UNIT:II

CHAPTER:V

LESSON 12

NETWORK ANALYSIS

As we are familiar with the basic laws used for solving the complicated circuits let’s now
have an idea about how are these laws used to solve the circuits i.e we will talk about the
analysis of networks

What is network analysis?

Generally speaking, network analysis is any structured technique used to mathematically
analyze a circuit (a "network" of interconnected components). Quite often the technician
or engineer will encounter circuits containing multiple sources of power or component
configurations which defy simplification by series/parallel analysis techniques. In those
cases, he or she will be forced to use other means. This chapter presents a few techniques
useful in analyzing such complex circuits.

To illustrate how even a simple circuit can defy analysis by breakdown into series and
parallel portions, take start with this series-parallel circuit:

To analyze the above circuit, one would first find the equivalent of R2 and R3 in parallel,
then add R1 in series to arrive at a total resistance. Then, taking the voltage of battery B1
with that total circuit resistance, the total current could be calculated through the use of
Ohm's Law (I=E/R), then that current figure used to calculate voltage drops in the circuit.
All in all, a fairly simple procedure.

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However, the addition of just one more battery could change all of that:

Resistors R2 and R3 are no longer in parallel with each other, because B2 has been
inserted into R3's branch of the circuit. Upon closer inspection, it appears there are no two
resistors in this circuit directly in series or parallel with each other. This is the crux of our
problem: in series-parallel analysis, we started off by identifying sets of resistors that
were directly in series or parallel with each other, and then reduce them to single,
equivalent resistances. If there are no resistors in a simple series or parallel configuration
with each other, then what can we do?

It should be clear that this seemingly simple circuit, with only three resistors, is
impossible to reduce as a combination of simple series and simple parallel sections: it is
something different altogether. However, this is not the only type of circuit defying
series/parallel analysis:

Here we have a bridge circuit, and for the sake of example we will suppose that it is not
balanced (ratio R1/R4 not equal to ratio R2/R5). If it were balanced, there would be zero
current through R3, and it could be approached as a series/parallel combination circuit
(R1--R4 // R2--R5). However, any current through R3 makes a series/parallel analysis
impossible. R1 is not in series with R4 because there's another path for electrons to flow
through R3. Neither is R2 in series with R5 for the same reason. Likewise, R1 is not in
parallel with R2 because R3 is separating their bottom leads. Neither is R4 in parallel with
R5. Aaarrggghhhh!

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Although it might not be apparent at this point, the heart of the problem is the existence
of multiple unknown quantities. At least in a series/parallel combination circuit, there was
a way to find total resistance and total voltage, leaving total current as a single unknown
value to calculate (and then that current was used to satisfy previously unknown variables
in the reduction process until the entire circuit could be analyzed). With these problems,
more than one parameter (variable) is unknown at the most basic level of circuit
simplification.

With the two-battery circuit, there is no way to arrive at a value for "total resistance,"
because there are two sources of power to provide voltage and current (we would need
two "total" resistances in order to proceed with any Ohm's Law calculations). With the
unbalanced bridge circuit, there is such a thing as total resistance across the one battery
(paving the way for a calculation of total current), but that total current immediately splits
up into unknown proportions at each end of the bridge, so no further Ohm's Law
calculations for voltage (E=IR) can be carried out.

So what can we do when we're faced with multiple unknowns in a circuit? The answer is
initially found in a mathematical process known as simultaneous equations or systems of
equations, whereby multiple unknown variables are solved by relating them to each other
in multiple equations. In a scenario with only one unknown (such as every Ohm's Law
equation we've dealt with thus far), there only needs to be a single equation to solve for
the single unknown:

However, when we're solving for multiple unknown values, we need to have the same
number of equations as we have unknowns in order to reach a solution. There are several
methods of solving simultaneous equations, all rather intimidating and all too complex
for explanation in this chapter. However, many scientific and programmable calculators
are able to solve for simultaneous unknowns, so it is recommended to use such a
calculator when first learning how to analyze these circuits.

This is not as scary as it may seem at first. Trust me!

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Later on we'll see that some clever people have found tricks to avoid having to use
simultaneous equations on these types of circuits. We call these tricks network theorems,
and we will explore a few later in this chapter.

• Some circuit configurations ("networks") cannot be solved by reduction according

to series/parallel circuit rules, due to multiple unknown values.
• Mathematical techniques to solve for multiple unknowns (called "simultaneous
equations" or "systems") can be applied to basic Laws of circuits to solve
networks.

Branch current method

The first and most straightforward network analysis technique is called the Branch Current
Method. In this method, we assume directions of currents in a network, then write
equations describing their relationships to each other through Kirchhoff's and Ohm's
Laws. Once we have one equation for every unknown current, we can solve the
simultaneous equations and determine all currents, and therefore all voltage drops in the
network.

Let's use this circuit to illustrate the method:

The first step is to choose a node (junction of wires) in the circuit to use as a point of
reference for our unknown currents. I'll choose the node joining the right of R1, the top of
R2, and the left of R3.

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At this node, guess which directions the three wires' currents take, labeling the three
currents as I1, I2, and I3, respectively. Bear in mind that these directions of current are
speculative at this point. Fortunately, if it turns out that any of our guesses were wrong,
we will know when we mathematically solve for the currents (any "wrong" current
directions will show up as negative numbers in our solution).

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) tells us that the algebraic sum of currents entering and
exiting a node must equal zero, so we can relate these three currents (I1, I2, and I3) to each
other in a single equation. For the sake of convention, I'll denote any current entering the
node as positive in sign, and any current exiting the node as negative in sign:

The next step is to label all voltage drop polarities across resistors according to the
assumed directions of the currents. Remember that the "upstream" end of a resistor will
always be negative, and the "downstream" end of a resistor positive with respect to each
other, since electrons are negatively charged:

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The battery polarities, of course, remain as they were according to their symbology (short
end negative, long end positive). It is okay if the polarity of a resistor's voltage drop
doesn't match with the polarity of the nearest battery, so long as the resistor voltage
polarity is correctly based on the assumed direction of current through it. In some cases
we may discover that current will be forced backwards through a battery, causing this very
effect. The important thing to remember here is to base all your resistor polarities and
subsequent calculations on the directions of current(s) initially assumed. As stated earlier,
if your assumption happens to be incorrect, it will be apparent once the equations have
been solved (by means of a negative solution). The magnitude of the solution, however,
will still be correct.

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) tells us that the algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop
must equal zero, so we can create more equations with current terms (I1, I2, and I3) for our
simultaneous equations. To obtain a KVL equation, we must tally voltage drops in a loop
of the circuit, as though we were measuring with a real voltmeter. I'll choose to trace the
left loop of this circuit first, starting from the upper-left corner and moving counter-
clockwise (the choice of starting points and directions is arbitrary). The result will look
like this:

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Having completed our trace of the left loop, we add these voltage indications together for
a sum of zero:

Of course, we don't yet know what the voltage is across R1 or R2, so we can't insert those
values into the equation as numerical figures at this point. However, we do know that all
three voltages must algebraically add to zero, so the equation is true. We can go a step
further and express the unknown voltages as the product of the corresponding unknown
currents (I1 and I2) and their respective resistors, following Ohm's Law (E=IR), as well as
eliminate the 0 term:

Since we know what the values of all the resistors are in ohms, we can just substitute
those figures into the equation to simplify things a bit:

You might be wondering why we went through all the trouble of manipulating this
equation from its initial form (-28 + ER2 + ER1). After all, the last two terms are still
unknown, so what advantage is there to expressing them in terms of unknown voltages or
as unknown currents (multiplied by resistances)? The purpose in doing this is to get the
KVL equation expressed using the same unknown variables as the KCL equation, for this is
a necessary requirement for any simultaneous equation solution method. To solve for
three unknown currents (I1, I2, and I3), we must have three equations relating these three
currents (not voltages!) together.

Applying the same steps to the right loop of the circuit (starting at the chosen node and
moving counter-clockwise), we get another KVL equation:

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Knowing now that the voltage across each resistor can be and should be expressed as the
product of the corresponding current and the (known) resistance of each resistor, we can
re-write the equation as such:

Now we have a mathematical system of three equations (one KCL equation and two KVL
equations) and three unknowns:

For some methods of solution (especially any method involving a calculator), it is helpful
to express each unknown term in each equation, with any constant value to the right of
the equal sign, and with any "unity" terms expressed with an explicit coefficient of 1. Re-
writing the equations again, we have:

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Using whatever solution techniques are available to us, we should arrive at a solution for
the three unknown current values:

So, I1 is 5 amps, I2 is 4 amps, and I3 is a negative 1 amp. But what does "negative"
current mean? In this case, it means that our assumed direction for I3 was opposite of its
real direction. Going back to our original circuit, we can re-draw the current arrow for I3
(and re-draw the polarity of R3's voltage drop to match):

Notice how current is being pushed backwards through battery 2 (electrons flowing "up")
due to the higher voltage of battery 1 (whose current is pointed "down" as it normally
would)! Despite the fact that battery B2's polarity is trying to push electrons down in that
branch of the circuit, electrons are being forced backwards through it due to the superior
voltage of battery B1. Does this mean that the stronger battery will always "win" and the
weaker battery always get current forced through it backwards? No! It actually depends
on both the batteries' relative voltages and the resistor values in the circuit. The only sure

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way to determine what's going on is to take the time to mathematically analyze the
network.

Now that we know the magnitude of all currents in this circuit, we can calculate voltage
drops across all resistors with Ohm's Law (E=IR):

• Steps to follow for the "Branch Current" method of analysis:

• (1) Choose a node and assume directions of currents.
• (2) Write a KCL equation relating currents at the node.
• (3) Label resistor voltage drop polarities based on assumed currents.
• (4) Write KVL equations for each loop of the circuit, substituting the product IR
for E in each resistor term of the equations.
• (5) Solve for unknown branch currents (simultaneous equations).
• (6) If any solution is negative, then the assumed direction of current for that
solution is wrong!
• (7) Solve for voltage drops across all resistors (E=IR).

We have seen the branch method based upon the kirchoff’s voltage law .Now we will
see what is mesh current method .

Mesh current method

The Mesh Current Method is quite similar to the Branch Current method in that it uses
simultaneous equations, Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, and Ohm's Law to determine unknown
currents in a network. It differs from the Branch Current method in that it does not use
Kirchhoff's Current Law, and it is usually able to solve a circuit with less unknown
variables and less simultaneous equations, which is especially nice if you're forced to
solve without a calculator.

Let's see how this method works on the same example problem:

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The first step in the Mesh Current method is to identify "loops" within the circuit
encompassing all components. In our example circuit, the loop formed by B1, R1, and R2
will be the first while the loop formed by B2, R2, and R3 will be the second. The strangest
part of the Mesh Current method is envisioning circulating currents in each of the loops.
In fact, this method gets its name from the idea of these currents meshing together
between loops like sets of spinning gears:

The choice of each current's direction is entirely arbitrary, just as in the Branch Current
method, but the resulting equations are easier to solve if the currents are going the same
direction through intersecting components (note how currents I1 and I2 are both going
"up" through resistor R2, where they "mesh," or intersect). If the assumed direction of a
mesh current is wrong, the answer for that current will have a negative value.

The next step is to label all voltage drop polarities across resistors according to the
assumed directions of the mesh currents. Remember that the "upstream" end of a resistor
will always be negative, and the "downstream" end of a resistor positive with respect to
each other, since electrons are negatively charged. The battery polarities, of course, are
dictated by their symbol orientations in the diagram, and may or may not "agree" with the
resistor polarities (assumed current directions):

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Using Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, we can now step around each of these loops, generating
equations representative of the component voltage drops and polarities. As with the
Branch Current method, we will denote a resistor's voltage drop as the product of the
resistance (in ohms) and its respective mesh current (that quantity being unknown at this
point). Where two currents mesh together, we will write that term in the equation with
resistor current being the sum of the two meshing currents.

Tracing the left loop of the circuit, starting from the upper-left corner and moving
counter-clockwise (the choice of starting points and directions is ultimately irrelevant),
counting polarity as if we had a voltmeter in hand, red lead on the point ahead and black
lead on the point behind, we get this equation:

Notice that the middle term of the equation uses the sum of mesh currents I1 and I2 as the
current through resistor R2. This is because mesh currents I1 and I2 are going the same
direction through R2, and thus complement each other. Distributing the coefficient of 2 to
the I1 and I2 terms, and then combining I1 terms in the equation, we can simplify as such:

At this time we have one equation with two unknowns. To be able to solve for two
unknown mesh currents, we must have two equations. If we trace the other loop of the
circuit, we can obtain another KVL equation and have enough data to solve for the two

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currents. Creature of habit that I am, I'll start at the upper-left hand corner of the right
loop and trace counter-clockwise:

Simplifying the equation as before, we end up with:

Now, with two equations, we can use one of several methods to mathematically solve for
the unknown currents I1 and I2:

Knowing that these solutions are values for mesh currents, not branch currents, we must
go back to our diagram to see how they fit together to give currents through all
components:

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The solution of -1 amp for I2 means that our initially assumed direction of current was
incorrect. In actuality, I2 is flowing in a counter-clockwise direction at a value of
(positive) 1 amp:

This change of current direction from what was first assumed will alter the polarity of the
voltage drops across R2 and R3 due to current I2. From here, we can say that the current
through R1 is 5 amps, with the voltage drop across R1 being the product of current and
resistance (E=IR), 20 volts (positive on the left and negative on the right). Also, we can
safely say that the current through R3 is 1 amp, with a voltage drop of 1 volt (E=IR),
positive on the left and negative on the right. But what is happening at R2?

Mesh current I1 is going "up" through R2, while mesh current I2 is going "down" through
R2. To determine the actual current through R2, we must see how mesh currents I1 and I2
interact (in this case they're in opposition), and algebraically add them to arrive at a final
value. Since I1 is going "up" at 5 amps, and I2 is going "down" at 1 amp, the real current
through R2 must be a value of 4 amps, going "up:"

A current of 4 amps through R2's resistance of 2 Ω gives us a voltage drop of 8 volts

(E=IR), positive on the top and negative on the bottom.

The primary advantage of Mesh Current analysis is that it generally allows for the
solution of a large network with fewer unknown values and fewer simultaneous
equations. Our example problem took three equations to solve the Branch Current

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method and only two equations using the Mesh Current method. This advantage is much
greater as networks increase in complexity:

To solve this network using Branch Currents, we'd have to establish five variables to
account for each and every unique current in the circuit (I1 through I5). This would
require five equations for solution, in the form of two KCL equations and three KVL
equations (two equations for KCL at the nodes, and three equations for KVL in each
loop):

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I suppose if you have nothing better to do with your time than to solve for five unknown
variables with five equations, you might not mind using the Branch Current method of
analysis for this circuit. For those of us who have better things to do with our time, the
Mesh Current method is a whole lot easier, requiring only three unknowns and three
equations to solve:

Less equations to work with is a decided advantage, especially when performing

simultaneous equation solution by hand (without a calculator).

Another type of circuit that lends itself well to Mesh Current is the unbalanced
Wheatstone Bridge. Take this circuit, for example:

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Since the ratios of R1/R4 and R2/R5 are unequal, we know that there will be voltage across
resistor R3, and some amount of current through it. As discussed at the beginning of this
chapter, this type of circuit is irreducible by normal series-parallel analysis, and may only
be analyzed by some other method.

We could apply the Branch Current method to this circuit, but it would require six
currents (I1 through I6), leading to a very large set of simultaneous equations to solve.
Using the Mesh Current method, though, we may solve for all currents and voltages with
much fewer variables.

The first step in the Mesh Current method is to draw just enough mesh currents to
account for all components in the circuit. Looking at our bridge circuit, it should be
obvious where to place two of these currents:

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The directions of these mesh currents, of course, is arbitrary. However, two mesh
currents is not enough in this circuit, because neither I1 nor I2 goes through the battery.
So, we must add a third mesh current, I3:

Here, I have chosen I3 to loop from the bottom side of the battery, through R4, through
R1, and back to the top side of the battery. This is not the only path I could have chosen
for I3, but it seems the simplest.

Now, we must label the resistor voltage drop polarities, following each of the assumed
currents' directions:

Notice something very important here: at resistor R4, the polarities for the respective
mesh currents do not agree. This is because those mesh currents (I2 and I3) are going
through R4 in different directions. Normally, we try to avoid this when establishing our

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mesh current directions, but in a bridge circuit it is unavoidable: two of the mesh currents
will inevitably clash through a component. This does not preclude the use of the Mesh
Current method of analysis, but it does complicate it a bit.

Generating a KVL equation for the top loop of the bridge, starting from the top node and
tracing in a clockwise direction:

In this equation, we represent the common directions of currents by their sums through
common resistors. For example, resistor R3, with a value of 100 Ω, has its voltage drop
represented in the above KVL equation by the expression 100(I1 + I2), since both currents
I1 and I2 go through R3 from right to left. The same may be said for resistor R1, with its
voltage drop expression shown as 150(I1 + I3), since both I1 and I3 go from bottom to top
through that resistor, and thus work together to generate its voltage drop.

Generating a KVL equation for the bottom loop of the bridge will not be so easy, since
we have two currents going against each other through resistor R4. Here is how I do it
(starting at the right-hand node, and tracing counter-clockwise):

Note how the second term in the equation's original form has resistor R4's value of 300 Ω
multiplied by the difference between I2 and I3 (I2 - I3). This is how we represent the
combined effect of two mesh currents going in opposite directions through the same

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component. Choosing the appropriate mathematical signs is very important here: 300(I2 -
I3) does not mean the same thing as 300(I3 - I2). I chose to write 300(I2 - I3) because I was
thinking first of I2's effect (creating a positive voltage drop, measuring with an imaginary
voltmeter across R4, red lead on the bottom and black lead on the top), and secondarily of
I3's effect (creating a negative voltage drop, red lead on the bottom and black lead on the
top). If I had thought in terms of I3's effect first and I2's effect secondarily, holding my
imaginary voltmeter leads in the same positions (red on bottom and black on top), the
expression would have been -300(I3 - I2). Note that this expression is mathematically
equivalent to the first one: +300(I2 - I3).

Well, that takes care of two equations, but I still need a third equation to complete my
simultaneous equation set of three variables, three equations. This third equation must
also include the battery's voltage, which up to this point does not appear in either two of
the previous KVL equations. To generate this equation, I will trace a loop again with my
imaginary voltmeter starting from the battery's bottom (negative) terminal, stepping
clockwise (again, the direction in which I step is arbitrary, and does not need to be the
same as the direction of the mesh current in that loop):

Solving for I1, I2, and I3 using whatever simultaneous equation method we prefer:

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The negative value arrived at for I1 tells us that the assumed direction for that mesh
current was incorrect. Thus, the actual current values through each resistor is as such:

Calculating voltage drops across each resistor:

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• Steps to follow for the "Mesh Current" method of analysis:
• (1) Draw mesh currents in loops of circuit, enough to account for all components.
• (2) Label resistor voltage drop polarities based on assumed directions of mesh
currents.
• (3) Write KVL equations for each loop of the circuit, substituting the product IR
for E in each resistor term of the equation. Where two mesh currents intersect
through a component, express the current as the algebraic sum of those two mesh
currents (i.e. I1 + I2) if the currents go in the same direction through that
component. If not, express the current as the difference (i.e. I1 - I2).
• (4) Solve for unknown mesh currents (simultaneous equations).
• (5) If any solution is negative, then the assumed current direction is wrong!
• (6) Algebraically add mesh currents to find current in components sharing
multiple mesh currents.
• (7) Solve for voltage drops across all resistors (E=IR).

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