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Effects of indoor color on mood and cognitive performance

Article  in  Building and Environment · September 2007

DOI: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.07.037

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 ARTICLE IN PRESS

Building and Environment 42 (2007) 3233–3240

www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

Effects of indoor color on mood and cognitive performance

K. Yildirima,, A. Akalin-Baskayab, M.L. Hidayetogluc
a
Department of Furniture & Decoration, Gazi University, Besevler, Ankara, Turkey
b
Department of Architecture, Gazi University, Maltepe, Ankara, Turkey
c
Department of Interior Architecture, Selcuk University, Selcuklu, Konya, Turkey
Received 13 October 2005; received in revised form 15 June 2006; accepted 31 July 2006

Abstract

In this study, the impact of indoor color use, gender and age on mood and cognitive performance was examined. It was hypothesized
that indoor color for decoration in stores is an effective source that may convey emotional meanings differentiated by gender, age, or
both. In order to study this, a two-stage work was carried out in a café/restaurant, in which interior yellow walls were changed to violet.
In both stages, furniture and decorations remained the same. Each appearance (yellow and violet) was tested by using visual attributes
through the use of bipolar scales. Results from approximately 250 participants for each stage showed that violet interiors were more
positively perceived when compared to yellow. Compared to females, male users evaluated the space more positively. In addition, young
customers had a more positive tendency than older customers towards the perception of atmospheric attributes, including color of store
interiors.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Color; Store atmosphere; Café/restaurant; Perception

1. Store atmosphere and the impact of color on consumers and affect their behavior [2]. Most of this research has
examined the effects of individual pleasant stimuli such as
According to Baker [1], atmospheric attributes for music [3–5], lighting [6–8] or smell [9] on consumer
interior spaces consist of three components: ambient behavior, but, surprisingly, little research has addressed
factors (temperature, noise, scent, music, and lighting), how a store’s predominant color affects consumer reactions
design factors (architecture, color, materials, pattern, [10,11]. In this work, the indoor perceptual quality of a
texture, and layout of the store), and social factors café/restaurant is tested regarding alternative color usage.
(customers and employees). Research examining the effect The study intends to reveal the effect of color on
of atmospheric attributes on customer evaluations has customers’ perceptions of store atmospheric attributes. It
predominantly been focused on the critical influence of is still ambiguous how the application of various colors and
atmospheric attributes and has been concerned with the color schemes in stores affect customers’ perceptions of
attractiveness, pleasantness and spaciousness of retail atmospheric attributes, whether they vary in different
facilities such as department stores, supermarkets and customer segments, and whether the differences of percep-
restaurants. The influence of atmospheric attributes in tion among them are statistically significant or not. There
marketing contexts is based on the premise that the design are few studies relating to how customers’ perceptions of
of an environment through a variety of means such as store atmospheric attributes are affected by an environ-
temperature, sounds, layout, lighting, and colors can ment’s use of different colors, which can very much
stimulate perceptual and emotional responses in consumers influence customers’ shopping decisions and behavior.
The effect of color on human performance and cognitive
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 312 212 6820/1515; interpretation provides important evidence suggesting
fax: +90 312 212 0059. potential consumer reactions (e.g., [12]). Crowley [11]
E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Yildirim). reviews this literature and concludes that color influences

0360-1323/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.07.037
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
3234 K. Yildirim et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 3233–3240

both consumers’ evaluation-related affect (affective tone) applications on customers. In this spirit, the main
and activation-related affect (arousal), which is generally hypothesis of the study was that the perceived quality of
consistent with retailing research. space would be significantly greater and a more positive
A color’s hue or gradation is determined by its image would be received for café/restaurants decorated
wavelength. Short wavelengths are associated with ‘cool’ with cool colors (violet) than warm colors (yellow). As
colors, with violet being most extreme followed by blue. suggested, warm colors make a space feel smaller, lower,
Long wavelengths are associated with ‘warm’ colors, with and depressing, compared with cool colors. For that aim a
red being most extreme followed by orange. Experimental two-stage work was carried out, with the only difference
research suggests that cool-colored store environments are between these two stages being the color of the walls. In the
preferred over warm-colored store environments [10,11]. first stage of the experiment, the walls of the cafe-
As a result, it has generally been concluded that blue restaurant were yellow (Experiment 1) and in the second
environments evoke better feelings than do orange stage, the walls were violet (Experiment 2).
environments [13]. In addition, experimental research using Another one of the objectives of the present study was to
a hypothetical television purchase suggests that a blue expand the effects of gender as an important independent
background can decrease the likelihood of postponing a variable on perception. In particular, the task was to
purchase compared to a red background [14]. According to investigate men’s and women’s reactions to a space with
Babin et al. [15], it is generally expected that violet/blue various color usage. It is believed that space is perceived
interiors will produce higher levels of positive affective tone differently by men and women, i.e. male customers are
and increased purchase intentions than red/orange inter- more positive than the female customers. In fact, gender
iors. Interestingly, plenty of research has evaluated the researchers have attributed the differences between men
indirect impact of environments of different colors by and women to a variety of social and biological factors
dealing with the perceptual quality of spaces [16–18]. In [24]. In the literature, the concept of gender-role identifica-
two experiments, Stone [19] manipulated environmental tion is central and is considered to be a major factor in the
color and view to determine their effects on mood, development of behavioral differences. Some scholars
satisfaction, motivation, and performance. The findings suggest that male–female differences in aptitude and
of this work suggest that blue is a calming color and red is a personality traits often reflect traditional gender roles in
stimulating color, which may interact with other environ- society [24]. Researchers have found that regardless of the
mental factors. As Canter [20] mentions blue makes things traditional image of a described product, and regardless of
seem farther away and red makes them seem nearer. In the actual gender of the perceiver, consumers prefer
another study [21], when college students worked anagrams products described in terms that matched the gender
in colored rooms, most of the students in the blue room attributes that they perceived as both characteristic of
rated themselves as calm or in good moods. Yet, most of and important to themselves [25]. According to Putrevu
the students also rated their mood as good in the red room [24], men seem more analytical and logical since they focus
relative to the yellow and neutral rooms. In contrast, on a few salient attributes and women seem more
Kwallek and Lewis [22] found that individuals who worked subjective and intuitive since they look for relationships
in a red environment as opposed to a white or green between all the available attributes. In fact, compared with
environment had a lower amount of confusion and men, women seem more accurate in decoding nonverbal
bewilderment. As seen above, research surrounding the attributes [26] and are considered to be more visually
meanings people associate with color paints a confusing oriented, more intrinsically motivated, and more romantic
picture. Yellow, for instance, has been suggested as a [27]. Another study by Dube and Morgan [28] found that
good color for libraries and classrooms, as it was thought women’s satisfaction judgments were largely influenced by
to stimulate the intellect, but art therapists have their initial negative emotions, whereas men’s satisfaction
observed that suicidally inclined patients tend to use yellow judgments depended on their first positive emotions,
pigment generously in their paintings (as indeed, did Van suggesting a primacy effect for both genders. Therefore,
Gogh) [23]. Besides there will be a difference in emotional the literature suggests that men and women think and
reaction to a red bus as opposed to a red breast and as behave differently due to the alternative roles they play in
Canter [20] mentions there is no reason to suppose that in society.
many other examples there will be more convergence of Depending on age, the responses given about the
response. perceptual quality of space were also expected to differ-
entiate, i.e. younger customers (under 30 years of age) were
2. Research considerations most likely to be concerned about the physical qualities of
space negatively, whereas older customers (over 30) were
The specific aims of this experiment were (1) to assess the more likely to be positive. This hypothesis was generated
visual satisfaction of a café-patisserie/restaurant located in from several studies, including Holbrook and Schindler
Ankara, Turkey and (2) to develop a model that can be [29], a study that found that age played an important role
utilized by designers to describe the desired attributes. The in participants’ perceptions of space in aesthetic prefer-
research focuses on determining the effects of various color ences of retail environments.
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K. Yildirim et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 3233–3240 3235

3. Method used other times for private meetings. The tables, chairs,
and food exhibit units of the café are made of or framed
3.1. Subjects with wooden materials and stained in a light walnut color
and then finished with polyurethane varnish (Fig. 1).
Regarding the two stages, for the Experiment 1 a total of This café/restaurant has a decorative ceiling (height
245 customers who had previously been in the space and varies between 300 and 330 cm) covered with white
experienced the space less than a year participated in this plasterboard. For interior lighting, 6 13 W lamps hang
research in order to determine their perception of the 210 cm above the floor over the displaying cabinets. In
particular store atmospheric attributes. After the renova- addition, 60 18 W compact fluorescent lamps, all directed
tion, the same questionnaire was repeated for the Experi- downwards, and 10 100 W spot halogen lamps are on the
ment 2 with another 250 customers. All of the respondents ceiling. On the walls, there are only three incandescent
joining the research were the ones using the space mostly at 40 W fixtures in glass brackets 170 cm above ground level.
the weekends and the weekdays afternoon (1–3 p.m.—peak All the lights can provide approximately 253 lx light when
time). The samples in each group had a similar diverse on at the same time (Fig. 2).
distribution by age and gender. 49% of the respondents
were men, 51% of them were women. 47% of the
3.3. Control conditions and procedure
respondents were between 18 and 29 years old, 53% of
them were between 30 and 60.
Before the experiment, the café/restaurant was deodor-
ized to eliminate any pre-existing odor. Between the
3.2. Experimental setting experimental treatments (1 day for each treatment), the
space was ventilated with air-condition. Café/restaurant
For this research, a prestigious café/restaurant for about temperature, ventilation, and lighting were monitored for
86 was used as the research setting. Deep in the corner of consistency during the experiment.
the store there is a place enclosed by a curved wall 90 cm A two-stage work was carried out, with the only
high from the ground level for special occasions or to be difference between these two stages being the color of the

displaying
cabinet

ÖZSÜT CAFE -PATESSERIE / RESTAURANT

KITCHEN
(STORE B)
0 1 2m

Fig. 1. Main plan.

Fig. 2. Interior pictures of the café/restaurant (Experiment 1: yellow interior and Experiment 2: violet interior).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
3236 K. Yildirim et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 3233–3240

walls. In the first stage of the experiment, the walls of the In order to test the hypotheses of this study, the model of
cafe-restaurant were yellow (Experiment 1) and in the the research was formed in a 2  2  2 factorial design
second stage, the walls were violet (Experiment 2). (color  age  gender). As a result of this research, the
Questionnaires were self-administered, but interviewers categorical means of the data are defined with their
were present to clarify any doubts or queries. The survey standard deviations and t-values. Afterwards, to examine
was conducted at 1–3 p.m. peak time of the afternoon, the effect of differences in color, age and gender variables
during weekdays and weekends. Respondents took ap- on perceptions of store atmospheric attributes in the
proximately 10 min to complete each of the questionnaires. context of café/restaurant, the appropriate technique of
The data was obtained by face-to-face meetings in the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used.
period of 3 months during 2003–2004. The questions were To compare the significant means of the variance in the
categorized into three sub-groups as: analysis, the data is given in graphic form.

 functional quality of the space; 4. Data analysis and results

 the organization’s identity known by its users;
 perception of the space. The reliability of the store atmospheric attributes was
tested using Cronbach’s test. The Cronbach alpha coeffi-
The experiment focused on the ordering of visual cient for the set of eight bipolar semantic differential items
atmospheric attributes through the use of bipolar scales. including perceptual quality was 0.74. Additionally,
The customers of the café/restaurant were asked to Cronbach alpha coefficient estimates of internal consis-
describe to rate visual displays on these scales. The tency for each multi-item dependent measure were as
technique of altering the sets of items from positive to follows: roomy/cramped, 0.71; high/low, 0.71; pleasant/
negative, as previously done by Fiedler [30]; Joyce and unpleasant, 0.68; attractive/unattractive, 0.70; interesting/
Lambert [31]; Wakefield and Blodgett [32]; Mattila and boring, 0.71; imposing/poor-looking, 0.72; calm/restless,
Wirts [4]; Eroglu et al. [33]; Baskaya et al. [34] and Yildirim 0.72; warm/cold 0.75. Alpha coefficients of all items were
[35] was adopted to reduce the probability of the above 0.60, representing good reliability according to
respondents simply marking the scale on either of consumer researchers [36,37]. These items may therefore
the extremes. In compiling an initial list of items, the be considered to be reliable.
researchers tried not to be too specific, but rather to In this part, the statistical relationship between the
develop a list of general attributes that would fit the different color use of the walls (yellow and violet) in the
research subject. The respondents then had to evaluate the café/restaurant and age (younger, older) and gender (male,
importance of each of the bipolar semantic differential female) groups with customers’ perceptions of store atmo-
items on a Likert-type Scale from one (positive) to five spheric attributes were analyzed. The results of the research
(negative). A total of eight bipolar semantic differentials questionnaire are given in Table 1 as the mean, standard
(roomy/cramped, high/low, pleasant/unpleasant, attrac- deviation and t-value for each of the items of the dependent
tive/unattractive, interesting/boring, imposing/poor-look- variables.
ing, calm/restless, warm/cold), measuring the perceptual From the evaluation of the means and t-values, it can be
quality of the café/restaurant with yellow and violet seen that customers had more positive perceptions about
interiors, were evaluated by the respondents after famil- the violet interiors of the café/restaurant atmospheric
iarizing themselves with these pairs. attributes than yellow interiors. Moreover, when younger

Table 1
Means, SD and t-values of the dependent variables

Dependent variables Colors of walls in store Age of customer Gender of customer

Yellow Violet Younger Older Male Female

Meana(SD) Mean (SD) t-valueb Mean (SD) Mean (SD) t-value Mean (SD) Mean (SD) t-value

Roomy/cramped 2.31 (1.03) 1.76 (0.86) 33.5* 1.85 (0.92) 2.19 (1.02) 40.2* 2.02 (0.97) 2.04 (1.04) 36.1*
High/low 2.44 (0.96) 2.32 (0.97) 30.1* 2.43 (0.96) 2.33 (0.97) 40.1* 2.23 (0.96) 2.52 (0.92) 37.5*
Pleasant/unpleasant 2.25 (0.93) 1.84 (0.92) 32.2* 2.00 (0.95) 2.08 (0.95) 38.7* 1.92 (0.92) 2.15 (0.96) 34.9*
Attractive/unattractive 2.13 (0.97) 1.92 (1.01) 28.7* 1.83 (1.00) 2.19 (0.97) 40.6* 1.77 (0.90) 2.26 (1.02) 31.2*
Interesting/boring 2.62 (0.94) 1.76 (0.95) 38.2* 1.96 (0.97) 2.38 (1.05) 42.3* 2.02 (1.00) 2.34 (1.05) 33.6*
Imposing/poor-looking 2.67 (1.04) 2.32 (1.01) 32.2* 2.56 (0.87) 2.43 (1.17) 39.1* 2.47 (1.02) 2.50 (1.06) 46.8*
Calm/restless 2.32 (0.99) 2.16 (0.92) 30.1* 2.32 (0.93) 2.17 (0.97) 38.1* 2.36 (0.91) 2.12 (0.99) 42.7*
Warm/cold 2.24 (0.96) 2.50 (1.11) 25.8* 2.32 (1.04) 2.41 (1.05) 40.2* 2.16 (1.02) 2.57 (1.03) 34.7*

Notes: SD ¼ Standard deviation. * a: 0.001 is the level of significance.

a
Variable means ranged from 1to 5, with higher numbers representing more negative responses.
b
t-Values: It is result of comparison of store atmospheric attributes with color, age and gender variables.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
K. Yildirim et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 3233–3240 3237

and male customers are compared with older and female The graphic of differences between customers’ evalua-
customers, respectively, the young and male customers had tions of various colors of interiors (yellow and
a more positive perception of the yellow/violet interior of violet), depending on their perceptions of store atmo-
the café/restaurant in most of the attributes. The differ- spheric attributes for perceptual quality items, are given in
ences between these dependent variables of store atmo- Fig. 3.
spheric were tested using MANOVA. These results are As seen in Fig. 3, the relationship between the
given in Table 2. independent variables (yellow and violet interiors) and
According to the MANOVA results, the main variables the dependent variables (store atmospheric attributes) for
(color, age and gender), the effects of double interaction the items ‘‘roomy/cramped’’ (F ¼ 41:79, df ¼ 1, Po0:001),
(color  age, color  gender, age  gender) and triple inter- ‘‘pleasant/unpleasant’’ (F ¼ 24:32, df ¼ 1, Po0:001), ‘‘at-
action (color  age  gender) were found to be significant tractive/unattractive’’ (F ¼ 5:29, df ¼ 1, Po0:05), ‘‘inter-
(Po0:001 level). In conclusion, it can be said that esting/boring’’ (F ¼ 100:4, df ¼ 1, Po0:001), ‘‘imposing/
differences among yellow/violet interiors of café/restau- poor-looking’’ (F ¼ 13:91, df ¼ 1, Po0:001) and ‘‘warm/
rant, customers’ age and gender are effective on store cold’’ (F ¼ 7:42, df ¼ 1, Po0:01) were found to be
atmospheric perception. More specifically, it can be said significant. It is understood that the most effective factor
that differences between the colors of the walls in the store among the variables on customers’ perceptions of yellow/
are effective on store atmospheric evaluations. Moreover, violet interiors was the ‘‘interesting/boring’’ scale. It can be
when variance analyses are examined, it is seen as said that this difference results from the yellow and violet
‘‘reliable’’ among the total perceived degrees of dependent interiors. According to this result, it was found that the
variables. When the F-values calculated in the table of perceptions of each of the two different colors of the walls
variance analyses are examined, it can be said that all these in the café/restaurant were statistically different with
dependent variables have a strong effect on customers’ regards to the perceptual quality variables and the range
perceptions in the café/restaurant. It is understood that of colors of the walls differ from the most positive value to
there are also differences in the perception of atmospheric the most negative value arranged as ‘‘violet interiors4yel-
attributes according to age and gender groups. low interiors’’.
These graphics of differences between age and gender
groups in customers’ perceptions of store atmospheric
attributes for perceptual quality items are given in Figs. 4
Table 2
and 5, respectively.
MANOVA of the dependent variables of the store atmosphere
As seen in Fig. 4, for each of the dependent variables,
Independent variables F df Sig. Results younger customers reported the lowest values (positive),
while older customers reported the highest (negative)
Color 25.45 8 0.000* Po0:001
Age 11.53 8 0.000* Po0:001
values. As a result, the store atmospheric attributes
Gender 10.14 8 0.000* Po0:001 ‘‘roomy/cramped’’ (F ¼ 14:19, df ¼ 1, Po0:001), ‘‘attrac-
Color  Age 13.24 8 0.000* Po0:001 tive/unattractive’’ (F ¼ 16:98, df ¼ 1, Po0:001) and ‘‘in-
Color  Gender 16.33 8 0.000* Po0:001 teresting/boring’’ (F ¼ 20:73, df ¼ 1, Po0:001), which
Age  Gender 6.12 8 0.000* Po0:001 form the dependent variables, were found to be significant.
Color  Age  Gender 13.75 8 0.000* Po0:001
According to this result, there seems to be a statistically
Notes: *a: 0.001 is the level of significance. meaningful relationship among the customers of different

Yellow
Violet
Means of Items

2.5

1.5
roomy / high / low pleasant / attractive / interesting / imposing / calm / warm / cold
cramped unpleasant unattractive boring poor-looking restless
Semantic Differential Items

Fig. 3. The effect of colors on the perceptions of atmospheric attributes. Notes: Variable means ranged from 1 to 5, with higher numbers representing
more negative responses.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
3238 K. Yildirim et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 3233–3240

Younger
Older

Means of Items 2.5

1.5
roomy / high / low pleasant / attractive / interesting / imposing / calm / warm / cold
cramped unpleasant unattractive boring poor-looking restless
Semantic Differential Items

Fig. 4. The effect of age on the perception of atmospheric attributes. Notes: Variable means ranged from 1 to 5, with higher numbers representing more
negative responses.

Male
Female
Means of Items

2.5

1.5
roomy / high / low pleasant / attractive / interesting / imposing / calm / warm / cold
cramped unpleasant unattractive boring poor-looking restless
Semantic Differential Items

Fig. 5. The effect of gender on the perceptions of atmospheric attributes. Notes: Variable means ranged from 1 to 5, with higher numbers representing
more negative responses.

age groups and their atmospheric attributes perception. atmospheric attributes, those attributes noted for their
It appears that the study’s expectations regarding the effect perceptual quality items is supported.
of age on customers’ perceptions of store atmospheric
attributes were basically confirmed. 5. Concluding remarks
As seen in Fig. 5, for each of the dependent variables,
male customers received the lowest values (positive), while The results of this study help in the understanding of
female customers received the highest (negative) values. As how the color design of commercial interiors influences
a result, the atmospheric attributes ‘‘high/low’’ (F ¼ 11:06, customers’ perceptions of store atmospheric attributes. The
df ¼ 1, Po0:001), ‘‘pleasant/unpleasant’’ (F ¼ 6:93, results show that customers’ perceptions of two different
df ¼ 1, Po0:01), ‘‘attractive/unattractive’’ (F ¼ 32:20, colors of an interior regarding its atmospheric attributes
df ¼ 1, Po0:001), ‘‘interesting/boring’’ (F ¼ 12:49, are different and statistically significant (Po0:001 level).
df ¼ 1, Po0:001), ‘‘calm/restless’’ (F ¼ 7:89, df ¼ 1, According to the results, customers have a more positive
Po0:01) and ‘‘warm/cold’’ (F ¼ 19:42, df ¼ 1, Po0:010), perception of violet interiors (Experiment 2) than yellow
which form the dependent variables, were found to be interiors (Experiment 1). This result supports the definition
significant. According to this result, there seems to be a of Valdez and Mehrabian [13] that short wavelength
statistically meaningful relationship among customers of colors—associated with ‘cool’ colors—like violet or blue
different gender groups and their atmospheric attributes are preferred, leading to a linear association between
perceptions. Therefore, based on the results regarding the affective tone and wavelength. The results of this work also
effect of gender groups on customers’ perceptions of have some parallels with Swedish studies and Grandjean
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K. Yildirim et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 3233–3240 3239

[38], who suggest that lighter colors are judged as being women and older people are more critical in their shopping
friendlier, brighter, more cultured, seems to make life easier decisions.
and more pleasant, and also appear more beautiful.
Besides, the results of this work supports the findings of Acknowledgements
Babin et al. [15] generally believing that violet/blue
interiors will produce higher levels of positive affective
The authors would like to thank Christopher Wilson, of
tone and increased purchase intentions than red/orange
the Faculty of Fine Arts and Design, İzmir University of
interiors. However, compare to the stimulating effects of
Economics, for his careful proof reading of the English text
yellow as a warm color, the definition of Grandjean [38]
and helpful suggestions.
about violet being an aggressive and depressing cold color
conflicts with the results of this study. Regarding this
study, however, it can be said that if the differences in the References
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