ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express my gratitude to the major advisor Assistant Professor Mr. Ram Hari
Timilsina, Head of the Department of the Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology,
Agriculture and Forestry University (AFU), Rampur, Chitwan for his continuous guidance,
encouragement and suggestions during the research period and manuscript preparation. I
would like to further acknowledge the members of my advisory committee, Prof. Sunila
Rai, PhD, Controller of examination and Asst. Prof. Pankaj Raj Dhital for their valuable
suggestions and guidance for my research and manuscript.
My sincere thanks also go to Assistant Professor Udit Prakash Sigdel, Department
of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology for their moral and friendly support,
inspiration and helpful suggestions throughout the course of my master's degree study.
I am very thankful to Professor Jay Prakash Dutta, Dean and Professor Kalyani
Mishra, PhD, Present Chairperson of Service Commission, AFU, Faculty of Agriculture as
well as administrative unit of AFU, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal for providing the favorable
environment for the successful completion of this study.
I would like to thank all the respondent farmers, focal persons, local authorities,
leaders, representatives and enumerators those have directly involved and cooperated
during this research.
It is not forgettable for the helpful and friendly support of our department's mates,
batch mates. My further appreciation to my beloved seniors and juniors for their kind help
and support during my master study.
Finally, my endless gratitude to my parents, Mr. Laxmi Narayan Chaudhary and
Mrs. Tetri Devi Chaudhary, my younger brother Mr. Dainish Chaudhary and sister Miss
Anjali Chaudhary for their constant support, love, encouragement and inspiration to
complete my postgraduate degree.
Amit Chaudhary

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES xv
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS xvii
ABSTRACT IN ENGLISH xx
ABSTRACT IN NEPALI xxi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background
1.2 Problem statement
1.3 Research rationale
1.4 Objectives
1.5 Hypothesis
1.6 Scope and limitation of the study
1.7 Theoretical basis of this research
1.7.1 Theories related to Indigenous Knowledge
1.7.1.1 System theory
1.7.1.1.1 Knowledge system
1.7.1.2 Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use Technology (UTAUT)
1.7.1.3 The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
1.7.1.4 The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
1.7.1.5 Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
1.8 Concept of Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS) and Scientific Knowledge
System (SKS)
1.9 Conceptual Framework
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Importance of Indigenous Technical Knowledge in agriculture
2.2 Some documented Indigenous Knowledge (IK) used in agriculture
2.3 Some agricultural Indigenous Knowledge used in Nepal
2.4 Locally grown crops used in Nepal
iv
 2.4.1 Some locally grown crops and indigenous food products used in Nepal
2.5 Factors affecting use of Indigenous Knowledge in crop production
2.5.1 Socioeconomic factors affecting Indigenous Knowledge in crop
production
2.5.2 Geographical factors affecting Indigenous Knowledge in crop
production
2.5.3 Institutional factors affecting Indigenous Knowledge in crop production
2.5.4 Political factors affecting Indigenous Knowledge in crop production
2.6 Different types of IK used in crop production
2.6.1 Different IK used before plantation of crop
2.6.1.1 Seed priming technique
2.6.1.2 Seed treatment technique
2.6.2 Intercultural operations
2.6.2.1 Irrigation technique
2.6.2.2 Land preparation, tillage and soil management technique
2.6.2.3 Fallow management
2.6.2.4 Weeding technique
2.6.3 Prediction of weather
2.6.4 Crop disease control and management technique
2.6.5 Crop insect-pest control and management technique
2.6.6 Crop harvest technique
2.6.7 Post-harvest practice
2.6.7.1 Crop drying technique
2.6.8 Crop threshing technique
2.6.9 Crop winnowing technique
2.6.10 Crop storage management technique
2.6.11 Crop grain milling techniques
2.6.12 Transportation of agricultural commodities
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study Area
3.2 Data Collection
3.2.1 Tools used for data collection
3.2.1.1 RRA tools

v
 3.2.1.1.1 Focused Group Discussion (FGD)
3.2.1.1.2 Key Informant Interview (KII)
3.2.1.2 PRA tools
3.2.1.2.1 Transect walk
3.2.1.2.2 Resource mapping
3.2.1.2.3 Pairwise ranking
3.2.1.2.4 Seasonal calendar
3.2.1.3 Interview Schedule
3.3 Data Analysis
3.3.1 Probit regression model
3.3.1.1 Model specification
3.3.1.2 Level of the use of Indigenous Knowledge
3.3.2 Likert Scale
3.3.3 Chi-Square test
3.3.4 Multiple Response Analysis
4 RESULTS
4.1 Factors affecting the Indigenous Knowledge used in crop production
4.1.1 Sex of respondent farmers
4.1.2 Marital status of respondents
4.1.3 Irrigation facility in respondent's crop field
4.1.4 Cultural migration done by respondents
4.1.5 Participation in agricultural training by respondents
4.1.6 Respondent's contact with extension agent
4.1.7 Use of mass media by respondents
4.1.8 Use of internet by respondents
4.1.9 Types of landscape in respondent's crop field
4.1.10 Respondent's residence nearby forest
4.1.11 Road transport service disturbed by flood
4.1.12 Crop field work of respondent disturbed by flood
4.1.13 Respondent's knowledge about IK related policy
4.1.14 Respondents benefitted by agricultural budget
4.1.15 Ease of trading the agricultural commodities outside the Udayapur
district

vi
4.2 Indigenous Knowledge used during crop production
4.2.1 Indigenous seed priming and germination test technique
4.2.2 Indigenous seed treatment technique
4.2.3 Indigenous irrigation technique
4.2.4 Indigenous land preparation and soil management technique
4.2.5 Indigenous fallow and barren marginal land management technique
4.2.6 Indigenous weeding technique
4.2.7 Indigenous weather prediction techniques
4.2.8 Indigenous crop disease management practices
4.2.9 Indigenous crop insect-pest management technique
4.2.10 Indigenous field crop harvesting technique
4.2.11 Indigenous crop seed and grain drying technique
4.2.12 Indigenous crop grain and/or seed threshing technique
4.2.13 Indigenous crop grain or seed winnowing technique
4.2.14 Indigenous grain and/or seed storage technique
4.2.15 Indigenous crop grain milling techniques
4.2.16 Indigenous crop transportation and distribution technique
4.3 Level of IK used in crop production
4.4 Measurement of independent variables
4.4.1 Econometric analysis of factors affecting level of use of IK
4.4.2 Variable definitions for factor affecting level of use of IK
4.4.3 Probit estimates for factors influencing level of use of IK
4.4.4 Literacy level of respondents of Triyuga municipality
4.5 Relationship between different used low cost tools and level of use of IK
4.6 Relationship between different medium cost tools and level of use of IK
4.7 Relationship between different high cost tools and level of use of IK
4.8 Relationship between different used transport methods and level of use of IK
4.9 Relationship between different agricultural tool sources and level of use of IK
4.10 Relationship between non-agricultural income sources and level of use of IK
4.11 Relationship between types of house building materials and level of IK used
in crop production
4.12 Poultry production done by respondents
4.13 Livestock production done by respondents

vii
 4.14 Aquaculture production done by respondents
4.15 Locally grown crops used by respondents of Triyuga municipality
4.15.1 Locally grown cereal crops
4.15.2 Locally grown leguminous crops
4.15.3 Locally grown oilseed crops
4.15.4 Locally grown cash crops
4.15.5 Locally grown vegetable crops
4.15.6 Locally grown fruit crops
4.15.7 Locally grown root crops
4.15.8 Wild and domestic Indigenous and Underutilized Crops
4.16 Seasonal calendar utilized by respondents
4.17 Indigenous food items utilized by respondents
4.18 Ranking of advantages, disadvantage of using Indigenous Knowledge and
strategies to improve its uses by respondents
4.19 Ranking of advantages, disadvantage of using locally grown crops and
strategies to improve its uses by respondents
4.20 Use of locally grown crops for different purposes by respondents
5.21 Availability of different locally grown crops in respondent's household
5 DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Factors affecting the Indigenous Knowledge used in crop production
5.1.1 Sex of respondent farmers
5.1.2 Marital status of respondents
5.1.3 Irrigation facility in respondent's crop field
5.1.4 Cultural migration done by respondents
5.1.5 Participation in agricultural training by respondents
5.1.6 Respondent's contact with extension agent
5.1.7 Use of mass media by respondents
5.1.8 Use of internet by respondents
5.1.9 Types of landscape in respondent's crop field
5.1.10 Respondent's residence nearby forest
5.1.11 Road transport service disturbed by flood
5.1.12 Crop field work of respondent disturbed by flood
5.1.13 Respondent's knowledge about IK related policy

viii
 5.1.14 Respondents benefitted by agricultural budget
5.1.15 Ease of trading the agricultural commodities outside the Udayapur
district
5.1.16 Relationship between different used low cost tools and level of IK
used in crop production
5.1.17 Relationship between different medium cost tools and level of IK used
in crop production
5.1.18 Relationship between different high cost tools and level of IK used in
crop production
5.1.19 Relationship between different used transport methods and level of IK
used in crop production
5.1.20 Relationship between different agricultural tool sources and level of IK
used in crop production
5.1.21 Relationship between non-agricultural income sources and level of IK
used in crop production
5.1.22 Relationship between types of house building materials and level of IK
used in crop production
5.2 Indigenous Knowledge used during crop production
5.2.1 Indigenous seed priming and germination test technique
5.2.2 Indigenous seed treatment technique
5.2.3 Indigenous irrigation technique
5.2.4 Indigenous land preparation and soil management technique
5.2.5 Indigenous fallow and barren marginal land management technique
5.2.6 Indigenous weeding technique
5.2.7 Indigenous weather prediction techniques
5.2.8 Indigenous crop disease management practices
5.2.9 Indigenous crop insect-pest management technique
5.2.10 Indigenous field crop harvesting technique
5.2.11 Indigenous crop seed and grain drying technique
5.2.12 Indigenous crop grain and/or seed threshing technique
5.2.13 Indigenous crop grain or seed winnowing technique
5.2.14 Indigenous grain and/or seed storage technique
5.2.15 Indigenous crop grain milling techniques

ix
 5.2.16 Indigenous crop transportation and distribution technique
5.3 Probit estimates for factors influencing level of IK used in crop production
5.4 Literacy level of respondents of Triyuga municipality
5.5 Poultry production done by respondents of Triyuga municipality
5.6 Livestock production done by respondents of Triyuga municipality
5.7 Aquaculture production done by respondents of Triyuga municipality
5.8 Locally grown crops used by respondents of Triyuga municipality
5.8.1 Locally grown cereal crops
5.8.2 Locally grown leguminous crops
5.8.3 Locally grown oilseed crops
5.8.4 Locally grown cash crops
5.8.5 Locally grown vegetable crops
5.8.6 Locally grown fruit crops
5.8.7 Locally grown root crops
5.8.8 Wild and domestic Indigenous and Underutilized Crops
5.9 Seasonal calendar utilized by respondents of Triyuga municipality
5.10 Indigenous food items utilized by respondents
5.11 Advantages, disadvantage of using Indigenous Knowledge and strategies to
improve its uses by respondents
5.12 Advantages, disadvantage of using locally grown crops and strategies to
improve its uses by respondents
5.13 Use of locally grown crops for different purposes by respondents
5.14 Different locally grown crops available in respondent's household
6 CONCLUSION
7 RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
LITERATURE CITED
APPENDICES
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

x
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1 Relationship between sex of respondents and level of IK used in crop
production
2 Relationship between marriage status of respondents and level of IK used in
crop production
3 Relationship between irrigation facility in respondent's crop field and level of
IK used in crop production
4 Relationship between cultural migration of respondents and level of IK used
in crop production
5 Relationship between participation in agricultural training and level of IK
used in crop production
6 Relationship between respondent's contact with extension agent and level of
IK used in crop production
7 Relationship between frequencies of respondent's contact with extension
agents and level of IK used in crop production
8 Relationship between use of mass media and level of IK used in crop
production
9 Relationship between different used mass media and level of IK used in crop
production
10 Relationship between use of internet and level of IK used in crop production
11 Relationship between different used social media and level of IK used in crop
production
12 Relationship between different types of landscape in respondent's crop land
and level of IK used in crop production
13 Relationship between respondent's residence nearby forest and level of IK
used in crop production
14 Relationship between road transport service disturbed by river and level of IK
used in crop production
15 Relationship between field work disturbed by flood and level of IK used in
crop production

xi
16 Relationship between respondent's knowledge about IK related policy and
level of IK used in crop production
17 Relationship between farmer benefited by budget and level of IK used in crop
production
18 Relationship between ease of trading agricultural commodities outside the
Udayapur district and level of IK used in crop production
19 Score assigned to each Indigenous Knowledge used in crop production
20 Number of respondents using Indigenous in crop production of Triyuga
Municipality in 2020
21 Different level of use of Indigenous Knowledge by Tharu farmers of Triyuga
municiplaity in 2020
22 List of variables for the econometric analysis
23 Variable definitions for factors influencing level of IK used in crop
production
24 Probit estimates for factors influencing level of IK used in crop production
25 Literacy level of respondents of Triyuga municipality in 2020
26 Relationship between different used low cost tools and level of use of IK
27 Relationship between different medium cost tools and level of use of IK
28 Relationship between different high cost tools and level of use of IK
29 Relationship between different used transport methods and level of use of IK
30 Relationship between different agricultural tool sources and level of use of IK
31 Relationship between non-agricultural income sources and level of use of IK
32 Relationship between types of house building materials and level of use of IK
33 Poultry production done by respondents of Triyuga municipality in 2020
34 Livestock production done by respondents of Triyuga municipality in 2020
35 Aquaculture production done by respondents of Triyuga municipality in 2020
36 Number of respondents producing cereal crops at Triyuga municipality in
2020
37 Number of respondents producing legume crops at Triyuga municipality in
2020
38 Number of respondents producing local oilseed crops at Triyuga municipality
in 2020

xii
39 Number of respondents producing cash crops at Triyuga municipality in 2020
40 Number of respondents producing vegetable crops at Triyuga municipality in
2020
41 Number of respondents producing fruit crops at Triyuga municipality in 2020
42 Number of respondents producing root crops at Triyuga municipality in 2020
43 Number of respondents using wild, domestic Indigenous and Underutilized
Crops at Triyuga municipality in 2020
44 Number of respondents using indigenous food items at Triyuga municipality
in 2020
45 Number of repondents using locally grown crops for different purposes at
Triyuga municipality in 2020
46 Different locally grown crops available in respondent's household of Triyuga
municipality in 2020

xiii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
1 Self-illustrated conceptual framework reviewing different literatures
2 Land Use Map of Triyuga Municipality, Udayapur, Nepal
3 Map showing location of study area
4 Use of locally grown crops for different purposes by respondents of Triyuga
municipality in 2020
5 Different locally grown crops available in respondent's household of Triyuga
municipality in 2020

xiv
 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page
1 Maximum Score assigned to each selected IK used in crop production
2 Sample size determination for the survey to be done at the different wards of
Triuyuga municipality in 2020
3 Locally grown cereal crops utilized by respondents of Triyuga municipality
in 2020
4 Locally grown leguminous crops utilized by respondents of Triyuga
municipality in 2020
5 Locally grown oilseed crops utilized by respondents of Triyuga municipality
in 2020
6 Locally grown cash crops utilized by respondents of Triyuga municipality in
2020
7 Locally grown vegetable crops utilized by respondents of Triyuga
municipality in 2020
8 Locally grown fruit crops utilized by respondents of Triyuga municipality in
2020
9 Locally grown root crops utilized by respondents of Triyuga municipality in
2020
10 Wild, domestic Indigenous and Underutilized Crops utilized by respondents
of Triyuga municipality in 2020
11 Seasonal calendar utilized by respondents of Triyuga municipality in 2020
12 Indigenous food items prepared and consumed by respondents of Triyuga
municipality in 2020
13 Respondent's perception about advantages of using Indigenous Knowledge
in crop production of Triyuga municipality in 2020
14 Respondent's perception about disadvantages of using Indigenous
Knowledge in crop production of Triyuga municipality in 2020
15 Respondent's perception about strategies to improve the use of Indigenous
Knowledge in crop production of Triyuga municipality in 2020

xv
16 Respondent's perception about advantages of use locally grown crops of
Triyuga municipality in 2020
17 Respondent's perception about disadvantages of using locally grown crops of
Triyuga municipality in 2020
18 Respondent's perception about strategies to improve the use of locally grown
crops of Triyuga municipality in 2020
19 Questionnaire used for the research
20 Checklist used for the research
21 Output of FGD and Pair-wise ranking done by participant farmers
22 Pictures of Key Informant Interviews done in different wards of Triyuga
Municipality in 2020
23 FGD activities done at different wards of Triyuga Municipality in 2020
24 Transect walk observations done in different wards of Triyuga municipality
in 2020
25 Some pictures of Indigenous Knowledge used in crop production
26 Some Indigenous and Underutilized Crops utilized by respondents of
Triyuga municipality in 2020
27 Some pictures taken during household survey done in Triyuga municipality
in 2020
28 Some indigenous tools used by respondents of Triyuga Municipality in 2020
29 Some locally grown crops grown at crop field of respondents of Triyuga
Municipality in 2020
30 Some indigenous building structure utilized by respondents of Triyuga
municipality in 2020

xvi
 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

A.D. Anno Domini

ABA Abscisic Acid
ACC Asilomar Conference Center
AFU Agriculture and Forestry University
AG Australian Government
AHRC Australian Human Right Commission
AI Adoption Index
AKC Agriculture Knowledge Center
AMIS Agency Managed Irrigation System
BoM Bureau of Meteorology
BPRC Business Promotion Research and Communication Private Limited
CAT Catalase
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CBS Central Bureau of Statistics
CDD Crop Development Directorate
CGI Corrugated Galvanized Iron
CO Carbon Monoxide
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
COVID CoronaVirus Disease
Cwlth Commonwealth
et al. And others
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
FGD Focused Group Discussion
FMIS Farmer managed Irrigation System
FYM Farm Yard Manure
GA Gibberellic Acid
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GIS Global Information System
HDX Humanitarian Data Exchange
IASG Inter-Agency Support Group

xvii
ICIP Indigenous Cultural and Intellectual Property
ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
ICT Information and Communications Technology
IK Indigenous Knowledge
IKS Indigenous Knowledge System
ILK Indigenous and Local Knowledge
ILO International Labour Organization
INGOs International Non-Governmental Organizations
IPBES Intergovernmental Science Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services
IPR Intellectual Property Right
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
IUCs Indigenous and Underutilized Crop species
KII Key Informant Interview
LEA Late Embryogenic Abundant
LI-BIRD Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development
LPM Linear Probability Model
LR Likelihood Ratio
Mn Manganese
MO Met Office
MoALD Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development
MoALMC Ministry of Agriculture, Land Management and Co-operative
MoEST Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
Ni Nickel
NLC Nepal Law Commission
NMEO Nepal Malaria Eradication Organization
NRs. Nepalese Rupees
NUCS Neglected and Underutilized Crop Species
O3 Ozone
ODAP Oxalyl Diaminopropionic Acid
OLS Ordinary Linear Regression

xviii
PAL Phenylalanine Ammonia Lyase
PEG Polyethylene Glycol
PMAMP Prime Minister Agriculture Modernization Project
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
ROS Reactive Oxygen Species
RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal
S.D. Standard Deviation
SALT Sloping Agricultural Land Technology
SIU Superzone Implementation Unit
SKS Scientific Knowledge System
SOD Superoxide Dismutase
SOU Statistics Office, Udayapur
SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
TAM Theory of Acceptance Model
TMO Triyuga Municipality Office
TPB Theory of Planned Behavior
TRA Theory of Reasoned Action
UCLA- University of California, Los Angeles Center For Health Policy Research.
CFHPR Health DATA program-Data
UKG United Kingdom Government
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Program
USD United States dollar
UTAUT Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use Technology
WHO World Health Organization
WKS Western Knowledge System

xix
 ABSTRACT

Name: Amit Chaudhary Id. No.: EXT-01M-2018

Semester and year of admission: First, 2018 Degree: M.Sc. Ag
Major advisor: Asst. Prof. Ram Hari Timilsina Department: Agricultural Extension and
Rural Sociology
Research was carried out to assess the Indigenous Knowledge (IK) used in crop production
and locally grown crops used by Tharu farmers of Triyuga municipality, Nepal. Triyuga
municipality and Tharu community were purposely selected. Random sampling was used
to select 170 households and a semi-structured schedule was used to collect data from
respondents. Descriptive statistics along with multiple response analysis, Chi square test,
Pearson correlation, probit regression model and five point Likert scaling technique were
used for data analysis. The average adoption index of using IK was found 59.66%.
Majority of respondents (61.2%) had a medium level of adoption of Indigenous
Knowledge, followed by high level (21.8%) and low level (17.1%) in crop production. The
study revealed that per capita income and year of schooling had significant and negative
relation with level of use of IK. Sex, resident nearby forest and field work disturb by flood
showed significant positive relationship with level of use of IK. Roads disturbed by flood
had significantly affected the level of use of IK. Locally grown crops were available for 9
to 12 months for 73.5% respondents. Survey revealed good health, poor crop yield and
positive change in IK related acts and policies found to be the most important advantages,
disadvantages of using IK and strategies to improve their uses. Whereas, chemical free
organic foods, lower crop yield and technical support to farmers were found to be the most
important advantages, disadvantages of using locally grown crops and strategies to
improve their uses. It need to be further research, development, promotion and
conservation activities carried on in parallel to improve use of Indigenous Knowledge
related to crop production and locally grown crops done by all indigenous farmers.

_________________________ _______________
Asst. Prof. Ram Hari Timilsina Amit Chaudhary
Major advisor Author

xx
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xxi