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What is HCI?

Human–computer interaction (HCI) studies the design and use of computer technology,

focused on the interfaces between people (users) and computers. Researchers in the field
of HCI observe the ways in which humans interact with computers and design technologies
that let humans interact with computers in novel ways.
As a field of research, human-computer interaction is situated at the intersection
of computer science, behavioral, design, media studies, and several other fields of study.
The term was popularized by Stuart K. Card, Allen Newell, and Thomas P. Moran in their
seminal 1983 book, The Psychology of Human–Computer Interaction, although the authors
first used the term in 1980[1] and the first known use was in 1975. The term connotes that,
unlike other tools with only limited uses (such as a wooden mallet, useful for hitting things,
but not much else), a computer has many uses and this takes place as an open-ended
dialog between the user and the computer. The notion of dialog likens human–computer
interaction to human-to-human interaction, an analogy which is crucial to theoretical
considerations in the field
Humans interact with computers in many ways; the interface between humans and
computers is crucial to facilitate this interaction. Desktop applications, internet browsers,
handheld computers, ERP, and computer kiosks make use of the prevalent graphical user
interfaces (GUI) of today. Voice user interfaces (VUI) are used for speech recognition and
synthesizing systems, and the emerging multi-modal and Graphical user interfaces (GUI)
Offline Activities allow humans to engage with embodied character agents in a way that cannot be achieved
(e-Learning/Self-Paced) with other interface paradigms. The growth in human–computer interaction field has been
in quality of interaction, and in different branching in its history. Instead of designing
regular interfaces, the different research branches have had a different focus on the
concepts of multimodality rather than unimodality, intelligent adaptive interfaces rather
than command/action based ones, and finally active rather than passive interfaces.
The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) defines human-computer interaction as
"a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive
computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding
them”. An important facet of HCI is user satisfaction (or simply End User Computing
Satisfaction). "Because human–computer interaction studies a human and a machine in
communication, it draws from supporting knowledge on both the machine and the human
side. On the machine side, techniques in computer graphics, operating
systems, programming languages, and development environments are relevant. On the
human side, communication theory, graphic and industrial
design disciplines, linguistics, social sciences, cognitive psychology, social psychology,
and human factors such as computer user satisfaction are relevant. And, of course,
engineering and design methods are relevant." Due to the multidisciplinary nature of HCI,
people with different backgrounds contribute to its success. HCI is also sometimes
termed human–machine interaction (HMI), man-machine interaction (MMI) or computer-
human interaction (CHI).
Poorly designed human-machine interfaces can lead to many unexpected problems. A
classic example is the Three Mile Island accident, a nuclear meltdown accident, where

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investigations concluded that the design of the human-machine interface was at least
partly responsible for the disaster.[7][8][9] Similarly, accidents in aviation have resulted from
manufacturers' decisions to use non-standard flight instruments or throttle quadrant
layouts: even though the new designs were proposed to be superior in basic human-
machine interaction, pilots had already ingrained the "standard" layout and thus the
conceptually good idea actually had undesirable results.

Human–computer interface
The human–computer interface can be described as the point of communication between
the human user and the computer. The flow of information between the human and
computer is defined as the loop of interaction. The loop of interaction has several aspects
to it, including:

● Visual Based :The visual based human computer interaction is probably the most
widespread area in Human Computer Interaction (HCI) research.
● Audio Based : The audio based interaction between a computer and a human is
another important area of in HCI systems. This area deals with information acquired
by different audio signals.
● Task environment: The conditions and goals set upon the user.
● Machine environment: The environment that the computer is connected to, e.g. a
laptop in a college student's dorm room.
● Areas of the interface: Non-overlapping areas involve processes of the human and
computer not pertaining to their interaction. Meanwhile, the overlapping areas only
concern themselves with the processes pertaining to their interaction.
● Input flow: The flow of information that begins in the task environment, when the
user has some task that requires using their computer.
● Output: The flow of information that originates in the machine environment.
● Feedback: Loops through the interface that evaluate, moderate, and confirm
processes as they pass from the human through the interface to the computer and
back.
● Fit: This is the match between the computer design, the user and the task to optimize
the human resources needed to accomplish the task.

Goals for computers

Human–computer interaction studies the ways in which humans make—or do not make—
use of computational artifacts, systems and infrastructures. Much of the research in the
field seeks to improve human–computer interaction by improving the usability of
computer interfaces. How usability is to be precisely understood, how it relates to other
social and cultural values and when it is, and when it may not be a desirable property of
computer interfaces is increasingly debated.
Much of the research in the field of human–computer interaction takes an interest in:

● Methods for designing new computer interfaces, thereby optimizing a design for a
desired property such as learnability, findability, efficiency of use.

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● Methods for implementing interfaces, e.g., by means of software libraries.

● Methods for evaluating and comparing interfaces with respect to their usability and
other desirable properties.
● Methods for studying human-computer use and its sociocultural implications more
broadly.
● Methods for determining whether or not the user is human or computer.
● Models and theories of human computer use as well as conceptual frameworks for the
design of computer interfaces, such as cognitivist user models, Activity
Theory or ethnomethodological accounts of human computer use.[13]
● Perspectives that critically reflect upon the values that underlie computational design,
computer use and HCI research practice.
Visions of what researchers in the field seek to achieve vary. When pursuing a cognitivist
perspective, researchers of HCI may seek to align computer interfaces with the mental
model that humans have of their activities. When pursuing a post-cognitivist perspective,
researchers of HCI may seek to align computer interfaces with existing social practices or
existing sociocultural values.
Researchers in HCI are interested in developing design methodologies, experimenting with
devices, prototyping software and hardware systems, exploring interaction paradigms, and
developing models and theories of interaction.

Differences with related fields

HCI differs from human factors and ergonomics as HCI focuses more on users working
specifically with computers, rather than other kinds of machines or designed artifacts.
There is also a focus in HCI on how to implement the computer software and hardware
mechanisms to support human–computer interaction. Thus, human factors is a broader
term. HCI could be described as the human factors of computers – although some experts
try to differentiate these areas.
HCI also differs from human factors in that there is less of a focus on repetitive work-
oriented tasks and procedures, and much less emphasis on physical stress and the physical
form or industrial design of the user interface, such as keyboards and mouse devices.
Three areas of study have substantial overlap with HCI even as the focus of inquiry
shifts. Personal information management (PIM) studies how people acquire and use
personal information (computer based and other) to complete tasks. In computer-
supported cooperative work (CSCW), emphasis is placed on the use of computing systems
in support of the collaborative work. The principles of human interaction
management (HIM) extend the scope of CSCW to an organizational level and can be
implemented without use of computers.

Design
Principles

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The user interacts directly with hardware for the human input and output such as displays,
e.g. through a graphical user interface. The user interacts with the computer over this
software interface using the given input and output (I/O) hardware.
Software and hardware are matched, so that the processing of the user input is fast
enough, and the latency of the computer output is not disruptive to the workflow.

The following experimental design principles are considered, when evaluating a

current user interface, or designing a new user interface:

● Early focus is placed on user(s) and task(s): How many users are needed to perform
the task(s) is established and who the appropriate users should be is determined
(someone who has never used the interface, and will not use the interface in the
future, is most likely not a valid user). In addition, the task(s) the users will be
performing and how often the task(s) need to be performed is defined.
● Empirical measurement: the interface is tested with real users who come in contact
with the interface on a daily basis. The results can vary with the performance level of
the user and the typical human–computer interaction may not always be represented.
Quantitative usability specifics, such as the number of users performing the task(s),
the time to complete the task(s), and the number of errors made during the task(s) are
determined.
● Iterative design: After determining what users, tasks, and empirical measurements to
include, the following iterative design steps are performed:
1. Design the user interface
2. Test
3. Analyze results
4. Repeat
The iterative design process is repeated until a sensible, user-friendly interface is created
Methodologies
Various different strategies delineating methods for human–PC interaction design have
developed since the ascent of the field during the 1980s. Most plan philosophies come
from a model for how clients, originators, and specialized frameworks interface. Early
techniques treated clients' psychological procedures as unsurprising and quantifiable and
urged plan specialists to look at subjective science to establish zones, (for example,
memory and consideration) when structuring UIs. Present day models, in general, center
around a steady input and discussion between clients, creators, and specialists and push

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for specialized frameworks to be folded with the sorts of encounters clients need to have,
as opposed to wrapping user experience around a finished framework.

● Activity theory: utilized in HCI to characterize and consider the setting where human
cooperations with PCs occur. Action hypothesis gives a structure for reasoning about
activities in these specific circumstances, and illuminates design of interactions from
an action driven perspective.[16]
● User-focused design: client focused structure (UCD) is a cutting edge, broadly
rehearsed plan theory established on the possibility that clients must become the
overwhelming focus in the plan of any PC framework. Clients, architects and
specialized experts cooperate to determine the requirements and restrictions of the
client and make a framework to support these components. Frequently, client focused
plans are informed by ethnographic investigations of situations in which clients will
associate with the framework. This training is like participatory design, which
underscores the likelihood for end-clients to contribute effectively through shared
plan sessions and workshops.
● Principles of UI design: these standards may be considered during the design of a
client interface: resistance, effortlessness, perceivability, affordance, consistency,
structure and feedback.[17]
● Value delicate design (VSD): a technique for building innovation that accounts for the
individuals who utilize the design straightforwardly, and just as well for those who the
design influences, either directly or indirectly. VSD utilizes an iterative plan process
that includes three kinds of examinations: theoretical, exact and specialized. Applied
examinations target the understanding and articulation of the different parts of the
design, and its qualities or any clashes that may emerge for the users of the design.
Exact examinations are subjective or quantitative plan explore thinks about used to
advise the creators' understanding regarding the clients' qualities, needs, and
practices. Specialized examinations can include either investigation of how individuals
use related advances, or the framework plans.

Display designs
Displays are human-made artifacts designed to support the perception of relevant system
variables and to facilitate further processing of that information. Before a display is
designed, the task that the display is intended to support must be defined (e.g. navigating,
controlling, decision making, learning, entertaining, etc.). A user or operator must be able
to process whatever information that a system generates and displays; therefore, the
information must be displayed according to principles in a manner that will support
perception, situation awareness, and understanding.
Thirteen principles of display design
Christopher Wickens et al. defined 13 principles of display design in their book An
Introduction to Human Factors Engineering.
These principles of human perception and information processing can be utilized to create
an effective display design. A reduction in errors, a reduction in required training time, an
increase in efficiency, and an increase in user satisfaction are a few of the many potential

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benefits that can be achieved through utilization of these principles.

Certain principles may not be applicable to different displays or situations. Some principles
may seem to be conflicting, and there is no simple solution to say that one principle is
more important than another. The principles may be tailored to a specific design or
situation. Striking a functional balance among the principles is critical for an effective
design.
Perceptual principles
1. Make displays legible (or audible). A display's legibility is critical and necessary for
designing a usable display. If the characters or objects being displayed cannot be
discernible, then the operator cannot effectively make use of them.
2. Avoid absolute judgment limits. Do not ask the user to determine the level of a variable
on the basis of a single sensory variable (e.g. color, size, loudness). These sensory variables
can contain many possible levels.
3. Top-down processing. Signals are likely perceived and interpreted in accordance with
what is expected based on a user's experience. If a signal is presented contrary to the
user's expectation, more physical evidence of that signal may need to be presented to
assure that it is understood correctly.
4. Redundancy gain. If a signal is presented more than once, it is more likely that it will be
understood correctly. This can be done by presenting the signal in alternative physical
forms (e.g. color and shape, voice and print, etc.), as redundancy does not imply
repetition. A traffic light is a good example of redundancy, as color and position are
redundant.
5. Similarity causes confusion: Use distinguishable elements. Signals that appear to be
similar will likely be confused. The ratio of similar features to different features causes
signals to be similar. For example, A423B9 is more similar to A423B8 than 92 is to 93.
Unnecessarily similar features should be removed and dissimilar features should be
highlighted.

Mental model principles

6. Principle of pictorial realism. A display should look like the variable that it represents
(e.g. high temperature on a thermometer shown as a higher vertical level). If there are
multiple elements, they can be configured in a manner that looks like it would in the
represented environment.
7. Principle of the moving part. Moving elements should move in a pattern and direction
compatible with the user's mental model of how it actually moves in the system. For
example, the moving element on an altimeter should move upward with increasing
altitude.
Principles based on attention
8. Minimizing  information access  cost or interaction cost. When the user's attention is
diverted from one location to another to access necessary information, there is an

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associated cost in time or effort. A display design should minimize this cost by allowing for
frequently accessed sources to be located at the nearest possible position. However,
adequate legibility should not be sacrificed to reduce this cost.
9. Proximity compatibility principle. Divided attention between two information sources
may be necessary for the completion of one task. These sources must be mentally
integrated and are defined to have close mental proximity. Information access costs
should be low, which can be achieved in many ways (e.g. proximity, linkage by common
colours, patterns, shapes, etc.). However, close display proximity can be harmful by
causing too much clutter.
10. Principle of multiple resources. A user can more easily process information across
different resources. For example, visual and auditory information can be presented
simultaneously rather than presenting all visual or all auditory information.
Memory principles
11. Replace memory with visual information: knowledge in the world. A user should not
need to retain important information solely in working memory or retrieve it from long-
term memory. A menu, checklist, or another display can aid the user by easing the use of
their memory. However, the use of memory may sometimes benefit the user by
eliminating the need to reference some type of knowledge in the world (e.g., an expert
computer operator would rather use direct commands from memory than refer to a
manual). The use of knowledge in a user's head and knowledge in the world must be
balanced for an effective design.
12. Principle of predictive aiding. Proactive actions are usually more effective than reactive
actions. A display should attempt to eliminate resource-demanding cognitive tasks and
replace them with simpler perceptual tasks to reduce the use of the user's mental
resources. This will allow the user to focus on current conditions, and to consider possible
future conditions. An example of a predictive aid is a road sign displaying the distance to a
certain destination.
13. Principle of consistency. Old habits from other displays will easily transfer to support
processing of new displays if they are designed consistently. A user's long-term memory
will trigger actions that are expected to be appropriate. A design must accept this fact and
utilize consistency among different displays.

Current research
Topics in human-computer interaction include the following:
User customization
End-user development studies have shown how ordinary users could routinely tailor
applications to their own needs and to invent new applications based on their
understanding of their own domains. With their deeper knowledge, users could
increasingly be important sources of new applications at the expense of generic
programmers with systems expertise but low domain expertise.
Embedded computation

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Computation is passing beyond computers into every object for which uses can be found.
Embedded systems make the environment alive with little computations and automated
processes, from computerized cooking appliances to lighting and plumbing fixtures to
window blinds to automobile braking systems to greeting cards. The expected difference in
the future is the addition of networked communications that will allow many of these
embedded computations to coordinate with each other and with the user. Human
interfaces to these embedded devices will in many cases be disparate from those
appropriate to workstations.
Augmented reality
Augmented reality refers to the notion of layering relevant information into our vision of
the world. Existing projects show real-time statistics to users performing difficult tasks,
such as manufacturing. Future work might include augmenting our social interactions by
providing additional information about those we converse with.
Social computing
In recent years, there has been an explosion of social science research focusing on
interactions as the unit of analysis. Much of this research draws from psychology, social
psychology, and sociology. For example, one study found out that people expected a
computer with a man's name to cost more than a machine with a woman's name. Other
research finds that individuals perceive their interactions with computers more positively
than humans, despite behaving the same way towards these machines.
Knowledge-driven human–computer interaction
In human and computer interactions, a semantic gap usually exists between human and
computer's understandings towards mutual behaviors. Ontology, as a formal
representation of domain-specific knowledge, can be used to address this problem,
through solving the semantic ambiguities between the two parties.
Emotions and human-computer interaction
In the interaction of humans and computers, research has studied how computers can
detect, process and react to human emotions to develop emotionally intelligent
information systems. Researchers have suggested several 'affect-detection channels'. The
potential of telling human emotions in an automated and digital fashion lies in
improvements to the effectiveness of human-computer interaction. The influence of
emotions in human-computer interaction has been studied in fields such as financial
decision making using ECG and organisational knowledge sharing using eye tracking and
face readers as affect-detection channels. In these fields it has been shown that affect-
detection channels have the potential to detect human emotions and that information
systems can incorporate the data obtained from affect-detection channels to improve
decision models.
Brain–computer interfaces
A brain–computer interface (BCI), is a direct communication pathway between an
enhanced or wired brain and an external device. BCI differs from neuromodulation in that
it allows for bidirectional information flow. BCIs are often directed at researching,

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mapping, assisting, augmenting, or repairing human cognitive or sensory-motor functions.

Factors of change
Traditionally, computer use was modeled as a human–computer dyad in which the two
were connected by a narrow explicit communication channel, such as text-based
terminals. Much work has been done to make the interaction between a computing
system and a human more reflective of the multidimensional nature of everyday
communication. Because of potential issues, human–computer interaction shifted focus
beyond the interface to respond to observations as articulated by D. Engelbart: "If ease of
use was the only valid criterion, people would stick to tricycles and never try bicycles."
The means by which humans interact with computers continues to evolve rapidly. Human–
computer interaction is affected by developments in computing. These forces include:

● Decreasing hardware costs leading to larger memory and faster systems

● Miniaturization of hardware leading to portability
● Reduction in power requirements leading to portability
● New display technologies leading to the packaging of computational devices in new
forms
● Specialized hardware leading to new functions
● Increased development of network communication and distributed computing
● Increasingly widespread use of computers, especially by people who are outside of the
computing profession
● Increasing innovation in input techniques (e.g., voice, gesture, pen), combined with
lowering cost, leading to rapid computerization by people formerly left out of
the computer revolution.
● Wider social concerns leading to improved access to computers by currently
disadvantaged groups
As of 2010 the future for HCI is expected] to include the following characteristics:

● Ubiquitous computing  and communication. Computers are expected to communicate

through high speed local networks, nationally over wide-area networks, and portably
via infrared, ultrasonic, cellular, and other technologies. Data and computational
services will be portably accessible from many if not most locations to which a user
travels.
● High-functionality systems. Systems can have large numbers of functions associated
with them. There are so many systems that most users, technical or non-technical, do
not have time to learn about in the traditional way (e.g., through thick user manuals).
● Mass availability of computer graphics. Computer graphics capabilities such as image
processing, graphics transformations, rendering, and interactive animation are
becoming widespread as inexpensive chips become available for inclusion in general
workstations and mobile devices.
● Mixed media. Commercial systems can handle images, voice, sounds, video, text,
formatted data. These are exchangeable over communication links among users. The
separate fields of consumer electronics (e.g., stereo sets, DVD players, televisions) and

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computers are beginning to merge. Computer and print fields are expected to cross-
assimilate.
● High-bandwidth  interaction. The rate at which humans and machines interact is
expected to increase substantially due to the changes in speed, computer graphics,
new media, and new input/output devices. This can lead to some qualitatively
different interfaces, such as virtual reality or computational video.
● Large and thin  displays. New display technologies are maturing, enabling very large
displays and displays that are thin, lightweight, and low in power use. This is having
large effects on portability and will likely enable developing paper-like, pen-based
computer interaction systems very different in feel from present desktop
workstations.
● Information utilities. Public information utilities (such as home banking and shopping)
and specialized industry services (e.g., weather for pilots) are expected to proliferate.
The rate of proliferation can accelerate with the introduction of high-bandwidth
interaction and the improvement in quality of interfaces.

HISTORY OF HCI

Human-computer interaction (HCI) is an area of research and practice that emerged in the
early 1980s, initially as a specialty area in computer science embracing cognitive
science and human factors engineering. HCI has expanded rapidly and steadily for three
decades, attracting professionals from many other disciplines and incorporating diverse
concepts and approaches. To a considerable extent, HCI now aggregates a collection of
semi-autonomous fields of research and practice in human-centered informatics.
However, the continuing synthesis of disparate conceptions and approaches to science
and practice in HCI has produced a dramatic example of how different epistemologies and
paradigms can be reconciled and integrated in a vibrant and productive intellectual
project.

2.1 Where HCI came from

Until the late 1970s, the only humans who interacted with computers were information
technology professionals and dedicated hobbyists. This changed disruptively with the
emergence of personal computing in the later 1970s. Personal computing, including both
personal software (productivity applications, such as text editors and spreadsheets, and
interactive computer games) and personal computer platforms (operating systems,
programming languages, and hardware), made everyone in the world a potential
computer user, and vividly highlighted the deficiencies of computers with respect
to usability for those who wanted to use computers as tools.

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Author/Copyright holder: Steven Weyhrich. Copyright terms and licence: All Rights
Reserved. Reproduced with permission. See section "Exceptions" in the copyright
terms below.

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Author/Copyright holder: Courtesy of Grubitzsch (geb. Raphael), Waltraud. Copyright

terms and licence:CC-Att-SA-3 (Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0)
Figure 2.1 A-B: Personal computing rapidly pushed computer use into the general
population, starting in the later 1970s. However, the non-professional computer user was
often subjected to arcane commands and system dialogs.

The challenge of personal computing became manifest at an opportune time. The broad
project of cognitive science, which incorporated cognitive psychology, artificial
intelligence, linguistics, cognitive anthropology, and the philosophy of mind, had formed at
the end of the 1970s. Part of the programme of cognitive science was to articulate
systematic and scientifically informed applications to be known as "cognitive engineering".
Thus, at just the point when personal computing presented the practical need for HCI,
cognitive science presented people, concepts, skills, and a vision for addressing such needs
through an ambitious synthesis of science and engineering. HCI was one of the first
examples cognitive engineering.

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Author/Copyright holder: Card, Moran and Newell. Copyright terms and licence: All Rights
Reserved. Reproduced with permission. See section "Exceptions" in the copyright
terms below.
Figure 2.2: The Model Human Processor was an early cognitive engineering model
intended to help developers apply principles from cognitive psychology.

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This was facilitated by analogous developments in engineering and design areas adjacent
to HCI, and in fact often overlapping HCI, notably human factors engineering and
documentation development. Human factors had developed empirical and task-analytic
techniques for evaluating human-system interactions in domains such as aviation and
manufacturing, and was moving to address interactive system contexts in which human
operators regularly exerted greater problem-solving discretion. Documentation
development was moving beyond its traditional role of producing systematic technical
descriptions toward a cognitive approach incorporating theories of writing, reading, and
media, with empirical user testing. Documents and other information needed to be usable
also.

Author/Copyright holder: MIT Press. Copyright terms and licence: All Rights Reserved.
Reproduced with permission. See section "Exceptions" in the copyright terms below.
Figure 2.3: Minimalist information emphasized supporting goal-directed activity in a
domain. Instead of topic hierarchies and structured practice, it emphasized succinct
support for self-directed action and for recognizing and recovering from error.

Other historically fortuitous developments contributed to the establishment of HCI.

Software engineering, mired in unmanageable software complexity in the 1970s (the
“software crisis”), was starting to focus on nonfunctional requirements,
including usability and maintainability, and on empirical software development processes
that relied heavily on iterative prototyping and empirical testing. Computer graphics and
information retrieval had emerged in the 1970s, and rapidly came to recognize that
interactive systems were the key to progressing beyond early achievements. All these
threads of development in computer science pointed to the same conclusion: The way
forward for computing entailed understanding and better empowering users. These
diverse forces of need and opportunity converged around 1980, focusing a huge burst of
human energy, and creating a highly visible interdisciplinary project.

2.2 From cabal to community

The original and abiding technical focus of HCI was and is the concept of usability. This
concept was originally articulated somewhat naively in the slogan "easy to learn, easy to
use". The blunt simplicity of this conceptualization gave HCI an edgy and prominent
identity in computing. It served to hold the field together, and to help it influence
computer science and technology development more broadly and effectively. However,
inside HCI the concept of usability has been re-articulated and reconstructed almost
continually, and has become increasingly rich and intriguingly problematic. Usability now
often subsumes qualities like fun, well being, collective efficacy, aesthetic tension,
enhanced creativity, flow, support for human development, and others. A more dynamic
view of usability is one of a programmatic objective that should and will continue to
develop as our ability to reach further toward it improves.

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Author/Copyright holder: ©. Copyright terms and licence: All Rights Reserved. Used
without permission under the Fair Use Doctrine (as permission could not be obtained). See
the "Exceptions" section (and subsection "allRightsReserved-UsedWithoutPermission") on
the page copyright notice.
Figure 2.4: Usability is an emergent quality that reflects the grasp and the reach of HCI.
Contemporary users want more from a system than merely “ease of use”.

Although the original academic home for HCI was computer science, and its original focus
was on personal productivity applications, mainly text editing and spreadsheets, the field
has constantly diversified and outgrown all boundaries. It quickly expanded to encompass
visualization, information systems, collaborative systems, the system development
process, and many areas of design. HCI is taught now in many departments/faculties that
address information technology, including psychology, design, communication studies,
cognitive science, information science, science and technology studies, geographical
sciences, management information systems, and industrial, manufacturing, and systems
engineering. HCI research and practice draws upon and integrates all of these
perspectives.

A result of this growth is that HCI is now less singularly focused with respect to core
concepts and methods, problem areas and assumptions about infrastructures,
applications, and types of users. Indeed, it no longer makes sense to regard HCI as a
specialty of computer science; HCI has grown to be broader, larger and much more diverse
than computer science itself. HCI expanded from its initial focus on individual and generic
user behavior to include social and organizational computing, accessibility for the elderly,
the cognitively and physically impaired, and for all people, and for the widest possible
spectrum of human experiences and activities. It expanded from desktop office
applications to include games, learning and education, commerce, health and medical
applications, emergency planning and response, and systems to support collaboration and
community. It expanded from early graphical user interfaces to include myriad interaction
techniques and devices, multi-modal interactions, tool support for model-based user
interface specification, and a host of emerging ubiquitous, handheld and context-aware
interactions.

There is no unified concept of an HCI professional. In the 1980s, the cognitive science side
of HCI was sometimes contrasted with the software tools and user interface side of HCI.
The landscape of core HCI concepts and skills is far more differentiated and complex now.
HCI academic programs train many different types of professionals: user experience
designers, interaction designers, user interface designers, application designers, usability
engineers, user interface developers, application developers, technical
communicators/online information designers, and more. And indeed, many of the sub-
communities of HCI are themselves quite diverse. For example, ubiquitous computing (aka
ubicomp) is subarea of HCI, but it is also a superordinate area integrating several
distinguishable subareas, for example mobile computing, geo-spatial information systems,
in-vehicle systems, community informatics, distributed systems, handhelds, wearable

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devices, ambient intelligence, sensor networks, and specialized views of usability

evaluation, programming tools and techniques, and application infrastructures. The
relationship between ubiquitous computing and HCI is paradigmatic: HCI is the name for a
community of communities.

Author/Copyright holder: User Experience Professionals Association. Copyright terms and

licence: All Rights Reserved. Reproduced with permission. See section "Exceptions" in
the copyright terms below.

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Author/Copyright holder: Envis Precisely. Copyright terms and licence: All Rights Reserved.
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Figure 2.5 A-B: Two visualizations of the variety of disciplinary knowledge and skills
involved in contemporary design of human-computer interactions

Indeed, the principle that HCI is a community of communities is now a point of definition
codified, for example, in the organization of major HCI conferences and journals. The
integrating element across HCI communities continues to be a close linkage of critical
analysis of usability, broadly understood, with development of novel technology and
applications. This is the defining identity commitment of the HCI community. It has
allowed HCI to successfully cultivate respect for the diversity of skills and concepts that
underlie innovative technology development, and to regularly transcend disciplinary
obstacles. In the early 1980s, HCI was a small and focused specialty area. It was a cabal
trying to establish what was then a heretical view of computing. Today, HCI is a vast and
multifaceted community, bound by the evolving concept of usability, and the integrating
commitment to value human activity and experience as the primary driver in technology.

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2.3 Beyond the desktop

Given the contemporary shape of HCI, it is important to remember that its origins are
personal productivity interactions bound to the desktop, such as word processing and
spreadsheets. Indeed, one of biggest design ideas of the early 1980s was the so-called
messy desk metaphor, popularized by the Apple Macintosh: Files and folders were
displayed as icons that could be, and were scattered around the display surface. The messy
desktop was a perfect incubator for the developing paradigm of graphical user interfaces.
Perhaps it wasn’t quite as easy to learn and easy to use as claimed, but people everywhere
were soon double clicking, dragging windows and icons around their displays, and losing
track of things on their desktop interfaces just as they did on their physical desktops. It
was surely a stark contrast to the immediately prior teletype metaphor of Unix, in which all
interactions were accomplished by typing commands.

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Figure 2.6: The early Macintosh desktop metaphor: Icons scattered on the desktop depict
documents and functions, which can be selected and accessed (as System Disk in the
example)

Even though it can definitely be argued that the desktop metaphor was superficial, or
perhaps under-exploited as a design paradigm, it captured imaginations of designers and
the public. These were new possibilities for many people in 1980, pundits speculated
about how they might change office work. Indeed, the tsunami of desktop designs
challenged, sometimes threatened the expertise and work practices of office workers.

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Today they are in the cultural background. Children learn these concepts and skills
routinely.

As HCI developed, it moved beyond the desktop in three distinct senses. First, the desktop
metaphor proved to be more limited than it first seemed. It’s fine to directly represent a
couple dozen digital objects as icons, but this approach quickly leads to clutter, and is not
very useful for people with thousands of personal files and folders. Through the mid-
1990s, HCI professionals and everyone else realized that search is a more fundamental
paradigm than browsing for finding things in a user interface. Ironically though, when early
World Wide Web pages emerged in the mid-1990s, they not only dropped the messy
desktop metaphor, but for the most part dropped graphical interactions entirely. And still
they were seen as a breakthrough in usability (of course, the direct contrast was to Unix-
style tools like ftp and telnet). The design approach of displaying and directly interacting
with data objects as icons has not disappeared, but it is no longer a hegemonic design
concept.

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Figure 2.7: The early popularity of messy desktops for personal information spaces does
not scale.

The second sense in which HCI moved beyond the desktop was through the growing
influence of the Internet on computing and on society. Starting in the mid-1980s, email
emerged as one of the most important HCI applications, but ironically, email made

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computers and networks into communication channels; people were not

interacting with computers, they were interacting with other people through computers.
Tools and applications to support collaborative activity now include instant messaging,
wikis, blogs, online forums, social networking, social bookmarking and tagging services,
media spaces and other collaborative workspaces, recommender and collaborative
filtering systems, and a wide variety of online groups and communities. New paradigms
and mechanisms for collective activity have emerged including online auctions, reputation
systems, soft sensors, and crowd sourcing. This area of HCI, now often called social
computing, is one of the most rapidly developing.

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(Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported).

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UsedWithoutPermission") on the page copyright notice.

Figure 2.8 A-B-C: A huge and expanding variety of social network services are part of
everyday computing experiences for many people. Online communities, such as Linux
communities and GitHub, employ social computing to produce high-quality knowledge
work.

The third way that HCI moved beyond the desktop was through the continual, and
occasionally explosive diversification in the ecology of computing devices. Before desktop
applications were consolidated, new kinds of device contexts emerged, notably laptops,
which began to appear in the early 1980s, and handhelds, which began to appear in the
mid-1980s. One frontier today is ubiquitous computing: The pervasive incorporation of
computing into human habitats — cars, home appliances, furniture, clothing, and so forth.
Desktop computing is still very important, though the desktop habitat has been
transformed by the wide use of laptops. To a considerable extent, the desktop itself has
moved off the desktop.

Author/Copyright holder: Courtesy of Andrew Stern. Copyright terms and licence: CC-Att-
SA-3 (Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0)

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and licence: pd (Public Domain (information that is common property and contains no
original authorship)).

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Figure 2.9 A-B-C: Computing moved off the desktop to be everywhere all the time.
Computers are in phones, cars, meeting rooms, and coffee shops.

The focus of HCI has moved beyond the desktop, and its focus will continue to move. HCI is
a technology area, and it is ineluctably driven to frontiers of technology and application
possibility. The special value and contribution of HCI is that it will investigate, develop, and
harness those new areas of possibility not merely as technologies or designs, but as means
for enhancing human activity and experience.

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2.4 The task-artifact cycle

The movement of HCI off the desktop is a large-scale example of a pattern of technology
development that is replicated throughout HCI at many levels of analysis. HCI addresses
the dynamic co-evolution of the activities people engage in and experience, and the
artifacts — such as interactive tools and environments — that mediate those activities. HCI
is about understanding and critically evaluating the interactive technologies people use
and experience. But it is also about how those interactions evolve as people appropriate
technologies, as their expectations, concepts and skills develop, and as they articulate new
needs, new interests, and new visions and agendas for interactive technology.

Reciprocally, HCI is about understanding contemporary human practices and aspirations,

including how those activities are embodied, elaborated, but also perhaps limited by
current infrastructures and tools. HCI is about understanding practices and activity
specifically as requirements and design possibilities envisioning and bringing into being
new technology, new tools and environments. It is about exploring design spaces, and
realizing new systems and devices through the co-evolution of activity and artifacts, the
task-artifact cycle.

Author/Copyright holder: Courtesy of John M. Carroll. Copyright terms and licence: CC-Att-
SA-3 (Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0)
Figure 2.10: Human activities implicitly articulate needs, preferences and design visions.
Artifacts are designed in response, but inevitably do more than merely respond. Through
the course of their adoption and appropriation, new designs provide new possibilities for
action and interaction. Ultimately, this activity articulates further human needs,
preferences, and design visions.

Understanding HCI as inscribed in a co-evolution of activity and technological artifacts is

useful. Most simply, it reminds us what HCI is like, that all of the infrastructure of HCI,
including its concepts, methods, focal problems, and stirring successes will always be in
flux. Moreover, because the co-evolution of activity and artifacts is shaped by a cascade of

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contingent initiatives across a diverse collection of actors, there is no reason to expect HCI
to be convergent, or predictable. This is not to say progress in HCI is random or arbitrary,
just that it is more like world history than it is like physics. One could see this quite
optimistically: Individual and collective initiative shapes what HCI is, but not the laws of
physics.

Author/Copyright holder: Palo Alto Research Center Incorporated (PARC) - a Xerox

company. Copyright terms and licence: All Rights Reserved. Reproduced with permission.
See section "Exceptions" in the copyright terms below.
Figure 2.11: Smalltalk was a programming language and environment project in Xerox Palo
Alto Research Center in the 1970s. The work of a handful of people, it became the direct
antecedent for the modern graphical user interface.

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A second implication of the task-artifact cycle is that continual exploration of new

applications and application domains, new designs and design paradigms, new
experiences, and new activities should remain highly prized in HCI. We may have the sense
that we know where we are going today, but given the apparent rate of co-evolution in
activity and artifacts, our effective look-ahead is probably less than we think. Moreover,
since we are in effect constructing a future trajectory, and not just finding it, the cost of
missteps is high. The co-evolution of activity and artifacts evidences strong hysteresis, that
is to say, effects of past co-evolutionary adjustments persist far into the future. For
example, many people struggle every day with operating systems and core productivity
applications whose designs were evolutionary reactions to misanalyses from two or more
decades ago. Of course, it is impossible to always be right with respect to values and
criteria that will emerge and coalesce in the future, but we should at least be mindful that
very consequential missteps are possible.

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Figure 2.12 A-B: The Drift Table is an interactive coffee table; aerial views of England and
Wales are displayed the porthole on top; placing and moving objects on the table causes
the aerial imagery to scroll. This design is intended to provoke reaction and challenge
thinking about domestic technologies.

The remedy is to consider many alternatives at every point in the progression. It is vitally
important to have lots of work exploring possible experiences and activities, for example,
on design and experience probes and prototypes. If we focus too strongly on the
affordances of currently embodied technology we are too easily and uncritically accepting
constraints that will limit contemporary HCI as well as all future trajectories.

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Reserved. Used without permission under the Fair Use Doctrine (as permission could not
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UsedWithoutPermission") on the page copyright notice.

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Att-SA-2 (Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Unported).

Figure 2.13 A-B: Siri, the speech-based intelligent assistant for Apple’s iPhone, and the
augmented reality glasses of Goggle’s Project Glass are recent examples of technology
visions being turned into everyday HCI experiences.

HCI is not fundamentally about the laws of nature. Rather, it manages innovation to
ensure that human values and human priorities are advanced, and not diminished through
new technology. This is what created HCI; this is what led HCI off the desktop; it will
continue to lead HCI to new regions of technology-mediated human possibility. This is why
usability is an open-ended concept, and can never be reduced to a fixed checklist.

2.5 A caldron of theory

The contingent trajectory of HCI as a project in transforming human activity and

experience through design has nonetheless remained closely integrated with the
application and development of theory in the social and cognitive sciences. Even though,
and to some extent because the technologies and human activities at issue in HCI are
continually co-evolving, the domain has served as a laboratory and incubator for theory.
The origin of HCI as an early case study in cognitive engineering had an imprinting effect
on the character of the endeavor. From the very start, the models, theories and
frameworks developed and used in HCI were pursued as contributions to science: HCI has
enriched every theory it has appropriated. For example, the GOMS (Goals, Operations,
Methods, Selection rules) model, the earliest native theory in HCI, was a more
comprehensive cognitive model than had been attempted elsewhere in cognitive science
and engineering; the model human processor included simple aspects of perception,
attention, short-term memory operations, planning, and motor behavior in a single model.
But GOMS was also a practical tool, articulating the dual criteria of scientific
contribution plus  engineering and design efficacy that has become the culture of theory
and application in HCI.

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Author/Copyright holder: Bonnie E. John. Copyright terms and licence: All Rights Reserved.
Reproduced with permission. See section "Exceptions" in the copyright terms below.

Author/Copyright holder: Bonnie E. John. Copyright terms and license: All Rights Reserved.
Reproduced with permission. See section "Exceptions" in the copyright terms below.
Figure 2.14 A-B: Cog Tool analyzes demonstrations of user tasks to produce a model of the
cognitive processes underlying task performance; from this model it predicts expert
performance times for the tasks.

The focus of theory development and application has moved throughout the history of
HCI, as the focus of the co-evolution of activities and artifacts has moved.? A Thus, the
early information processing-based psychological theories, like GOMS, were employed to
model the cognition and behavior of individuals interacting with keyboards, simple
displays, and pointing devices. This initial conception of HCI theory was broadened as
interactions became more varied and applications became richer. For example, perceptual
theories were marshaled to explain how objects are recognized in a graphical display,
mental model theories were appropriated to explain the role of concepts — like the messy
desktop metaphor — in shaping interactions, active user theories were developed to
explain how and why users learn and making sense of interactions. In each case, however,
these elaborations were both scientific advances and bases for better tools and design
practices.

This dialectic of theory and application has continued in HCI. It is easy to identify a dozen
or so major currents of theory, which themselves can by grouped (roughly) into three eras:
theories that view human-computer interaction as information processing, theories that
view interaction as the initiative of agents pursuing projects, and theories that view
interaction as socially and materially embedded in rich contexts. To some extent, the
sequence of theories can be understood as a convergence of scientific opportunity and
application need: Codifying and using relatively austere models made it clear what richer

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views of people and interaction could be articulated and what they could contribute; at
the same time, personal devices became portals for interaction in the social and physical
world, requiring richer theoretical frameworks for analysis and design.

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Figure 2.15: Through the past three decades, a series of theoretical paradigms emerged to
address the expanding ambitions of HCI research, design, and product development.
Successive theories both challenged and enriched prior conception of people and
interaction. All of these theories are still relevant and still in use today in HCI.

The sequence of theories and eras is of course somewhat idealized. People still work on
GOMS models; indeed, all of the major models, theories and frameworks that ever were
employed in HCI are still in current use. Indeed, they continue to develop as the context of
the field develops. GOMS today is more a niche model than a paradigm for HCI, but has
recently been applied in research on smart phone designs and human-robot interactions.

The challenge of integrating, or at least better coordinating descriptive and explanatory

science goals with prescriptive and constructive design goals is abiding in HCI. There are at
least three ongoing directions — traditional application of ever-broader and deeper basic
theories, development of local, sometimes domain dependent proto-theories within
particular design domains, and the use of design rationale as a mediating level of
description between basic science and design practice.

2.6 Implications of HCI for science, practice, and epistemology

One of the most significant achievements of HCI is its evolving model of the integration of
research and practice. Initially this model was articulated as a reciprocal relation between
cognitive science and cognitive engineering. Later, it ambitiously incorporated a diverse
science foundation, notably social and organizational psychology, Activity Theory,
distributed cognition, and sociology, and a ethnographic approaches human activity,
including the activities of design and technology development and appropriation.
Currently, the model is incorporating design practices and research across a broad
spectrum, for example, theorizing user experience and ecological sustainability. In these
developments, HCI provides a blueprint for a mutual relation between science and practice

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that is unprecedented.

Although HCI was always talked about as a design science or as pursuing guidance for
designers, this was construed at first as a boundary, with HCI research and design as
separate contributing areas of professional expertise. Throughout the 1990s, however, HCI
directly assimilated, and eventually itself spawned, a series of design communities. At first,
this was a merely ecumenical acceptance of methods and techniques laying those of
beyond those of science and engineering. But this outreach impulse coincided with
substantial advances in user interface technologies that shifted much of the potential
proprietary value of user interfaces into graphical design and much richer ontologies of
user experience.

Somewhat ironically, designers were welcomed into the HCI community just in time to
help remake it as a design discipline. A large part of this transformation was the creation of
design disciplines and issues that did not exist before. For example, user experience design
and interaction design were not imported into HCI, but rather were among the first
exports from HCI to the design world. Similarly, analysis of the productive tensions
between creativity and rationale in design required a design field like HCI in which it is
essential that designs have an internal logic, and can be systematically evaluated and
maintained, yet at the same time provoke new experiences and insights.? A Design is
currently the facet of HCI in most rapid flux. It seems likely that more new design proto-
disciplines will emerge from HCI during the next decade.

No one can accuse HCI of resting on laurels. Conceptions of how underlying science
informs and is informed by the worlds of practice and activity have evolved continually in
HCI since its inception. Throughout the development of HCI, paradigm-changing scientific
and epistemological revisions were deliberately embraced by a field that was, by any
measure, succeeding intellectually and practically. The result has been an increasingly
fragmented and complex field that has continued to succeed even more. This example
contradicts the Kuhnian view of how intellectual projects develop through paradigms that
are eventually overthrown. The continuing success of the HCI community in moving its
meta-project forward thus has profound implications, not only for human-centered
informatics, but for epistemology.

Performance Tasks

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Answer the following

1. What are the different implications of HCI?

2. EXPLAIN the task artifact cycle.
3. Is there a unified concept of an HCI Profession? Explain your answer.
4. Explain the Principles of HCI
5. What are the methodologies used in HCI?
6. What is GOMS/Explain your answer

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