to be made aware of the fact that adolescent's can

help one another'. Adolescent's already speak about most of
their problems to their peers and just by having somebody to
listen helps.
 39

3.4 SELECTION OF THE CANDIDATES

Selection of the candidates is the first practical step in the

process of developing a peer counseling program. The one
important aspect that needs to be considered before beginning
with this process, and that is the establishment of the
support base. One can only be sure that a project like this
will be effective if there is enough support from the
necessary members of the school community.

One needs to ensure that there is support from the headmaster,

the teachers, the governing body, and the parents. When
implementing a program such as this it is important to
remember that there will be some resistance from the
community, so look to people that you know in the community
who can offer support during the initial stages. Efforts
should be made to include students who represent the different
segments of the school, do not look specifically to the one's
that have already been selected as leaders, as this will only
taint the reputation of the group.

Cognisance should be taken of the fact that teachers are

important role players and should be approached for
assistance.

The literature suggests that some kind of interviewing process

needs to take place. This not only allows one to get a feel
for each candidate, but it also allows the candidate to
present themselves to the trainers. Interviewing allows for
the process to be as fair as possible, therefore preventing
any queries later on in the selection or training process.
Interviewing permits the selectors to access the candidate's
ability to interact in a group, and their readiness for the
 40

training that is too follow. One needs to remember that some

of these adolescents might not yet be ready to go down the
path of self disclosure, however there are others who might be
overwhelmed with their own personal problems. Personal
problems are a reason for exclusion, but the seriousness of
the issues needs to be considered. The concept of by helping
others by helping ourselves cannot be taken lightly in this
process of interviewing candidates for peer counselors.

When the candidates are selected the trainer needs to take

note of the fact that the candidate has to fulfil a specific
role namely a peer counselor in a secondary school. This will
ensure that the trainer does not set the expectations too
high, or too low. When a new program is being established one
needs to consider that there are no 'current' peer counselors
to help with the process, and the program has not yet
established its credibility. It is for this reason that the
importance of doing the groundwork cannot be stressed enough.

When selecting a peer counselor, one needs to take into

consideration the following:
Can one work with this candidate?
Does the person posses the following qualities; sensitivity,
caring, commitment to the program, openness and
understanding, ability to focus away from their own needs
and interest's and help others, and finally are they
prepared to really "get their hands dirty"?
When a program like this is initiated the peer counselors
that start off might be met with some hostility, and thus
need to be equipped to deal with it.

As Myrick (1988, p.118) states:

"The key to any program is the trainer, who selects
trainees and projects. The key to a trainer's success is
 41

the careful selection of trainees, a structured curriculum,

and close support groups. Every program is different; yet,
there are some common features, which often predict
favorable program outcomes. Networking on a state and
national level provides opportunities for trainers to stay
current professionally and to support others who are
engaged in the important work of peer helping".

3.5 TRAINING OF CANDIDATES

Training of the candidates is important and needs to be

carried out by caring, patient and understanding trainers. The
literature does not suggest a specific time period, but one
needs to access each group individually and decide when more
training is needed. An important aspect that needs to be
considered is that many of the candidates will already have
some skills, these need to be developed while more skills are
introduced. The facilitator has chosen candidates for specific
reasons. One of these reasons is the fact that the
facilitator's feel they are able to work with the persons. The
literature suggests that one needs to place emphasis on the
following during the training process:
Active listening which promotes the development of empathy
and trust amongst the peers. It is defined as hearing and
understanding the message.
The knowledge on how to respond. As this goes hand in hand
with active listening. Perhaps the first step in learning to
respond more selectively is the identification and increased
awareness of the various responses.(Myrick, 1979,1985)
Use of observational skills. Here candidates need to be
aware of both verbal and non-verbal behavior, which include
aspects such as tone, gestures and expressions. They also
need to be aware of their own non-verbal behavior.
 42

Expression of ones own emotions. This includes learning when

certain expressions are appropriate and when not.
The use of open-ended questions. Candidates need to
understand the importance of open-ended questions in
allowing the person to answer at length.
The ability to clarify when they are unsure of what the
person is saying. The counselor can achieve this by asking a
direct question, or by summarizing what was heard.
The ability to accept others. This aspect places emphasis on
the need for candidates to be nonjudgmental and must be
stressed. Candidates need to learn that the behavior
displayed by a person is not who they are. There also needs
to be an awareness of the difference between accepting and
condoning behavior.
A knowledge of the importance of empowerment. The candidates
must be aware that if they give advice they are taking the
power away from the other person and placing it on
themselves. Making use of highly facilitative responses,
namely open-ended questions will enable the students to
facilitate talking without giving advice.
Expression of different kinds of feelings. Feelings are
often difficult for adolescent's to deal with, thus you
should encourage them to express them in words and, allow
them to think about the different kinds of feelings. When
the candidates experience a feeling during the training let
them name this feeling. This is linked to the fact that
knowing what you are feeling helps you to understand the
emotional reaction of yourself and of others.
Awareness of the fact that people are responsible for their
own lives. It is for this reason that it is important that
the candidate allows the people to make their own decisions.
If the student gives advice and the person takes it and
things do not work out as planned then the person might
 43

blame the student. Myrick (1985) suggests that a 'decision-

making session' be demonstrated to the students. He feels
that this can be achieved by placing a volunteer in the
middle of a circle and discussing a decision that that
person is trying to make. The group can then give input.
Consideration of personal values. The students need to take
a careful look at themselves, and think about themselves.
The reason behind this is that if a person who has different
values to the student consults the student the student needs
to understand that if they cannot handle the situation they
must refer the person elsewhere. This must not be seen as a
weakness, but rather in terms of strengths. The peer
facilitators need to be assisted in gaining a gain a better
understanding of themselves and their work. The more
systemic the effort, the more opportunities there will be
for positive gains and recognition, (Myrick, 1979;1985).
The emphasis of accountability and confidentiality. This
must be emphasized if the program is to work, we need to
ensure that there is no 'story telling' outside of the
group. This group includes the trainers and this needs to be
stressed to all people who speak to the peer counselor's.
At the end of the training process the trainers need to
reflect on how the students experienced the process. One
needs to explain that the students are not forced to
continue with the program if they do not feel that they will
be able to, they also need to be encouraged to ask for help
at any time.

The above mentioned are all aspects that need to be taken into
consideration, however, one must remember that there is
something very personal that has attracted this student to
this program. This must be taken into account during the
selection process.
 44

The literature explains specific methods for training of

specific skills, however, this has not been included in the
review as the training of students is very personal, and, thus
the literature shows only that it can be used as a guide when
needed. Training is a personal experience for any trainer and
it is the trainer who will know what needs to be implemented
and when this should happen. Just as no two people are the
same, so will no two training processes be the same.

3.6 EVALUATION AND EFFECTIVENESS

The literature suggests that ongoing evaluation is a critical

part of any project (Myrick, 1988, 1985,Garbarino, 1978,Buck,
1977). If there is no evaluation worked into a project one
will not see where there is a need for change, or how
effective or ineffective the project has been. Evaluation can
provide the clients with feedback as to whether the peer
counselors did any helping. The trainer needs also to be
evaluated so that the trainers can decide whether to implement
the program again. During this process of evaluation the
trainers need to look at the aims of the project and see how
many of these aims have been met. One must distinguish between
the concept of feedback and that of evaluation.

Feedback is something that the trainers provide the students

with and is an essential part of the training process.
Feedback is defined as explaining to another person the kind
of impact their behavior has on you.

Myrick, (1979, 1985) describes confrontation as talking about

unpleasant feelings, and praise as talking about pleasant
feelings. Feedback, when used in a facilitative way, can be
constructive and improve relationships between people. It can
teach children responsibility. This refers to the fact that
 45

children are responsible for their behavior and therefore need

to bare the consequences, whether these are good or bad.

The students must be provided with input as to their

performance. This can happen both during the training process
and after the training, in the form of supervision. Feedback
need not only be provided by the trainers, but can also be
provided by other group members. This feedback will depend on
the safety (namely the level of trust established), within the
group. However as the literature suggests the group can create
a place where the students feel accepted and might help them
to alter their behavior which the group might feel is
inappropriate in any situation. In contrast to this, when
individual members feel that something that the member did is
not worthy of praise and the group feels otherwise, they might
feel safer in behaving like that outside of the group or
behaving in that way more often.

Myrick (1988) makes use of an effective method of evaluating

peer counseling projects. This method is known as the 'Peer
Facilitators Effectiveness Inventory', and focuses on the
following aspects; involvement, listening, participation,
acceptance, closeness, excitement, rejection, and comfort.
Research done on the 'peer facilitators effectiveness
inventory', shows that there is focus placed on the outcomes.
People expect to know more about outcomes than about the
actual process. The process does not show how well the project
worked, more specifically, the 'peer facilitator effectiveness
inventory' focuses on "what happened as a result of the
process" (Myrick, 1988, p. 167).

This 'Peer Facilitators Effectiveness Inventory' Questionnaire

was used in a school in Florida USA to study sixty-six fourth
and fifth grade students, who had been working as peer
 46

facilitators for six months. The results were positive and

most of the students experienced something positive.

Evaluation refers to the fact that one needs to assess whether

the whole project has been effective. Evaluation needs to be
an integral part of the planning of the project and must be
ongoing. One needs to look at the effect not only on the peer
counselor but on the whole school. The literature states that
the use of peer counseling can be effective, but only if it is
carefully monitored.

The literature also suggests that a successful project should

address the following aspects: self-concept, knowledge of the
helping process and good communication skills.

Taking into consideration that the trainers play a large role

in the evaluation/feedback process, they need to consider
their roles in the modeling of behavior and the giving of
compliments. Trainers play a very important role in the
training process, and therefore need to consider their
responsibilities and impact on this project.

3.7 OTHER ASPECTS TO CONSIDER

3.7.1 THE ROLE OF THE PROFESSIONAL COUNSELOR

The literature (Buck, 1977, Damon, ''i984, Garbarion,

1988,Lasseigne, 1979, Myrick, 1988, 1985) suggests that the
professional counselor must take responsibility for the
welfare of both the peer helper and the client. The
professional counselor's need to ensure that they select the
best person for the position of peer helper. The professional
counselor needs to ensure that the training provided for is of
the highest standard possible. The aspect of confidentiality
 47

needs to be stressed to both the peer helper and the client.

The professional counselor needs to ensure that the peer
helpers make use of the appropriate referral channels, and
that if there are no referrals available that the peer helpers
have been provided with contact numbers. There needs to be
ongoing supervision, and the professional counselor needs to
ensure that the peer helpers are receiving adequate support.
Something to consider is that during this kind of process the
adolescent's might feel overwhelmed by his or her own issues,
which may be triggered during this training process. A safe
space needs to be created for dealing with such issues. The
professional counselor needs to ensure that the peer helper
receives adequate support both during and after the training.

3.7.2 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

As Brown (1994) maintains, the aspect of confidentiality is of

concern when looking at the ethical aspects of adolescent
group work. Aside from the legal aspects of confidentiality,
the group leader cannot ensure that things that are disclosed
in the group will not be repeated outside of the group. The
literature therefore suggests that this should be an aspect
that is discussed with the group that the group should then
develop their own 'rules as to how one will be dealt with
should the 'rules' be broken.

The concern that parents will not want their children

`counseled' by other children has caused problems. The term
`peer helper' has therefore replaced that of 'peer counselor'
and appears to have eliminated some of the ethical concerns
around this. There has been little research done with regards
to the different understandings that adults and children have
with regards to the term 'helping'. The literature suggests
 48

that the understanding of the term might be different for

adults and children.

It can be said that the responsibility lies with the trainer.

If there is adequate supervision and evaluation built into
this program one might have the time to deal with issues that
are brought up by the group before they get out of control. It
should be considered that the peer counselor does not act
alone, they are part of a 'group' and therefore the group
should also take on the responsibility of ensuring that the
peer counselor is 'corrected' in an appropriate manner.

3.7.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

According to Mamacchev, who did a literature study of all the

data related to peer counseling on the "psylit" CD-ROM the
advantages and disadvantages of a peer counseling program are
as follows:
Advantages referred to in the literature: equal effectiveness
and greater client acceptance than professional counselors;
economical means for service delivery; availability for after
hours locations; ability with training to make referral to
professional person; ability to empathize and identify with
their peers; benefits of personal development from counseling
experience.

Disadvantages referred to in the literature: lack of

continuity among the peer counseling staff; demands on
professional staff time to train, supervise and evaluate;
potential problem of role balance for peer counselor;
accountability in terms of providing the best possible help
for client's welfare; difficulty of placing peer counseling
program into larger counseling program to maintain
organizational goals and objectives.
 49

The problem with additional costs, responsibility, and ethical

concerns involved in training the peer counselors was a
consideration in the literature, but these cost appear to be
of benefit in the long term.

Rockwell and Dustin, (1979) focused on developing a model for

training peer counselors and their goals if met, can prove to
be an advantage with this kind of program. The first goal is
to 'increase counseling effectiveness'. Here Rockwell and
Dustin suggest that the peer counselor can handle routine
questions about school. By acting as a screen the peer
counselor's can ensure that the people who need to see the
professional counselor do see them. Their second goal is to
`increase visibility of counseling program'. When a program
like this becomes visible in a school, it ensures that people
who never knew the service existed become aware of it. This
helps to eliminate the stigma of seeing a counselor, and
making parents, teachers and pupils more open to the idea of
asking for help. The third goal is 'to increase the amount of
counseling in the school'. The more people there are trained
in counseling skills, the more people that can be seen. This
takes the pressure off the professional counselor, by
lightening their load. Facilitation of psychological growth
within the trainee is the fourth goal that Rockwell and Dustin
refer to. This should not be the primary focus of the peer
counseling program, but is an added benefit. The training that
the student undergoes is rather extensive and can include
value exercises, directed self-exploration, and communication
training. Thus the trainee is not only trained but they also
learn more about themselves and other ways in which they can
conduct themselves.
 50

3.8 CONCLUSION

The literature (Myrick, 1988, Whitman, 1988, Damon, 1984,

Lewis, 1998) indicates that there are significant reasons for
implementing a peer counseling program. The rationale show
that there is a need for more counselors, but there are not
enough being trained, and those that are trained are
overwhelmed with work. One needs to make use of all available
resources.

The literature also indicates some important steps that need

to be taken into consideration when implementing such a
program, they are as follows: establishing a support base,
selection of the candidates, training of the candidates,
evaluation, and finally ongoing supervision. One cannot
dispute that if a project like this is implemented with
enthusiasm from the trainers, that one is more likely to
succeed. There will more than likely be teething problems in
the beginning as is with most projects, but if there is
ongoing evaluation these problems can be addressed before they
become too extensive. According to Rockwell and Dustin (1979)
the implementation of a peer counseling program can lead to
increased effectiveness in the counseling service, but not all
settings will require the same program. The trainers need to
assess the setting and ensure that the counseling program will
benefit the counselors, pupils, and the whole school
community.
 52

CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

4.1 INTRODUCTION

"When an adult counselor communicates with a child the child's

perception of the counselor is colored by the transference
knowledge and feelings gained from previous encounters with
s
adults. Adults often a sume responsibility, attempt to instill
values, direct growth and restrict or punish the non-socially
acceptable behaviors of children. Such perceptions and
expectations brought to the counseling experience by the child
have the potential to impede counseling relationship"(Whitman,
1998).

The Youth are the future of the nation, yet many of them are
faced with problems, and due to aspects such as insufficient
social services they are not assisted with finding ways to deal
with these issues. There are other aspects such as absent
parents, peer pressure, and an environment where adolescents are
faced with issues such as Aids, drugs, and violence. The
adolescents of today have far more external influence than those
from even a generation ago do.

Adolescents are capable of helping others and the aim was to

implement a peer-counseling program that will create a space
where they can find the space for positive input and positive
role models.

Due to these concerns and the opportunity created, the proposal

to implement and evaluate the process and effectiveness of a
peer-counseling program at a High School seemed a viable option.
It was felt that it would be valuable to observe the process
involved in training these pupils. One might hypothesize that
 53

there will be an impact on the school and the pupils in both

positive and negative respects. This is something new to both
the school and the trainers and there will be many obstacles
that need to be overcome on the way.

4.2 AIM OF THE STUDY

The implementation of a peer counseling programs aims to achieve

the following:
To create a space where these adolescents can feel safe and
are free to express themselves and feel that they have been
heard. This will enable them to expand their existing social,
emotional and environmental ecology. Thereby creating
opportunities that eliminate 'unhealthy' situations.
To facilitate a process whereby the adolescent can look at
their social, emotional and environmental ecology and
networks, thus helping them to find alternative solutions to
their problems.
To allow for the narrowing of the gap between the adolescent
and the professional counselor through the intervention of
the peer counselors.
To create awareness in adolescents that problems are defined
differently by individuals regardless of the perception of
others and showing that by seeking help one is not 'mad'.
To create awareness in the school, and the community, of the
needs of the adolescent so that these needs will be
understood by the significant others and thus there can be an
attempt to understand the world of the adolescent, resulting
in a decrease in labeling.
To create an environment where more effective services can be
made available as a result of the special skills of the peer
counselor and the ability that the peer counselor has to
identify with the adolescent due to their shared worlds.
 54

• To create awareness among the pupils about the issues - such

as violence, rape, suicide and abuse - that arise in their
community and to encourage a sense of responsibility in the
adolescent, as well as a development of their self-identity
and ability to set realistic goals.

4.3 RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY

In the literature review there were extensive studies done and

programs implemented internationally showing the need for a
program such as this to be implemented in South Africa. The
success of such a program will depend on it being conducted in
the correct manner. The rationales as indicated by the
literature are as follows:

Shortage of professionals persons and a shortage of funding. A

peer counseling program therefore creates an opportunity to make
use the professionals that we have available to their maximal
potential at the same time not allowing them to be exploited.

The literature (Piaget, 1928,1932,1978, Erikson,1974,

Kohlberg,1987) indicate the importance of the peer group in the
development of the adolescent, and one might then feel that this
is an opportunity that needs to be utilized in a positive
manner.

Adolescents often feel that the 'adult' counselor will not

understand their problem or that their problems are too small.
This creates a gap between the professional counselor and the
adolescent and this gap needs to be closed.
 55

4.4 METHOD
4.4.1 INTRODUCTION

Qualitative research is being used more and more in psychology

today, due to the fact that it focuses more on behavior process
of individuals and groups and their experiences. For the purpose
of this study both qualitative and quantitative analysis will be
made use of. This creates a broader perspective and allows for a
more holistic assessment in the long run.

Interpretative analysis is focused on describing the experiences

of the individual and the group. Interpretative analysis relies
more on the knowledge from the group and the individual, namely
the individual experience and the group dynamics. This is the
main purpose of this research - to show the process of training
peer-counselors in a secondary school. The study will allow for
a lot more theoretical insight and will also allow create many
other research possibilities.

Interpretative analysis allows for the collection of both verbal

and non-verbal material through questionnaires, interviews and
observation respectively. It allows for more realistic and
objective assumptions. Interpretative analysis allows researcher
to develop progressively, thus allows for new information to be
integrated all the time.

This of great importance and benefit to the researcher in this

particular program, as dealing with children (people) one might
find that there is often a need to add to, or reduce some of the
input or data.

The reason that interpretative analysis has be seen as the

research method of choice is because it makes use of observation
and field research, thus allowing the researcher to spend more
 56

time in the field interacting with the participants and

observing the process.

The use of both observation and field research, and using

questionnaires will be the most effective means of working on
this program. Interpretative analysis is more practical and
allows the researcher to be come involved in the research. The
questionnaire is added to allow for a broader scope and more
concrete input.

Other methods of research make use of scientific methods of

analysis, namely a hypothesis. Although hypotheses are spoken of
in this paper; this is not the sole purpose of the research.

Interpretative analysis makes a statement that allows for the

expression of thought and there is little need for scientific
interpretation. This allows the researcher to be less biased as
they are not forced to either prove or disprove a hypothesis;
they are only required to make a statement. That is the reason
that I feel the need for both qualitative and quantitative
research in this program. This is important when working with
people as they are all individuals and all require different
means of interaction.

4.4.2 PARTICIPANTS

Due to the influence of systemic understanding the following

aspects, namely the students, teachers and the community need to
be taken into consideration. When implementing such a program
one will hope that in the long run there might be some impact on
the community, but considering the complexity of a process such
as this, patience is needed.
 57

The school that was identified for the implementation of the

program was a High School in Pretoria. The reason that this
school was chosen was that there was a psychologist based at the
school who had an established rapport with the pupils and the
teachers.

The importance of establishing a connection with the school will

allow the process to be free flowing for both the researcher and
the participants. This may appear to allow for confirmation of
the hypothesis, but if there is no feeling of connectedness with
the school the project might become a burden on the researcher,
and enthusiasm will die and the results will not reflect the
project but the researcher.

The teachers were made to feel that they were a part of this
program. This allowed for back up from the school and the
teachers, thus allowing the program to be a success. The
teachers were made to feel that they are being assisted in their
jobs and not hampered. This was achieved by identifying teachers
that the pupils approach on a regular basis and doing a workshop
with them on systems and how a system functions. This was not in
a lot of detail, they were just given an idea as to how these
children's lives are different in non-school situations, and how
the other aspects of these children's lives do impact on their
academic performance.

The systemic approach is rather broad and one might feel that a
basic understanding of it is all that is needed. By involving
the teachers, they feel that they have been consulted/included
in the process of establishing a peer-counseling group in the
school.

The most important aspect about the pupils is that the 15 that
were chosen to be part of the group felt that they owned the

4,4
 58

process and that this was their project. They also represented
the different school groups. More importantly they felt that
they were supported when there was a problem. The pupils
identified the problems in the school, due to the fact that they
were the one's experiencing the problems.

4.4.3 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

The Peer Facilitator Effectiveness Inventory Questionnaire

will be completed after the first year that the pupils have
been involved on the program. The reason for making use of
this method of measurement is due to the fact that it has
been used to evaluate other programs like this an its
validity has been proved.

Myrick (1988) makes use of an effective method of

evaluating peer-counseling projects. This method is known
as the 'Peer Facilitators Effectiveness Inventory', and
this questionnaire focuses on the following aspects;
involvement, listening, participation, acceptance,
closeness, excitement, rejection, and comfort. Research
done on the 'Peer Facilitators Effectiveness Inventory',
shows that there is an emphasis placed on the outcomes.
People expect to know more about outcomes than about the
actual process. The process does not show how well the
project worked, more specifically, the 'peer facilitator
effectiveness inventory' focuses on "what happened as a
result of the process" (Myrick, 1988, p. 167).

The Peer Facilitators Effectiveness Inventory consists of 20

questions, 1-10 evaluate the effectiveness of the process,
questions 11-20 focus on what happened due to the process, in
other words the outcomes.
 59

This 'Peer Facilitators Effectiveness Inventory' questionnaire

was used in a school in Florida, USA to study sixty-six fourth
and fifth grade students, who had been working as peer
facilitators for six months. The results were positive and most
of the students experienced something positive.

4.4.4 PROCESS

The Grade 11 group will be approached and the idea of peer

counseling will be discussed with them. A forum will be created
where they can ask questions and discuss issues of concern that
they have with regard to the idea of peer counseling.

Step one: Completion of the questionnaire.

All interested candidates will be able to collect a
questionnaire (refer to Appendix A), this questionnaire allows
us to get a general understanding of what the pupils commitment
is to the program as well as an idea of their personal
development and commitments with regards to school activities.
Based on the questionnaire we will select candidates that will
be interviewed.

Step two: Selection.

Three clinical psychologists and two counselors will conduct the
interviews. During this stage a group process will be included.
The candidates will be divided into smaller groups and given a
task that they need to complete and then feed back to the big
group how they would plan to complete the task. Based on this
and the personal interview approximately 15 candidates will be
selected to complete the training program.

The literature suggests that selection is an essential process

and needs to happen. The selection process allows the space for
 60

the candidates to put themselves forward and show what they have
to give to the program. The process of selection is unlike any
other process that happens in a school setting, such as prefect
selection in that the candidate has the opportunity to be heard.
This will add a greater sense of importance to the program,
making those that are selected feel that they do hold a
'special' position in the school.

Step three: The training process.

The group will be taken away for a weekend and the team will
work on their positions in the group and their roles. The group
process needs to be focused on extensively, the ability for them
to all understand the difficulty of communicating their issues
will allow them to understand how difficult it is for a person
to approach them.

Time will be spent on looking at personal development, exploring

their own ecology, namely looking at the different environment
in which they function as individuals i.e. school, home,
socially etc. Finally specific counseling skills will be
developed in the form of role-plays and discussion groups.

The group needs to own the process, and therefore need to

establish their own code of conduct, mission and vision
statement.

All of those that complete the weekend will be issued with

certificates and badges in assembly.

Step four: Completion of the Peer Facilitators Effectiveness

Inventory Questionnaire.
This questionnaire focuses on aspects of participation,
involvement, listening, acceptance, closeness, rejection,
comfort and excitement. They will all complete the peer
 61

facilitator's effectiveness questionnaire at the end of their

year as peer counselors. The reason for this is to determine if
there has been any personal development in them and to access
whether the program has been effective. This questionnaire will
also provide the facilitators with input as regards to how
effective they were, an important aspect that is often not taken
into consideration. (See Appendix B)

Step five: Ongoing Supervision.

Once the training has been completed, the aspect of supervision,
which has been emphasized in the literature, will be
implemented. The pupils that are selected as members of the peer
support group will each have supervision on an individual basis
once every 14-15 weeks depending on the number on the program.
Once a month in the life skills period they will come together
as a group to discuss specific issues and then based on that the
team will determine what their needs are.

There will also be a professional available once a week so that

should they find that they are dealing with something that they
find needs referral there will be a professional available to
take the necessary steps.

The importance of supervision cannot be stressed more. If the

pupils feel that there is no support the program is guaranteed
to fail.

All the peer counselors in the school will go through a similar

process, again one must emphasize that this is a new process and
one will also need to learn along the way. The purpose of this
paper will be to comparing the first and second group's training
process and their Peer Facilitative Effectiveness
Questionnaires.
 62

CHAPTER 5
PROCESS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The team of psychologists met with the psychologist at the High

School and the team discussed the concept of peer counseling
with the Grade 11 pupils. A basic outline was presented to them
about the concept of peer counseling and they were encourage to
give input, the initial idea had come from the pupils. The
response was positive considering that this is a new concept to
both the pupils and the school. They all felt that it would be
good for the school, but there were some concerns about the
issue of confidentiality and how the pupils would be able to
trust the counselor. This is a concern but will be addressed in
the training of the peer counselor. Those that were interested
in the program were asked to complete a questionnaire. The
questionnaire focused mainly on the reasons that they wanted to
take part in this program and their personal qualities. (See
Appendix A)

The process will be placed into two columns, the activity in the
left-hand column, and the researcher's narration in the right
hand column. The researcher has made use of narration as she
felt that this would be the most effective way to reflect what
happened during this process.
 63

5.2 APPLICATIONS AND INTERVIEWS

GROUP ONE APPLICATIONS AND RESEARCHERS NARRATION

INTERVIEWS
Twenty applications were There was a lot of positive
received and all twenty were input, the team emphasized
interviewed. There were the fact that personal life
three Clinical Psychologists problems were not a
and one counselor present. prerequisite and neither was
The questions were focused religion. Each of us asked
around their thoughts on the questions that the team felt
idea of peer counseling, and were relevant to that
where they.felt it would particular student. It was
lead and how they each felt very interesting to see that
they could contribute to the we all agreed on the pupils
program. that we felt would be good
in the group. The
interviewing process is
necessary, in order to allow
these pupils to feel that
they achieved this place of
`honor' personally and that
not just 'anybody' could
become part of the program.
The interviewing process
allows for recognition of
the program and without the
recognition of the teachers
and the other pupils I do
not feel that a program like
this can be a success.
 64

5.3 THE SELECTION PROCESS

GROUP ONE SELECTION RESEARCHERS NARRATION

The aim of the selection The team spoke to both
process is to selects 15 groups after the selection
pupils that we all felt that was completed. Explaining to
we could work with, the the group that had not been
selection was based on the selected that it was not
questionnaires and the something that they had done
interviews. wrong and that they were not
We chose 15 pupils to 'bad' it was just that we
participate in the program. felt that they might not be
ready to be on this program
at this time in their lives.
This is an essential process
due to the fact that one
often is 'called' to these
kinds of program for
personal reasons, in other
words to help oneself
Adolescents are vulnerable
and therefore need some
input as to why they did not
get selected. We encouraged
those who felt the need for
personal feedback to feel
free to contact the school
psychologist and she could
talk to them individually.

In the discussion with the

pupils who were part of the
65

program the importance of

commitment was stressed due
to the fact that many of
them had other commitments
for next year, and that if
they felt that this would
place too much pressure on
them they could withdraw.
Two of them withdrew from
the group, another two who
the team felt were able to
connect with the other group
members replaced them. The
importance of
confidentiality was
stressed, and the fact that
they owned the program and
that whatever ideas they had
they should feel free to
express them.
We explored any questions
that they had about the camp
and the program, and the
majority wanted more
specific details on how the
program was to work. We
explained to them that we
were not 'in' the school and
did not know what the needs
were. It was therefore the
responsibility of the school
and the pupils to decide
what they wanted to do and
we would join in with them.
 66

They appeared slightly

apprehensive about this but
were also enthusiastic at
the same time.
We discussed the logistics
of the weekend and planned
the times to meet. We left
it open for them to let us
know if there were any other
problems.

GROUP TWO APPLICATION AND RESEARCHERS OBSERVATIONS

SELECTION

An announcement was made The positive response to the

that we would be selecting announcement was an
the next group of Peer indication of the impact
Support Group and that they that just the awareness of
must please collect the the peer support group has
questionnaires. The response created in the school.
was encouraging; this year Each pupil was interviewed
there were 42 pupils that and the strength of the
were interested in pupils that applied made us
participating in this peer- realize that another kind of
counseling group. intervention was needed in
orderc„to select only 16. Due
to this we did a group
process with all of them.
 67

THE GROUP PROCESS RESEARCHERS NARRATION

The process involved the This process facilitated the
following: bonding within the group,
Each pupil had to select but it still did not make it
another pupil that they easy to decide on the final
did not know well and they 16.
had to introduce each
other to the whole group.
Then they were given a
scenario about being
trapped in the school by
terrorists and as a group
they had to find a way out
and prevent the terrorists
from poisoning the city's
water supply.

After the completion of the Those that were not selected

questionnaire, the interview were spoken to and informed
and the group, we selected of how tough the selection
16 pupils to be part of the process had been, that we
Peer Support Group. had planned on implementing
other projects in the school
and that they could be
involved in these projects.
Those that were selected
were spoken to about the
issue of commitment and
confidentiality.
 68

5.4 THE TRAINING WEEK-END

5.4.1 THE PAINTING

GROUP ONE: PAINTING RESEARCHERS NARRATION

The Friday night began with This process started off

some dinner and then the with them all staying on
painting of the sheet. This their own space on the
process consisted of a plane sheet, Karen complained that
white sheet and then a lot she could not draw and then
of paint, they were then to only put her hand print on
make a group painting in any the sheet, there was a bit
way they felt like. The aim of a shift in focus when
of this was to allow for they all started painting
joining and to understand Courtney head. This drew the
the meaning of space. To attention way from the
reach some understanding of painting on the ground but
how difficult it is for did allow for group process
somebody with a problem to to continue so it was
allow another person in his discouraged but not stopped.
or her space.
We then moved into their
work. They then started
moving around and moving
into each other's space.
This was an amazing process
to watch unfolding. Adam did
not appear to want to
participate and then he
wrote his name in the
middle, he first wrote in
black and then later went
 69

over it in white. This was

interesting to watch as he
had apparently also had
problems on the prefect camp
with needing to fit in.

The question though is, 'is

this how he is actually
perceived by his peers, or
is it how he uses his
cognitive appraisal, to say
they do not like me and
therefore I will give them
reason to have this self
fulfilling prophecy?'
The process continued and
the end product was a sheet
with not a space left to
draw on.

GROUP ONE DISCUSSION OF THE RESEARCHERS NARRATION

PAINTING

The next step in the The drawing and the

training process was for discussion had worked out
them to discuss their well, and allowed them to
drawings and explain how all think about the idea of
they had felt about other space and how important it
people moving into their is when working with people
space. who have had that space
invaded and destroyed.
They all said that they had
learned about moving into
others people's space and
 70

how difficult it had been

for some of them to allow
others into their space.
They are going to hang the
painting in the counseling
room. We talked about how
difficult it had been for
them and how difficult it
might be for a person who
has a problem to talk about
their problem.

GROUP TWO: PAINTING RESEARCHERS OBSERVATIONS

The aim of the painting can This group really got

be seen under group one. involved in this process
they were not worried about
the idea of space and many
of them painted over each
other's paintings. They did
not struggle with getting
themselves dirty; we did not
need to initiate movement to
other parts of the painting.
They smeared paint and even
just spread powder on the
painting. The colors were
shades of purple and green
and blue and appeared to
blend into each other well
something that we hope that
the group will do.
 71

GROUP TWO DISCUSSION ABOUT RESEARCHERS OBSERVATIONS

THE PAINTING

They were then asked to They all said that it had

comment on the process. been fun. One of them
commented that it looked
like a Ying Yang; another
said that he was rather
upset because his drawing
had been covered up. When
they were asked how they had
felt when one of them had
walked over the painting
they all said that it was
`cool', a word that they
used frequently during the
weekend.

One of them said that his

whole drawing had been
covered up but he did not
care. A comment was made
that he had covered his own
painting. While observing
the process I noted that
this particular pupil had
joined with another and they
made a flower together. This
pupil was quiet and his
participation was limited
but when he did comment he
really had something
meaningful to say. There was
 72

a bit more talking done and

their problem with silence
was commented on, since they
felt the need to fill any
silent space.

5.4.2 DRUMMING

GROUP TWO: MUSICAL RESEARCHERS NARRATION

INSTRUMENT
The next activity involved To begin with they struggled
them making use of a musical to get a rhythm going and
instrument that they had only on the second attempt
brought with them It was did they start listening to
anything that made a each other. When this was
drumming noise. The aim of addressed they began to
this activity was to understand the importance of
encourage listening of the listening and getting into a
group members and group rhythm with the other
cohesion. This activity was person, when working in the
included in the second group context of counseling.
as we felt that the aspects
of group cohesiveness had
been absent in group one.

5.4.3 BODY SCULPTURE

GROUP TWO: BODY SCULPTURE RESEARCHERS NARRATION

The final activity done on They divided into groups

 73

Friday night was a body where they felt the person

sculpture. This was again was feeling the same as they
only done with the second were and to show this
group. Due to the feeling in the sculpture.
understanding that learning This was amazing in the
only takes place by trial sense that this was quite a
and error we felt this powerful experience. They
needed to be included to came out with more feelings
allow more space for than expected. The
creativity. underlying theme appeared to
be that of connectedness and
closeness.

5.4.4 METOPHORICAL OBJECT

GROUP ONE METOPHORICAL RESEARCHERS OBSERVATIONS

OBJECTS
They had each been asked to
bring a metaphorical object
along with them on the
weekend. This object needed
to be something that they
felt represented them on a
metaphorical level. The aim
of the metaphorical object
was to allow the group to
get to know one another
better and to encourage them
all to think about who they
were and see that, when one
meets a person for the first
time, to judge them would be
 74

unfair. People all have

different sides to them and
often the behavior that one
sees is not all that a
person is about. This was
made overt during this
process and allowed them all
to think about how often
people with problems might
be displaying behavior to
protect themselves.

Tanya volunteered to start. She explained that she had

She brought two candles with moved around a lot and felt
her that were bound with a that she was close to her
ribbon. family due to the fact that
she had moved around so
much, yet with their support
she had learned to adjust.
The candles were turquoise
and she said that that was
her favorite color and that
she also had a lot of
candles and these were the
things that she carried with
her when she was changing
places to remember her
.

friends by. She also said

that candles give light and
that is how others perceived
her as being a source of
light and kindness.

She nominated Karen to go She said that she just liked

 75

next and she had brought a `smarties' and that they

box of 'smarties' as her were colourful and nice to
metaphorical object. eat. She also said that you
could do a lot with them and
you could make a noise with
the box. The slogan for
`smarties' is "WHAT A LOT I
GOT" and this she said was
how she felt about
`smarties'. When the group
was asked to comment they
said that they found Karen
to be just like the
`smarties' being colorful.
One person actually said
that with Karen the slogan
said it all, that with her
you get a lot. Karen
struggled to talk about
herself in the beginning of
this process but as people
gave her more positive input
she seemed to find it
easier. As with the drawing
the evening before she came
more into the process than
the previous night and this
was very encouraging to see.

Karen nominated Courtney. This was because she said

Her metaphorical object was that her first pair of
NIKE. running shoes has been a
pair of Nikes and that she
had chosen them because she
 76

had felt that they looked

good. We asked her if she
was concerned about what she
wore and she said 'kind of',
but on a more process level
one might feel that she is
withdrawn and needs to be
noticed and this is one of
the ways she does this. The
group said that they all
recognized her for wearing
NIKE. One might consider
that people often need to
identify with concrete
objects to find their
identity and place in a
particular group. Courtney
found it difficult to talk
about herself but she tried
really hard to get involved
and be liked by all the
group members. One might see
this as a mask that she is
hiding behind, even though
the group indicated that she
was very well liked.

She nominated Shane next. He He discussed the lunch box

has said that he had wanted as having different
to bring his lunch box with sections, and this
him, but it had been stolen, represented the different
so instead he brought a sections of his life and
bunch of keys. they were all held together
by his Christian belief. The
 77

group could identify with

Shane and his lunch box,
they said that this was
exactly what he was like and
that they all knew about his
strong Christian beliefs
They also commented on the
fact that they felt he had
quite a good balance in his
life. Shane felt that there
were issues that still
needed to be worked on and
these he said were issues of
dealing with his stress.

He then nominated Leroy. He said that he had got this

Leroy had brought a hat with hat in America on his last
as his metaphorical object. visit there and that now his
He said that he had got this father and his sister were
hat in America on his last going there and it appeared
visit there and that now his that he would be going too.
father and his sister were The hat was made of leather,
going there and it appeared which was strong and
that he would be going too. dependable, as he felt he
The hat was made of leather, was and the group agreed. He
which was strong and was very joking and this was
dependable, as he felt he noticed, by the group and
was and the group agreed. mentioned that he can hide
behind this hat as he hides
behind his acting. There was
also as piece of leather
around the hat and this he
said was like Shane's box.
The piece of string is his
 78

Christian faith that held

all of the different aspects
of his life together. Leroy
did admit that he often hid
behind the hat and that
often it could hide his
face.

Leroy then nominated Leanne. Leanne said that often

She had brought a colorful people saw her as quite and
dress with her. unassuming but there was
this colorful side to her
that she wished that she
could let out more often.
The team said to her that
she should allow the group
to help her with this. She
said that she was a very
caring and giving person and
that she felt that she had a
lot to give. Leroy commented
on the fact that he had been
nasty to her and that she
had not returned the
nastiness and that he felt
that she was a good person
but that she needed to be
more assertive and not let
people take advantage of
her. We asked her if she
could wear the dress more
often in a metaphorical
sense, she said that she
 79

would try. One got the

feeling that she did not
quite feel the sense
belonging in the group that
she needed and that she did
not express this in the same
way that Keith did. She was
quiet and withdrawn.

Leanne then nominated Julia. Julia had brought sunglasses

as her metaphorical object.
They were red with yellow
lenses and she said that she
really liked sunglasses and
that is why she had brought
them. The team commented on
the fact that the glasses
were something to hide
behind and that is how she
lived her life. She spoke
about having come from
Israel and having left all
her friends behind and how
when her sister had been at
the school she had been her
only friend. The group
commented on the fact that
they felt that she was
hiding behind something and
that they found it rather
difficult to approach her.
She said that she did not
 80

think that people liked her

and that is why she did not
make an attempt to meet
anybody because she knew
that they would not like
her. Again we are confronted
with the concept of the
self-fulfilling prophecy. As
with Leroy she had found
something to hide behind and
also made a reason why she
did not need to come out
from behind this mask. The
group was very supportive of
her and there was a lot of
attention focused on her
during this process. It was
encouraging to see how Karen
had got involved.

She nominated Tomas, whom is Tomas's metaphorical object

her best friend, so one was the rubic cube. He
might still feel that she explained it in the same
felt exposed although the manner that Shane had in the
intensity of the discussion fact that he had many parts
might have left her feeling to him, but he was a lot
very vulnerable and thus she more complex in the way he
turned to the only person explained how these parts
she could. all work together. He said
that he felt that all the
levels could be moved and
changed and that there were
many ways of solving the
puzzle. This is how he felt
 81

that he was and he said that

often people thought of him
as complex. Ones perception
of Tomas is of a very
intense but yet unbelievably
caring and understanding.
The group commented on how
they perceived him and felt
that the cube was a good way
of representing himself. But
they also commented on the
fact that they felt that he
should not try so had to
allow all the levels to work
at the same time.

He nominated Mary. Her The group commented on the

metaphorical object was a fact that she always wore
ring that her mother had the ring and they had all
given her and that had been told about the history
belonged to her grandmother. behind it. They also said
She said that she would pass that they had found her
it on to her daughter. closed like the ring, she
also had a very closed
circle of friends and
struggled to trust easily.
The ring showed how she
needed to maintain a closed
circle and how she used it
as her means of protection.

She nominated Gaby. Her She said that she had chosen
metaphorical object was a a snail due to the fact that
snail. she had spent so much of her
 82

childhood moving around and

that she felt that she
carried her house with her
everywhere she went. The
group commented on the fact
that she was like a snail
and that she was quite and
soft. The fact that a snail
retreats into their shell
when threatened was
mentioned. Gaby said that
she felt that she did
retreat into her shell when
things got tough for her,
but she said that she had
many close friends who she
could chat to and confide
in.

She nominated Dominique. Her She said that she felt that
metaphorical object was a often what people saw of her
candle with many layers. from the outside was not how
she was on the inside. The
group comment was that a
candle brings light and that
is how, they all saw
Dominique as bringing light.
The group talked about the
fact that the candle burns
out if one does not take
care to ensure that it is
looked after and Dominique
said that she often felt
that she gave too much and
 83

did not allow people to give

back to her. It is necessary
to mention that throughout
all these processes
including the interviews the
team found Dominique to be
very much in touch with her
own feelings and also found
her willing to express
there. Her comments in the
group were often very
valuable and she showed a
deep sense of caring.

Dominique nominated Keith. Like the king of the jungle,

His metaphorical object was during this entire process
a lion. he had been very aloof and
non-participatory. He said
that he had chosen the lion
because it was big and
strong and could look after
it's self, just as he was.
The group said that he did
often alone and this made it
very difficult for them to
connect with him. He said
that he,did not need other
people in his life. The lion
though that he had brought
with was a cute cuddly toy
which was rather significant
as it was small cat and it
was in need of being
comforted and this is what
 84

he needed. Keith struggles

to talk about himself and
was not going to allow the
group to make him open up or
feel welcome. He keeps his
own self fulfilling prophecy
going by saying; "I don't
belong so I wont belong." It
was difficult to connect
with throughout the weekend.
The team felt that he had a
lot to give if he could just
learn to let go.

Keith nominated Naomi. She She said that the different

had brought a candle as her layers of the candle
metaphorical object. represented different layers
of her life, namely her
childhood her adolescence
and then her adulthood
namely death. Naomi was the
only the only one who had
spoken about death this was
mentioned by the group and
they enquired; "why must
everything be so defined?"
Naomi struggled to talk
about her feelings. She was
very quiet the whole weekend
but it was not destructive
to the group process.

The last person left was This was a rather disturbing

Matilda. Her metaphorical process, as the group had
 85

object was a book. not actually noticed that

she had not spoken about her
object and were actually
ready to finish off. She
said that she was an open
book and that who ever
wanted to know about her
must read the diary that she
had brought with her. She
tossed it into the middle of
the group. This created a
lot of anger amongst the
group and some people
attacked her personally.
They asked why did they all
have to make such an effort
to get to know her, why she
was not just open. Comments
were made about how she had
stabbed other people in the
back and how then could the
group trust her. This ended
the process on quite a
disturbing note.

GROUP TWO METAPHORICAL RESEARCHERS OBSERVATIONS

OBJECT

Anita started, she had Anita was the most talkative

brought a blue lighter in the group, and this might
have pressurized her to
start. She said that the
blue lighter was hard on the
 86

outside. It was small, blue,

and mellow on the inside.
The fluid inside could make
a big bang. She was not
really prepared to get into
anything on a personal
level. She had gone first
and was quite taken back on
how much she was pushed to
think more and talk less.
Anita nominated Barbara who Here Barbara spoke about the
had brought a tempo wrapping not being very
chocolate. attractive and disguising
the inside. When one opened
the wrapping one found that
there was a soft person, and
there were pieces of
shortcake, which were the
mean parts of her.
Interestingly enough the
group said that they did not
think that she had any mean
parts. She spoke of the
caramel being her sweet
flowing part.

Barbara nominated Carly who Carly saw herself as being

had brought a mirror that able to reflect and this was
she felt best represented the reason that she had been
her. chosen for the group, she is
sensitive to other people in
a very caring way.

Debbie was nominated next Debbie explained herself as

 87

and she brought an egg with being hard on the outside

clay inside it. yet soft and easy to change
on the inside. The idea that
the egg was fragile and
might break easily was
reflected on, she was easily
hurt and she needed to feel
safe to let the soft part of
her out.

Debbie nominated Brad, and Brad brought a syringe and

as quite as he had been needle, he described it by
throughout the process so saying that the hard part on
was his object profound. the outside was his body and
the stuff inside was his
insides. The black part of
the plunger was his
emotions, which one can see
through the clear syringe.
The needle was his mind and
that this is where he took
things in and mixed them
with his emotions and then
made a decision about
whatever it was that he
needed.to make a decision
about. The group commented
on the fact that this was a
very good description of him
and that they found him very
philosophical and caring
with a lot of interesting
ideas to share with others.
They also commented on the
 88

fact that this would not

have been something that
they would have discovered
had they not been on the
weekend and thus taken the
time to talk to him.

Brad nominated Alan who had Brad's sweet dispenser was

brought a pezz, sweet empty and he said that was
dispenser. how he was feeling at the
moment. He said that on the
outside he had a happy
smiling face. He said that
he could take things
(experiences and emotions)
in and also give them out.
He just needed a chance and
did not need to be judged by
people because this made him
angry. The group commented
on the fact that he had so
much to give and that they
did not know how much he was
hurting, and that now they
had a better understanding
of him and would now look at
him in a. different way.

Alan nominated Elizabeth, She said the plate was

who brought a plate. strong, could put many
things on it and it could
make a noise. She said that
it could be broken when it
was dropped, meaning that
 89

she could hurt easily but

that she was a strong
person. She emphasized her
strength a lot during her
talking. She said that if
she had too much on her
plate that she would divide
it up and share it with the
group. The group said that
they had not known her
before this weekend, and
that they found her caring
and understanding.

Elizabeth nominated Francis She said that the wooden

who had brought a wooden part was her strength and
shooting star candle. that the carvings on it were
her characters. The candle
in the middle was her faith,
she said that she understood
that it started somewhere
and that was her journey in
life, and that where it
landed was how she would
decide on what was happening
to her. When asked if she
felt that she shone like a
star and stood out she said
no, but the group disagreed.

Francis nominated Helen who She explained that we could

brought a glass with water see through it and that it
in. could change and adapt to
many forms. She said that
 90

she would use the solid form

when she needed to protect
herself. She commented on
the fact that she did not
have the ability to get
close to people because all
that would happen to her is
that she would get hurt. She
had been in eleven schools
in eleven years. The group
had little to say about her
and she did not connect with
the others. She was facing
outside of the group most of
the time. Anita commented on
the fact that she had no
close friends, and Alan
commented on the idea of her
making use of her family as
her support.

Helen nominated Chris and he He said the present lies

brought a Christmas present. under the tree, making
people want to open it with
nice wrapping on the
outside. Yet he said that
the boxwas empty inside, he
said that he felt that he
was searching for something.
The group amazingly said
that this was not at all how
he appeared to them, they
said that he was kind and
understanding and easy to
 91

talk to and a wonderful

person. We encouraged him to
find some "stuff" to put in
the box by the end of the
weekend.

He nominated Ingrid and she The condom has a strong

brought a condom. wrapping on the outside yet
the actual condom was soft
and easily broken; it was
also a form of protection.
She commented on the fact
that she protected herself
and found it difficult to
take risks. The condom was a
`rough rider', thus giving
her a variation saying that
she's not plain, that she
has different parts to her.
The group was concerned
about her not wanting to
take a risk. She took a big
risk in the role-plays.

Ingrid nominated Jane who Chris asked her if it could

had brought a pan flute be broken and she said yes
saying that it was hard to but it ,required effort to
play. break it. She said that
people that tried to play it
were interested in her and
that made her happy. She was
not fussy about the tune, as
long as they tried to play
it she would respect them.
 92

She spoke of her feelings of

not being heard and
listening to others. The
group made many positive
comments about her saying
that she always said nice
things about other people
was always positive and
encouraging.

Jane nominated Kim; she Each of these points

brought a compass with six represented an aspect of her
different points. life namely school, home,
friends, sport and work. She
was not sure on what the
sixth one was. She said that
now it was not what she
really wanted to bring. She
did not say anything more
about what she wanted to
bring. She spoke of herself
as being easily motivated
and she had a lot of support
from her parents in anything
that she chose to do. She
said that she knew that if
she worked hard that she had
done her best, which meant
that if she failed that, she
still knew that she had done
her best. The group found it
difficult to understand how
she motivated herself.
 93

Kim nominated Lisa who She also referred to the

brought her scrapbook she outside as being hard and
said that she it contained plastic so that if anything
her life, all the things spilt on it one could wipe
that she liked and disliked. it clean. She said that when
"stuff" was spilt on the
inside then it was permanent
and it remained there, just
as with her. Her favorite
page was a picture of her
holiday with her mother.
This was the only time they
had gotten along. Her mother
worked very hard and did not
have much time for Lisa, and
she is an only child. Lisa
has the most amazing sense
of humor and the group
commented this on.

Lisa nominated Mabel, who She said that it was

brought a blusher brush. protected on the outside by
a hard shell and on the
inside the brush is soft and
the bristles can be pulled
out. The, group commented on
how soft she actually was,
saying that she cried easily
and with others when they
cried. She said that she did
not keep the brush inside
the shell a lot and did
expose her softer side more.
 94

The group found her very

kind and pleasant to be
around and those that
commented said that she was
very positive. The brush
looked like a lipstick, but
on further examination one
sees that it is not. This is
what she says she is like,
people see an outer
innocence but she is
actually quite naughty.

Mabel nominated Natasha who The gem had one point that
had brought a gem. moved out in many directions
and this she explained as
the many dimensions of her
personality and her life.
These all came down to one
point and that was her. The
stone is also reflective and
she brings this as a very
important quality. The gem
is something that she said
also shows something that
she enjoys. She is a stone
and gem:cutter and makes
jewelry. She is also part of
the drama club and wants to
go overseas and do drama.
The point was made that
counseling is often like
drama in that you need to
put yourself in another
 95

person's shoes.

5.4.5 ECOLOGICAL MAP

GROUP ONE ECOLOGICAL MAP RESEARCHERS NARRATION

We then asked them to all

They were all a bit confused
draw an ecological map that
as what to do, but with a
gave an indication of who
brief explanation they
they interacted with on a
seemed to have a better idea
regular basis. The reason
as to what was expected of
this particular process was
them. They then divided into
selected was to allow for
pairs, and we suggested that
the students to think about
they pair up with someone
how other people play an
that they did not know all
important role in the way
that well and that they felt
that they thus allowing them
that thus far on the weekend
to bring this idea into the
they had not connected with.
counseling situation with
When they returned they were
them. One felt that it might
asked what they had learned
also encourage.them to have
from this exercise and they
a broader perspective of the
said that they had realized
other person as speaking
that there were a lot of
about ones ecology allowed
things that they had not
for quite a substantial
known about the person that
amount of self assessment.
they had, spent time talking
to about their own
ecological maps. They also
said that they realized how
important it was to take a
persons whole environment
into consideration when they
are counseling them as well
 96

as when they see that others

might label people and not
consider what other things
are happening on in that
persons life.
They said that they did as
yet not see themselves as a
family, but they did see
themselves as a group of
friends that might be more
understanding of each other
and might now be more
supportive of each other.

GROUP TWO ECOLOGICAL MAP RESEARCHERS NARRATION

The students were required They then chose a person

to draw an ecological map. whom they felt that they had
This is a map that shows the not connected with this
important aspects of their weekend and discussed their
lives. individual maps with one
another. During the feedback
session they said that they
had learned a lot about the
other person and saw the
importance of the map in the
respect of working with
others.
 97

5.4.6 ROLE PLAYS

GROUP ONE ROLE PLAYS RESEARCHERS NARRATION

The next step in the These were rather difficult

training program was role- for them. Due to the fact
plays. The aim of the role- that they were all very
plays is to allow them to eager to give advice. They
put what they had learned were initially divided into
thus far into practice. groups and each group was to
Role-plays create a space do a play, around a problem
where they can learn by they thought that they might
`doing' and at the same time experience during their work
they can get supervision and as peer mentors. The first
feedback. play revolved around smoking
and how can this boy who had
everything going for him
start smoking. When asked
how he felt when spoken to
in this manner by his
friends he said that they
were kind of indicating that
he was now a drop out. Then
Mary moved in and played the
role of friend, they then
began to see that it was
more important to listening
and asking questions around
the ecological map than
making the person feel bad
about what they were doing.
The next play was a little
more complicated and got
 98

very intense with the people

involved. Tanya intervened
and was very good we asked
her to just talk about
something that was actually
troubling her at present.
Tomas really struggled but
the group persevered and
gave him encouragement and
everybody got involved.
Karen and Julia participated
and really had good things
to say, this very inspiring
as they had both been rather
withdrawn during the other
exercises as mentioned
before. An effort was made
to make them aware of how
well they had participated
and how important their
input had been.

This was an important

exercise but there was still
a need to monitor some of
them closely and to provide
a lot of, support.

GROUP TWO ROLE PLAYS RESEARCHERS NARRATION

Anita and Alan volunteered•

to start, Alan was the
supporter and Anita had the
99

problem. Anita really

struggled with being serious
and laughed a lot, she said
that she needed a problem.
On reflection she said that
she wished she had made use
of a real problem and not
laughed so much. Alan was
amazing he maintained his
composure throughout the
process and was actually
really good. He listened and
the whole group said that he
had been excellent and that
they wished they could be
more like him. This had a
positive impact on him and
one could see this by the
expression on his face. Alan
does not often receive
positive input and therefore
this was an important
turning point for him as he
expressed.

Then Chris and Mabel

volunteered, Mabel decided
to make use of a real
problem that she was
experiencing with a guy. It
was during this role-play
that the level of
participation and
connectedness increased. It
100

became more personal and

Chris did well, he showing
compassion and caring. The
group commented on how much
he listened. He had a
difficult place to take,
because he had followed on
from Alan, and he had done
so well. We made an example
out of him and he felt that
it was okay and not that we
were 'picking' on him.

Ingrid then took a risk in

saying that she wanted to
try and be the counselor,
and she wanted us to give
her feedback. Jane had the
problem, Ingrid got stuck
and Carly volunteered to
help out, but she also
struggled to find words for
how Jane was feeling.

Then Francis offered to

participate, but Lauren
started ,.:,crying before
Francis could say anything.
One of the psychologists got
up and comforted the pupil,
and we continued discussing
how the counselors and the
rest of the group had felt
about the experience, this
101

was the turning point in the

evening.

Barbara and Natasha

volunteered next. Barbara
brought a real problem and
. also got very personal,
Natasha struggled to find
words for the feelings.
There was much encouragement
from the group and she
managed to continue. Lisa
then volunteered to get
involved she was very
compassionate and really
listened. Lisa also
struggled to find words for
feelings.

The group then spoke about

how they were feeling but
one might have felt that the
space was not quite safe
enough yet. Debbie then
volunteered to participate
in the process. The group
then all commented on how
difficult this had been.
They had not expected it to
be this difficult. They felt
that they had all changed
during this process and that
now they were more
comfortable with the
 102

silence.

They left for bed feeling

exhausted some of them spoke
for a while and others
partied on all night.

5.4.7 FEEDBACK

GROUP ONE:FEEDBACK ON THE RESEARCHERS NARRATION

WEEKEND
They all appeared to have
enjoyed the weekend and
learned a lot about
themselves and each other.
They also mentioned that
they had not expected the
weekend to be anything like
this. They had all been
rather apprehensive as to
what to expect, but had
found the whole process
rather interesting. For the
researcher the questions
was; 'Were they being
expressive or were they too
scared to 'be?'

AIMS RESEARCHERS NARRATION

The first group decided the (a)The aims were as follows:

aims of the peer support Introducing themselves to
group and the following were the school. (b)To focus on
ideas that 'they all decided public relations, by making
 103

upon, and thought were themselves known in the

important issues to school. (c)Receiving a
consider. certificate and a badge on
stage for having come on
this camp and taking an oath
in front of the school.
(d)Meeting with staff,
addressing them and getting
their support. (e) To do
presentation during other s
life skills periods on
issues such as violence,
drugs and suicide. (f)To
establish themselves as
merely a group of kids from
the school with a bit more
experience. Trying to avoid
making themselves into
`untouchables'. Their aim
being to help those in bad
situation. (g)Having a
meeting with the teachers
who had gone through the
training, and workout some
way of making the counseling
work. (h),Correspond with
other schools and other
counselors, forming a
network in which they can
share knowledge. (I) Making
workshops for widely spread
disorders e.g. Divorce
workshop.
 104

SUGGESTIONS FOR COUNSELLING RESEARCHERS NARRATION

TIMES Making time during their
substitution periods or free
periods to see pupils.
Drawing up a roster of
who is free and at what
time. (1) Having group case
discussions, where they can
have more training and
ongoing support, from the
group members as well as the
professional counselors.

RULES AND REGULATIONS RESEARCHERS NARRATION

Confidentiality is of utmost
importance. None of the
cases or problems we would
be discussing should go out
of the group even if it is
necessary to tell the group.
The average problem can be
handled discretely but with
understanding and caring -
'keep it to yourself'.

CODE OF ETHICS RESEARCHERS NARRATION

This group drew up the code They decided that they would
of ethics, the mission and all need to sit down and
vision statement. (see discuss the code of ethics.
Appendix C) Each member of the Peer
 105

Support Group must sign the

code of ethics.

Included in this was a

decision on what would
happen if one of the peer
counselors did not adhere to
the code of ethics. The
group decided that they
would call the person in and
then discuss the issue with
the person, from there they
would then decide on the
action to be taken.

GROUP TWO: EVALUATION RESEARCHERS NARRATION

On evaluation the group

commented on how difficult
they had found the whole
process and how it had been
more difficult that they had
expected, and how it had
changed them. Some time was
spent focusing on the
specific individuals who had
struggled during the whole
process, namely Chris, Jane
and Barbara. Specific
attention was paid to Alan
as they were concerned that
he was going to leave school
and that after the weekend
 106

they felt that he was a

valuable part of the group.
The group gave him very
positive input.

We explored the issue of why

the group would not be the
same if Alan was not there,
they all felt that each one
of them brought something
different and that without
all of them together the
group would not be whole.

The group did a sculpture in

the end with Nelson in the
center of the spiral.

The issue of the code of

ethics and the mission
statement was discussed and
the first group will hand
this over to them at a later
stage.

5.5 QUANTITATIVE RESULTS

The results of this study will be based on the Peer Facilitator

Effectiveness Questionnaire, this questionnaire has been used
because not only does it look at the process it takes the
outcomes of such a program into consideration as well. The Peer
facilitator Effectiveness Questionnaire places emphasis on both
 107

ti
positive aspects (involvement, listening, participation,
acceptance, closeness and excitement), and negative aspects
(rejection, comfort and acceptance). The importance of examining
process is often not acceptable to many people and they need
empirical evidence, namely the outcomes. When implementing a new
program one needs to consider both the process and the outcomes.
The use of the Peer Facilitator Effectiveness Questionnaire aim
to eliminate some biases as the researcher might feel that the
program has been a success but without any empirical evidence
one cannot make any real deductions. The main aim behind this
questionnaire is to answer the question; 'What happened as a
result of the process?'

This questionnaire has been used in a study of sixty-six fourth

and fifth grade elementary students in a public high school in
Florida USA. There were seventeen peer facilitators who worked
with these students in small groups. These seventeen students
were in grade nine to twelve and at the beginning of the study
they had been involved in the peer facilitator class for 6
months. The finding of this study were that the students viewed
the experience as a positive one, namely that the positive items
where responded to more regularly than the negative items, and
that both the process and outcomes were .favorable. This study
showed that not all the students found the experience positive,
some students did not feel that the other students listened to
them, others felt that some of the students did not participate
in the group.
 108

TABLE 5.1: Frequency of responses on the Peer Facilitators

Effectiveness Inventory Questionnaire of Group One
(N=11)
Item Positive Undecided Negative
Numbers** (SA+A) % (U) % (D+SD) %
Frequency Frequency Frequency
1 10 90.9 1 0.90 0 0
2 10 90.9 1 0.90 0 0
*3 1 0.90 2 18.1 8 72.7
4 9 81.8 0 0 2 18.1
*5 5 45.4 0 0 6 54.5
6 9 81.8 1 0.90 1 0.90
*7 1 0.90 2 18.1 8 72.7
*8 0 0 1 0.90 10 90.9
9 10 90.9 1 0.90 0 0
10 10 90.9 0 0 1 0.90
11 9 81.8 2 18.1 0 0
*12 0 0 4 36.3 7 63.6
13 5 45.4 1 0.90 5 45.4
14 2 18.1 4 36.3 5 45.4
15 5 45.4 3 27.2 3 27.2
16 10 90.9 1 0.90 0 0
17 11 100 0 0 0 0
18 10 90.9 1 0.90 0 0
19 7 63.6 3 27.2 1 0.90
20 3 27.2 7 63.6 1 0.90

* Note: These items are negatively phrased.

**Item numbers correspond to statements%on PFEI (Appendix B).
Note: Questions 1-10 represent the process, and questions 11-20
represent the outcomes.

From Table 5.1 it can be seen that the students tended to view
the experience as a positive one. These results therefore
suggest that both the process and the outcome were favorable. It
is important to note that not all the students found the
experience positive, some did not feel that their behavior had
 109

changed due to the experience. Others did not find that school
had become more enjoyable due to their experience.

TABLE 5.2: Frequency of Responses on the Peer Facilitator

Effectiveness Inventory Questionnaire of Group Two.
(N=15)
Positive Undecided Negative

(Item
(SA+A) o (U) o (D+SD)

Numbers **
Frequency Frequency Frequency
1 14 93.3 0 0 0 0
2 14 93.3 0 0 0 0
*3 5 33.3 1 0.66 8 53.3
4 12 80.0 0 0 2 13.3
*5 4 26.6 2 13.3 8 53.3
6 12 80.0 2 13.3 0 0
*7 1 0.66 1 0.66 12 80.0
*8 0 0 0 0 14 93.3
9 14 93.3 0 0 0 0
10 14 93.3 0 0 0 0
11 14 93.3 0 0 0 0
*12 4 26.6 4 26.6 6 40.0
13 3 20.0 7 46.6 4 26.6
14 14 93.3 0 0 0 0
15 8 53.3 6 40.0 0 0
16 14 93.3 0 0 0 0
17 14 93.3 0 0 0 0
18 14 93.3 0 0 0 0
19 13 86.6 1 0.66 0 0
20 9 60.0 4 26.6 1 0.66

*Note:' These items are phrased negatively.

**Item numbers correspond to statements on PFEI (Appendix B).
Note: Questions 1-10 represent the process, and questions 11-20
represent the outcomes.

This group found the experience to be positive, namely they

responded more often to the positive questions. This group found
 110

the experience to be more positive than group one. These results

suggest that this group was not spread out as much as group one
with regards to the positive questions, but they were more
spread out with the negative questions. There was very little
negative experience with this group the only one of any
significance was that their attitude towards drugs had changed.

5.6 COMMENT'S ON THE GROUP PROCESS

The two group processes were different and one might speculate
what had caused the processes to differ. The second group was
trained earlier in the year and therefore the prefects had not
yet been chosen. Whereas with the first group the prefects had
been chosen and felt that they had certain underlying 'rules'
they had to conform to and other members of the group did not
conform to them causing some degree of conflict.

The number of applicants was much greater for the second group
and there were many of them that would had made good counselors
but due to limitations they were not able to be part of the
program. Due to this dilemma a step was added to the process in
order to help with the selection, this being the group task that
they were given before the camp. This process might have created
a connectedness that the other group did not have.

Taking into consideration the above mentioned aspects and the

fact that the first group were the 'guinea pigs', as well as the
fact that no two groups are alike, one might have expected that
there would be different processes with each group. The
important aspect is that both groups had found the experience to
be positive and that in some way the positive experience had
shifted the pupils in a positive way and that was the aim of
this program.
 110

CHAPTER 6
THE END OF THE BEGINNING

"The 'PSG' has been a wonderful experience I will

never forget. I have learnt a lot as a person and
have learnt about other people, the way they
behave and why they behave the way they do.
Everyday brings new challenges as people approach
me about things they are going through and are
just looking for a friend. I have learnt to care
about people in a way I never thought I could.
The counselors are always very interested in our
lives and what we do and whenever we have a
problem they are the first people willing to help
and listen. We have taken on may projects for
example speaking to people about drugs and going
to Mamelodi. Each project had something new to
teach me (whether it was a positive or negative
thing).
I look forward to next year as being a 'PSG'
member and all the opportunities we will be given
to try something new" (A peer counselors
comment).
"In the beginning God created " (Genesis 1:1). There
was never a conclusion to this story and when one
considers that the world is a system that continues
evolving, and when people are involved one can find it
hard to draw a conclusion. The final chapter is
therefore not a conclusion it is a new beginning.

While working on the peer counseling project at the

High School the human element of the program was
overwhelming, it was difficult to explain how amazing
this work was or how this kind of project can be
 111

`concluded'. The only 'conclusion' that can be deduced

from this study is that peer-counseling is needed and
should be implemented in more schools in South Africa.

In this chapter the human element is therefore taken

into consideration. The feelings of the pupils due to
the process that they went through will be considered
as well as how they felt they shifted during this
process (the pupils comments will be included in bold
italics).This has been interwoven with the literature
and the results of the Peer Facilitator Effectiveness
Inventory Questionnaire.

The impact of peer counseling on an international level

as indicated in chapter one needs no further expansion.
Internationally peer counseling has been applied in
many countries very successfully in secondary schools.
In chapter one the focus was placed on projects such as
the Ontario Peer Helpers Association and international
conferences where we were introduced to other
successful projects in countries such as Ghana. The
international success was an inspiration and the
driving force behind why this program was implemented.

Adolescence is a difficult time, and the adolescent's

of today are faced with more complex and life
threatening issues than even a generation ago,
i.e.drugs, Aids, violence and gangs. Research has shown
that one single caring adult can make a difference in
the direction that an adolescent chooses to go.
"I think the peer facilitators can help students by
caring, just being a friend, always being there for
them, understanding, supporting, listening, not
being judgmental".
 112

In chapter two the literature (Brown, 1994,

Foot,1990,Rubin,1982) indicates that during development
the adolescent's peer group play a role in their social
development. The literature shows that adolescent's are
able to use aspects such as altruism as positive coping
mechanisms. Adolescent's are turning to one another for
emotional support and are being useful in this manner.
Peer counseling appears to make a place for this to
happen in an effective manner, and in a safe and
supportive environment.
"This is a wonderful experience to learn more about
yourself and others. A deeper understanding of
myself and the ways others think of themselves and
me".
Peer counseling also creates an opportunity to
eliminate the stigma that is attached to the idea of
seeking help from a professional, and allows
adolescents to acknowledge that their problems can and
must be understood.

Adolescents can achieve a lot if a caring adult gives

them support, and this can create a balance in the
following elements:

• Belonging: where they have feelings of being loved

and loving others, of trust and an attachment to
others and other institutions.
" I appreciate everyday I spent with them and hope
that they will keep on doing their good work.
want to thank the counselors for being patient with
us and giving us an experience we'll never forget.
Sharing experience, trusting each other. Our great
 113

friendships and how comfortable we felt around each

other. The bonding and caring, we learnt a lot".
Mastery: the potential to achieve in many different
ways, especially for those adolescent's who are not
acknowledge in institutions such as a school.
" I had a great time, learnt more about how my
attitude and life makes an impact on others and how
sometimes that can be a negative influence. I
recognized that and was able to stop it, that it
was a life changing experience that made me realize
new things about people and myself".

Independence: learning to understand the difference

between being a strong leader or an aggressive
leader.
" It made me realize things about myself I did not
really want to know but had to. It made me grow as
an individual and I learnt a lot about myself
including the responsibility of my future".
Generosity: learning that they can help others and
through this can help themselves.
Stimulation: by learning a variety of interesting
and fun activities, which are not directly related
to the school environment.
"After every meeting there would be something
interesting and new I could give back to others".

Peer counseling allows the adolesceri't to identify all

these elements in a caring and supportive environment
with the element of a caring adult.
"I learnt more about myself and how to listen to
others. The camp where we trained to deal with
situations and learned to listen. Learning to see
things in a different way, being in a relaxed
atmosphere. The fact that I mature more".
 114

When implementing a peer-counseling program the

literature strongly suggests that all potential
candidates need to go through a selection process,
which can involve a personal interview or a
questionnaire or both. For the purpose of this program
that was implemented at the High School both a personal
interview and a questionnaire was used. This was to
ensure that all the candidates are capable of handling
the responsibility placed on them, as well as to ensure
that the school recognizes the program.

The second aspect that is stresses by the literature

(Myrick, 1988, Buck,1977) is a training program. The
training program that was implemented at the High
school was developed to meet the specific needs of the
school and were based on the trainers personal
epistemologies. These epistemologies are systemically
based and focused on both group and individual process.
The school is considered as a system within a specific
community with varying needs, these needs vary, and
will vary according to the school and the community.
Due to these differences the program that was
implemented in Canada and USA was adapted to fit this
specific communities needs.

The final aspect of importance exprqssed by the

literature is that there needs to be some kind of
ongoing support for the peer counselors. This proved to
be of particular significance with regards to the
program implemented at the high school. The second
group received more support, and this showed in their
work their enthusiasm and their evaluation.
 115

"I would like to say that the 'PSG' is an excellent

thing that people should get involved in. The
counselors themselves are excellent guys who
definitely know what they doing".

According to the National Middle School Association

adolescents of today are more curious and concerned
about themselves than rebellious and argumentative, as
the media seems to feel. If adults just believed in
them and provided them with support, opportunities and
the appropriate challenges they might feel more able to
contribute to this process.

Many academic institutions place emphasis on

achievement as being academic success, but in order for
adolescents to achieve academically aspects such as
family re-engagement, developmentally appropriate
schools, health promotions strategies, stronger
adolescent communities and constructive media also need
to be considered.

On evaluation of the program at the High school,

specifically with respect to the Peer Facilitator
Effectiveness Inventory Questionnaire, as well as input
from the teachers, headmaster, other schools, and other
pupils that this program has been successful. Ongoing
evaluation and support is still an essential element.
As a community we can become more aware of the problem
that the adolescents of today are faced with, and then
as a community we can work towards having projects like
this on implemented on a national level.

Taking into consideration the current situation in

South Africa with regards to issues such as violence
 116

II
and abuse, it is a fact that many of these victims are
children. There are not enough professional people to
assist these victims of abuse. The environment has
contributed to the problems faced by the children in
this country, as well as the idea that many of these
children have poor support structures, namely parent
who are absent, either due to death, divorce, or
economic conditions.

The literature has indicated that adolescents are quite

capable of helping one another, and that peers play an
important role in the development of adolescents. The
implementation of a peer-counseling program is long
over due. Not only will this allow more people to be
reached, it will create a safe and supportive
environment, positive peer pressure, and close the gap
between adult counselors and adolescent.

There are some limitations to a project like this,

namely that it requires:
Patience, planning and in the initial stages time.
A passion for the work, because there are times that
are tough and if ones heart is not in the project it
will be easy to give in.
Networking and getting support of the headmaster,
the teachers, the pupils, and the community, and
finally
Commitment in the form of ongoing evaluation and
support.
The end results as this program has shown that it is
well worth all the hard work.
 117

Educators need to understand that school improvement is

not an event. There is an ebb and flow to improvement
that occurs as community's change and as 'kids' change.
 117

REFERENCES

Adelson, J.(1980). Handbook of Adolescent Psychology. New

York: John Wiley and Sons.

Adams, J.F. (1980) . Understanding adolescence: Current

developments in adolescent psychology. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.

Baker, R.G. (1958). Ecological Psychology. Stanford, CA:

Stanford University Press.

Bandura, A. (1971). Social Learning Theory. New York:

General Learning Press.

Becvar, D.S., and Becvar, R.J. (1988). Family Therapy: A

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 APPENDIX A
PEER SUPPORT GROUP QUESTIONNAIRE

What qualities do you believe you bring to the

counseling program?
Who do you turn to in a personal crisis? What is it
about them that makes you feel safe?
How do you relieve your stress?
What other commitments do you have for 1999?
Do you have the support of your parents/guardian in
participating in this process?
Has there been a specific crisis or event in your life
that you feel has had a significant impact on your
development as a person? Please elaborate.
What do you wish to gain personally out of this
program?
There is a rumour around school that one of the pupils
is pregnant this pupil approaches you and confides in
you. During break the topic comes up and is discussed
amongst your friends. (a) How would you deal with the
pupil (b) How would you deal with the discussion during
break when you are confronted about this issue?
Research and list as many names and numbers of
resources (places and people you can refer too)
available in you community, e.g. Rape crisis, child
protection unit, etc.
 P2.- F_R FACILITATOR E::::21.0 FiVENESS
INVENTORY (PFEI)
Read each of the statements below. Indicate the extent of your
greement or disagreement with each statement by circling the
)propriate letters to the right: SA—Strongly Agree; A -

gree; U—Uncertain; D—Disagrr-:-e; Disagreee.

lease respond to all of the statements.
The group sessions with the peer SA A U D SD
icilitators were interesting.
Group members listened to each other SA A U D SD
gyring our sessions.
Sometimes I was bored during our ses- SA A U D SD
ons.
Everyone participated and shared their SA A U D SD
ioughts, ideas and feelings in the group.
Some of the things we talked about SA A U D SD
lade me feel uncomfortable.
I felt that the peer facilitators were in- SA A U D SD
Tested in me.
Sometimes the peer facilitators "put me SA A U D SD
awn."
The peer facilitators did not think my SA A U D SD
oughts and feelings were important.
The peer facilitators treated me like a SA A U D SD
end.
). The peer facilitators were enthusiastic SA A U D SD
)out what they were doing.
My experience with the peer facilita- SA A U D SD
rs helped change my attitudes about
rtain things.
!. My behavior did not change as a result SA A U D SD
my experiences in the group.
1. My attitude toward the use of drugs SA A U D SD
Is change::: because of my experiences
th the peer facilitators. (Note: Any other
,ecial focus can be used here.)
 (continued)
School seems more enjoyable as a SA A U D SD
- esult of the group experience.
I would like to be a peer facilitator SA A U D SD
someday.
I would recommend a similar ex- SA A U D SD
Der i enc e for others.
I got to know other students better as a SA A U D SD
'esult of our group.
My understanding of others increased. SA A U D SD

Understanding of myself increased SA A U D SD

because of the group.
My behavior changed as a result of my SA A U D SD
experiences in the group.
What I liked most about my experience with the peer facilita-
tors was. . . .
What I liked least about my experience with the peer facilitators
was....
I think the peer facilitators can best help students by....
Write below or on the back any other comments you want to
make.
SI
WILLOWRIDGE HIGH SCHOOL
CODE OF ETHICS
FOR PEER SUPPORTERS

1. TO MAINTAIN THE PRINCILE OF CONFIDENTIALITY IN

ALL CIRCUMSTANCES AND SITUATIONS.

2.TO TAKE MORAL AND ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE TRUST

PLACED IN ME AS AN INDIVIDUAL AND AS A MEMBER OF THE PEER

SUPPORT GROUP.

3.PEER SUPPORTERS SHOULD REALIZE THAT THEY ARE PLACED UNDER

A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF SCRUTINY, AND SHOULD THEREFORE ACT IN

A MANNER THAT IS BEFITTING OF THE RESPONSIBILITY PLACED ON

THEM.

4.THE ROOM ALLOCATED US IS FOR THE EXPRESS PURPOSE OF THE

WORK OF THE PEER SUPPORT GROUP.

5.THE PEER SUPPORT GROUP IS SUBJECT TO ALL SCHOOL RULES.

Si

MISSION STATEMENT

WE THE PEER SUPPORT GROUP, WILL ENDEVOUR TO INSPIRE AN

INPENETRABLE TRUST AMONG BOTH OURSELVES AND THE PUPILS IN

OUR FRAME OF REFERENCE. WE WILL AT ALL TIMES REMEMBER OUR

POSITION AND CODE OF ETHICS AND HENSE ACT ACCORDINGLY TO

ANY GIVEN SITUATION.

VISION STATEMENT

TO OVERCOME SCEPTICISM BY MEANS OF NON-JUDGEMENTAL

SINCERE HANDLING OF ANY SITUATION AND THRIUGH THE

PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT WE TRY TO EMBODY. TO PROMOTE THE

GROUP AS A UNIT THROUGH PUPIL TO PUPIL NETWORKING AND

ADVERTISING.