Solar Energy

SET 814

By
Dr. Francis Njoka

January. 2023
Course contents

 Solar radiation spectrum,  Solar generators,

 principles of solar radiation,  measurements of solar radiation,
 global distribution,  fundamentals of heat transfers and
 seasonal variation, collections,
 effects of tilt angle,  flat plate collector systems,
 resource estimation.  passive solar designs,
 concentrators,
 solar thermal power stations.
References

1. Tohn Twidell and Tony Weir (2015). Renewable Energy Resources (3rd Edition). Routledge. 2 Park Square,
Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
2. Soteris Kalogirou (2009) Solar energy engineering: Processes and systems (1st Edition) Academic Press.
30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA
3. Aldo V. Da Rosa (2009) Fundamentals of Renewable energy processes (2nd Edition) Academic Press. 30
Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA
4. John A. Duffie and William A. Beckman (2013) Solar engineering of thermal processes (4th edition). John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
The Sun: Earth’s Energy Source
The Sun is located about 150x109 m from the Earth at the center of the Solar
System.

The Sun generates a large amount of energy due to a continuous thermonuclear

fusion reaction occurring in its interior.

In this interaction Hydrogen isotopes (deuterium and tritium) combine to form
Helium and the excess energy is released in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
All the sun’s energy comes from the innermost ¼ of its
Sun’s surface temperature is about 5780 K.
radius – 1.6% by vol.
80% of this energy is by proton-proton cylce – fusion of 4
protons to form Helium.
1H + 1H = 2D + positron + neutrino
1H + 2D = 3He + γ rays
3He + 3He = 4He + 1H + 1H
Solar Radiation
The output power of sun is L0 = 3.9×1023 kW. The energy flux at the surface of the Sun
is approximately 64 x 106 W/m2 .
 The energy reaching the earth is 1.5×1018 kWh/year.
 When light travels from outer space to earth, solar energy is lost because of
following reasons:

o Scattering: The rays collide with particles present in atmosphere

o Absorption: Because of water vapor there is absorption
o Cloud cover: The light rays are diffused because of clouds.
o Reflection: When the light rays hit the mountains present on the earth surface
there is reflection.
o Climate: Latitude of the location, day (time in the year) also affects the amount
of solar energy received by the place.
The average solar energy flux at the Sun’s surface, a distance of r0 from its center, is
given by the Solar luminosity (L0) divided by the area of a sphere with a radius r0:
I0 = L0/4πr02
 Due to the location of the Earth in the solar system , a range of
temperatures exists close to its surface making the Earth a habitable
planet.

 This temperature range is determined through an energy balance

between the solar radiation absorbed by the Earth and the energy the
Earth sends back into space.

 This process is known as the Earth energy (or radiation) balance.

 Earth’s internal source of energy, due to radioactive decay of various

elements in its mantel and due to its warm core, is much smaller
(~3x10-5 times) than the amount received from the sun.
 Solar Flux in Space
 The energy flux emitted from the Sun spreads over an increasing
spherical surface as it moves into space.

 Because the area of a sphere increases in proportion to the square

of its radius, the radiative energy flux from the sun decreases as the
inverse of the square of the distance from the Sun.

 The solar fluxes at two different distances from the Sun, I1 and I2,
relate to one another as the inverse square of their distances from it,
r1 and r2, that is:
I1/ I2 = (r2/r1)2
Electromagnetic Energy Transfer

 Solar radiation is energy, traveling through space as electromagnetic

(EM) wave radiation.

 Radiation is a form of energy transfer that does not require mass

exchange or direct contact between the heat exchanging bodies.

 Radiation involves the propagation of EM energy at the speed of light

c* = 3x1010 cm/s.

 The speed of light c*, the frequency of the EM waves 𝝂, and its
wavelength λ are linked through the following relationship: c* = λ𝝂
Blackbody Radiation

 A body that emits energy over all frequencies in a

continuous manner is called a blackbody.
 Blackbody radiation is a function of temperature and
wavelength.
 This dependence is described in Planck’s law of radiation,
which relates the EM energy flux emitted by a blackbody
per unit wavelength to the wavelength and the temperature:
E(T,λ) = C1 /(λ5[ exp(C2 /λT ) − 1] )
Where C1 and C2 are constants λ is the wavelength in m, and T is the absolute
temperature in K
 Planck's law states a complex relationship between the energy
flux per unit wavelength, the wavelength, and the temperature.
From it we can derive two more simplified relationship.

1. Wien’s law, stating the relationship between the wavelength

corresponding to the maximum energy flux output by a
blackbody λmax (in μm) and its absolute temperature T (in K): .

λmax = 2898/T
 Using Wien’s law and the Earth and Sun average temperatures 288
and 5780 K, respectively we find that their λmax correspond to about
10 and 0.5 μm.

2. Stefan-Boltzman’s law stating the relationship between absolute

temperature and the total energy flux emitted by a blackbody, over
the entire wavelength range Ib (in W/m2)

Ib = σT4
where σ is referred to as the Stefan-Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10−8 W/m2 K4
 Irradiance

 It is a quantity indicating the amount of incident solar power on a unit

surface, commonly expressed in units of kW/m2 .
 At the earth’s outer atmosphere, the solar irradiance on a 1 m2 surface
oriented normal to the sun’s rays is called SOLAR CONSTANT and its
value is 1.37 kW/m2.
 Due to atmospheric effects, the peak solar irradiance incident on a
terrestrial surface oriented normal to the sun at noon on a clear day is in
the order of 1 kW/m2.
 A solar irradiance level of 1 kW/m2 is often called PEAK SUN. Solar
irradiance is denoted by ' I '.
 50% of solar energy is in the form of thermal energy (see graph) .
 Solar PV captures the energy in visible region. Solar thermal captures
energy in infrared region.
kW/m2

0.2 μm 0.4 μm 0.7 μm 4 μm

UV Visible IR
 SolarExtraterrestrial
constant (Io), is Radiation
the radiation (Solar
incidentconstant)
outside the earth's
atmosphere. On average, it is 1367 W/m2. This value varies by ±3%
as the earth orbits the sun.

Io = 1367 * (Rav / R)2 W/m2

 where (Rav) is the mean sun-earth distance and (R ) is the actual sun-
earth distance depending on the day of the year
2
 R AV   1.0011  0.034221 * cos(  )  0.00128 * sin(  ) 
 R
0.000719 * cos( 2  )  0.000077 * sin( 2  )

 Where β = 2 π n / 365 and n is the day of the year. For example, January 15 is year
day 15 and February 15 is year day 46. There are 365 or 366 days in a year
depending if the year is a leap year.
Insolation/Irradiation

It is an amount of solar energy received on a unit surface expressed in units of

kWh/m2 .
Solar Insolation is essentially the solar irradiance (power) integrated with
respect to time.
When solar Insolation data is represented on an average daily basis, the
value is often called PEAK SUN HOURS (PSH) and can be thought of as the
number of equivalent hours/day that solar irradiance is at its peak level of
1kW/m2.
The worldwide average daily value of solar Insolation on optimally
oriented surfaces is approximately 5 kWh/m2 or 5 PSH. Solar Insolation is
denoted by 'H'.
Solar Energy and the Climate System

 Planets rotate around the Sun in elliptically shaped orbits with

the sun in one of its foci. Aphelion is the orbit position farthest
from the sun and perihelion closest.

 Each orbit is defined by its mean distance from the Sun (d), by
its eccentricity (e) and by its orientation in space.

 Each planet rotates around its axis, which in generally inclined

with respect to the orbital plane as measured by the obliquity
angle
 The rotation rate around the axis determines the length of the day
and, the planet’s orbital rotation rate determines the length of its
year.

 Eccentricity results in relatively small variations in incoming

radiation, which are not the main reason for the seasonality.

 Obliquity (Φ) is the main reason for seasonality. If Φ is different

from zero, the lengths of day and night over most of the planet’s
surface are not equal but only for two times during the year, the
equinox times.
 The difference between the lengths of day and night is zero on the
planet’s equator and changes polewards.

 The days are longer than the night on the hemisphere tilting
towards the Sun leading to more incoming Solar energy than in the
other hemisphere.

 The times of year when the difference between the lengths of day
and night reach their extreme values are called solstices.
 Latitude
 Latitude lines run horizontally, parallel and equally distant from
each other.
 Degrees latitude are numbered from 0° to 90° north and south.
 Zero degrees is the equator, the imaginary line which divides our
planet into the northern and southern hemispheres.
 North Pole is 90° north and South Pole and 90° south.
 Each degree of latitude is approximately 111 km (69 miles)
apart.
 Longitude
 Longitude lines (meridians) are vertical, converge at the poles
and are widest at the equator (about 111 km or 69 miles apart).

 Zero degrees longitude is located at Greenwich, England (0°).

 The degrees continue 180° east and 180° west where they meet
and form the International Date Line in the Pacific Ocean.
Solar Declination
 Solar Declination is the angle between the Sun's rays and Earth's
equatorial plane. (Technically, it is the angle between the Earth-Sun
vector and the equatorial plane.)

 The Declination angle is 23.5° during the Northern Summer Solstice,

and –23.5° during the Southern Summer Solstice. It is between ±23.5°
the rest of the year.

 Following equations could be used for calculating solar declination

angle δ

Where N is the day in the year

 For precise calculation the following equation could be used

Where,
Solar Elevation (Sun height) Angle ( θ )
 The solar elevation angle is the elevation angle of the
sun. That is, the angle between the direction of the sun
and the (idealized) horizon.
 It can be calculated, to a good approximation, using the
following formula:

Where
θs is the solar elevation angle,
h is the hour angle of the present time ,
δ is the current sun declination and
Φ is the local latitude
 Solar Time and Local Standard Time
 The system of standard time is based on two facts:
1. The Earth completes a total rotation on its axis once
every twenty-four hours.
2. There are 360° of longitude all the way around the
Earth.
 The Earth turns 360° in 24 hours, or at a rate of 15° an
hour. (360° in a day÷24 hours = 15° an hour)

 Each time zone is 15° wide.

 Each standard meridian is the center of a time zone.
 Solar Time and Local Standard Time
 The Greenwich Time Zone, for example, is centered on the
Prime Meridian

 This time zone is supposed to be 15° wide and extends

from 7½° W to 7½°E.
 However, the boundaries of standard time don’t exactly
run along meridians. The boundaries have been
changed to fit the borders of countries and even smaller
areas.
 Solar Time and Local Standard Time
 The relationship between solar time and local standard time is
required to describe the position of the sun in local standard
time.

 Local standard time is the same in the entire time zone

whereas solar time relates to the position of the sun with
respect to the observer.
 That difference depends on the exact longitude where solar
time is calculated.
 Solar Time and Local Standard Time
 As the earth moves around the sun, solar time changes
slightly with respect to local standard time.
 This is mainly related to the conservation of angular
momentum as the earth moves around the sun.
 This time difference is called the equation of time and can
be an important factor when determining the position of the
sun for solar energy calculations.
 An approximate formula for the equation of time (Eqt) in
minutes depending on the location of earth in its orbit is
as follows;
 Solar Time and Local Standard Time
 Eqt = - 14.2 sin [π (n + 7) / 111] for year day n between 1
and 106

 Eqt = 4.0 sin [π (n - 106) / 59) for year day n between 107
and 166

 Eqt = - 6.5 sin [π( n - 166) / 80) for year day n between 167
and 365
 Solar Time and Local Standard Time
 To adjust solar time for a longitude, one has to sum the value
resulting from the time equation and add to or subtract the amount
that the local time is ahead or behind the clock time for the time
zone to the local time.

Tsolar = Tls + Eqt/ 60 ± (Longlocal – Longsm)/15 hours

Where Tsolar is the local solar time,

Tls is the local standard time,
Longlocal is the longitude of the observer in degrees and
Longsm is the longitude for the standard meridian for the observer's time
zone.
 Solar hour angle (h)

 Since the earth rotates approximately once every 24 hours, the hour
angle changes by 15 degrees per hour and moves through 360
degrees over the day.

 Typically, the hour angle is defined to be zero at solar noon, when the
sun is highest in the sky.

h = π * (12 - Tsolar) / 12 , radians

Where Tsolar is the local solar time
 Solar zenith angle (ωs)

 The zenith angle is the opposite angle to the sun height

θs.
ωs = ( 90° – θs).

 At a sun height of 90°, the sun is at the zenith and the

zenith angle is therefore zero.
Sun azimuth (αS)

 The sun azimuth (αS ) is the angle, measured clockwise,

between geographical North and the point on the
horizon directly below the sun.
 Sun azimuth (αS)

 (Another definition is sometimes used, whereby the definition of

the sun height remains the same but the sun azimuth is counted
as zero when the sun is in the South and measured
anticlockwise. Sometimes the symbols of azimuth and sun
height are also interchanged.)
 Solar Radiation on Earth Surface

 The amount of direct radiation on a horizontal surface can be

calculated by multiplying the direct normal irradiance times the
cosine of the zenith angle (ω).

 On a surface tilted (T) degrees from the horizontal and rotated ( γ )

degrees from the north-south axis, the direct component on the tilted
surface is determined by multiplying the direct normal irradiance by
the following value for the cosine of the incidence angle (θ ) ;
 Solar Radiation on Earth Surface

cos (θ) = sin(δ)sin(λ)cos(T) - sin(δ)cos(λ)sin(T)cos(γ)

+cos(δ)cos(l)cos(T)cos(h)
+cos(δ)sin(λ)sin(T)cos(γ)cos(h)
+cos(δ)sin(T)sin(γ)sin(h)

where
λ is the latitude of the location of interest,
δ is the sun declination and
h is the hour angle .
Thank you