Oscillations and vibrations

⚫ Vibrations and oscillations occur all the time and are everywhere.
⚫ Vibrations are physical evidence of waves, such as a loud stereo shaking a
table, i.e. sound waves cause vibrations
⚫ One complete movement from the starting point or rest point or equilibrium
position and back to the starting point or rest position or equilibrium position
is known as an oscillation
⚫ The time taken for one complete oscillation is referred to as the period T of
the oscillation
⚫ The number of oscillations per unit time is the frequency f
⚫ Frequency f = 1/T , may be measured in hertz (1 Hertz = 1 s-1) or in min-1,
hour-1 etc
⚫ The distance from the equilibrium position is known as the displacement and
it is a vector quantity since the displacement may be on either side of the
equilibrium position
⚫ The amplitude (a scalar quantity) is the maximum displacement

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 Examples of oscillatory motion
⚫ beating of a heart
⚫ a simple pendulum
⚫ a vibrating guitar string
⚫ vibrating tuning fork
⚫ atoms in solids
⚫ air molecules oscillate when sound waves travel
through air.
⚫ oscillations in electromagnetic waves such as light and
radio waves
⚫ oscillations in alternating current and voltage.
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 Recap from study of waves

⚫ Some oscillations maintain a constant period

even when the amplitude of the oscillation
changes. This is known as isochronous and
has been made use of in timing devices
⚫ Galelli Galileo discovered this for a
pendulum. A pendulum swinging with a
large amplitude is not isochronous

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 Displacement-time graphs

⚫ It is possible to plot displacement-time graphs for

oscillators
⚫ The graph describing the variation of displacement
with time may have different shapes depending on
the oscillating system
⚫ For many oscillators the displacement-time graph
of a free oscillation is approximately a sine or
cosine curve

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 Simple harmonic motion (shm)
⚫ A sinusoidal displacement time graph is a
characteristic of an important type of oscillation
called simple harmonic motion(shm)
⚫ In harmonic oscillators the amplitude is constant
with time
⚫ SHM is defined as the motion of a particle about
a fixed point such that its force ‘F’ or
acceleration ‘a’ is proportional to its
displacement ‘x’ from the fixed point, and is
directed towards the point
⚫ F is known as the restoring force
⚫ Mathematically it is defined as a = - ω2x where ω
is the angular frequency and is equal to 2πf 5
 cont…
⚫ The defining equation is represented in a graph of a against x as a
straight line of negative gradient through the origin.
⚫ Gradient is negative because of the minus sign in the equation which
represents that acceleration is always directed towards the fixed point
from which the displacement is measured
⚫ This means that in shm, acceleration is directly proportional to the
displacement/distance from the fixed point and is always directed to
that point
⚫ Acceleration is always opposite to the displacement since the force is
also opposite to the displacement
a

0 x

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 Comparisons
⚫ In linear motion, acceleration is
constant in magnitude and direction
⚫ In circular motion acceleration is
constant in magnitude but not
direction
⚫ In simple harmonic motion the
acceleration changes periodically in
magnitude and direction
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 Solution of equation for shm

• In order to find the displacement time relation for a particle

moving in shm, we need to solve the equation a = - ω2x
which requires mathematics beyond the requirements of A
level. However we need to know the form of the solution
x = x0 sin ωt or x = x0 cos ωt
where x0 is the amplitude (maximum displacement) of
the oscillation
• The solution x = x0 sin ωt is used when at time t = 0, the
particle is at its equilibrium position where x = 0, and
conversely if at time t = 0 the particle is at its maximum
displacement, x = x0 the solution is x = x0 cos ωt

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 Velocity & acceleration for shm

• The velocity v of the particle is given by the expressions

v = x0ω cos ωt when x = x0 sin ωt
v = -x0ω sin ωt when x = x0 cos ωt
• The maximum speed is given by v0 = x0ω
• An alternate expression for the velocity is v = ±ω√(x02 –
x2 )
(which will be derived next)
• The acceleration a of the particle is given by the
expressions
a = -x0ω2 sin ωt when x = x0 sin ωt
a = -x0ω2 cos ωt when x = x0 cos ωt
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Displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs

Displacement (x), velocity (v) & acceleration time graph

 Alternate expression for velocity

• Recall that x = x0 sin ωt and v = x0ω cos ωt

• So sin ωt = x/x0 and cos ωt = v/(x0ω)
• Trigonometric relationship between sine and cosine is
sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
• Applying the above relationship, we have
x2/x02 + v2/(x02ω2) = 1
which gives
v2 = x02ω2 - x2 ω2 , hence

v = ± ω√(x02 - x2)

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 Example
The displacement x at time t of a particle attached to a spring moving in
shm is given by x = 0.25 cos 7.5t, where x is in meters and time t is in
seconds
a) use the equation to find the amplitude, frequency and period,
spring constant for the motion given that the mass of the particle is
0.20kg
b) find the displacement x when t = 0.50 s
Solution
a) Compare the equation with x = x0 cos ωt
The amplitude x0 = 0.25 m, ω = 2πf = 7.5 rad/s, therefore f = 1.2 Hz
and period T = 1/f = 0.84 s
b) Substitute t = 0.50 s in the equation
ωt = 7.5 x 0.50 = 3.75 rad = 215°
so x = 0.25 cos 215° = -0.20 m 12
 Worked examples of shm

• Mass on a helical spring

• Simple pendulum

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 Mass on a helical spring – Hooke’s law
• Consider a mass m suspended from a spring
• The weight mg is balanced by the tension T in the spring
• When the spring is extended downwards by an amount x away from
the equilibrium position, there is an additional upward force called
the restoring force in the spring given by F = - kx
• When the mass is released the restoring force F pulls the mass
upwards towards the equilibrium position. The minus sign shows
the direction of this force.
• As the force is proportional to the displacement, the acceleration is
also proportional to the displacement and is directed towards the
equilibrium position meeting the condition for shm
• The full theory shows that the period of oscillation T = 2π√(m/k)
• since F = ma, then ma = - kx
hence a = - (k/m)x = dv/dt = d2x/dt2
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 The simple pendulum
• A simple pendulum is a point mass m on a light inelastic string although in real
experiments we use a finite pendulum bob of finite mass
• When the bob is pulled aside through an angle and released, there will be a restoring
force acting in the direction of the equilibrium position
• Because the pendulum moves in an arc of a circle, the displacement will be an angular
displacement rather than a linear displacement
• The 2 forces on the bob are its weight mg and the tension T in the string
• The component of the weight along the direction of the string mg cos θ, is equal to the
tension T in the string
• The component of the weight at right angles to the direction of the string, mg sin θ , is
the restoring force F. This makes the bob accelerate towards the equilibrium position
• The restoring force depends on θ . As θ increases the restoring force is not proportional
to the displacement and so the motion is oscillatory but not shm, but if the angle is kept
small (less than 5°), θ is proportional to sin θ and exhibits shm (check using your calc)
• The full theory shows period of oscillation T = 2π√(l/g) where g is the acceleration of
free fall
• A simple pendulum can be used to experimentally determine g by repeating the
experiment with different lengths of pendulum and plotting a graph of T2 against 4π2/g
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 Hooke’s law & shm

⚫ Any system which obeys Hooke's Law exhibits shm

but i) extensions must not exceed the limit of proportionality
ii) the spring must have small oscillations as large
amplitude oscillations may cause the spring to
become slack
iii) the spring should have no mass; if the mass is > 20x
the mass of the spring, the error is 1%
⚫ This example of shm is a particularly useful model for
interatomic forces and vibration of molecules containing atoms
oscillating as if connected by tiny springs
⚫ The frequency of oscillation can be measured using
spectroscopy which gives direct information about the bonding
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 Example
A light spring of spring constant k hangs vertically from a fixed point and a mass m
is attached to its free end.
a) State 2 conditions that must be met before the subsequent motion may be
considered to be simple harmonic.
b) Derive an expression for the period T of the resulting motion.
Solution
a) 2 conditions for shm are:
a) The equilibrium position due to the mass is within the Hooke’s law limit of
the spring
b) the mass is given a small vertical displacement such that the spring’s Hooke’s
law limit is not exceeded

b) Let x = displacement of mass m, a = acceleration of mass m, F = ma = -kx

Force in a spring is, - kx = ma , hence a = - (k/m)xa
As a is proportional to - x , so resulting motion is shm
i.e. a = - ω2x
a = - (k/m)x = - ω2x, so angular frequency ω = √(k/m)
Therefore period T = 2π/ω = 2π√(m/k) 17
 Example
A light string of length l hangs vertically from a fixed support and a mass m is attached to its
free end. The mass is given a horizontal displacement and released to swing freely.
a) State a condition which must be satisfied before the resulting oscillation may be
considered shm.
b) Derive an expression for the period T of the resulting motion.
Solution
θ
a) A required condition is that the angular displacement θ is small l

b) Let x = displacement of mass m, a = acceleration of mass m

In the direction perpendicular to string, F = ma
- mg sin θ = ma, so - g sin θ = a
For small θ , sin θ ≈ x/l, so - gx/l ≈ a x
As a is proportional to - x , so resulting motion is shm
i.e. a = - ω2x
Hence, - (g/l)x = - ω2x, so ω = √(g/l) mg
Therefore period T = 2π/ω = 2π√(l/g)

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 Example

A helical spring is clamped at one end and hangs

vertically. It extends by 10 cm when a mass of 50 g is
hung from its free end.
Calculate: a) the spring constant of the spring
b) the period of small amplitude
oscillations of the mass
Solution
a) k = F/x, k = 4.9 Nm-1
b) T = 2π√(m/k) T = 0.63 s

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 Energy changes in shm

• A system exhibiting simple harmonic motion would possess a

constant total energy at all points of time
• The total energy normally comprises a portion of potential
energy and another balanced portion of kinetic energy.
• There is thus a continuous interchange of the two energies
during oscillations.
• For example, a weighted helical spring has a total energy that
is the sum of the kinetic energy of the moving mass and the
stored elastic potential energy of the spring.
• Plotting on the same graph for energy versus
time/displacement, the two sinusoidal curves are completely
out of phase.
• It can be proven that the total energy of a weighted spring is ½
mω2xo2 which is a constant.
.
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 Energy vs time graph

K.E. P.E. total energy

energy

0
0 T/4 T/2 3T/4 T time

Energy versus time graph

Displacement, velocity and acceleration graphs

Displacement (x), velocity (v) & acceleration time graph

 Energy changes in shm

• The kinetic energy of a particle of mass m oscillating with shm is

½mv2 and from the earlier derivation v2 = x02ω2 - x2 ω2

• So k.e Ek at displacement x is ½mω2( x02- x2)

• To find the potential energy Ep we need to find the work done against
the restoring force;
since F = ma , Fres = - mω2x but average restoring force = ½mω2x
• Hence work done = average restoring force x displacement
= ½mω2x2
• The total energy Etot of the oscillating system is given by
• Etot = Ek + Ep = ½mω2( x02- x2) + ½mω2x2
= ½mω2x02
• This total energy is constant as it merely expresses the law of
conservation of energy
• Pg 272 Chris Mee figs 10.22, 10.23,10.24

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 Example
A particle of mass 60 g oscillates with shm with angular frequency of
6.3 rad/s and amplitude 15 mm.
Calculate a) the total energy
b) the k.e and p.e at half amplitude (i.e. at x = 7.5 mm)
Solution
Etot = Ek + Ep = ½mω2( x02- x2) + ½mω2x2 = ½mω2x02

a) Etot = ½mω2x02 = 2.7 x 10-4 J

b) Ek = ½mω2( x02- x2) = 2.0 x 10-4 J
Ep = ½mω2x2 = 6.7 x 10-5 J

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 Natural frequency & resonance

⚫ A particle is said to be undergoing free oscillations when

the only external force acting on it is the restoring force
⚫ The total energy remains constant at all points of time
⚫ A free oscillation is one where an object or system
oscillates in the absence of any damping forces, and it is
said to oscillating in its natural frequency
⚫ In real situations, frictional and other resistive forces cause
the oscillator’s energy to be dissipated, and this energy is
converted eventually into heat energy. The oscillations are
said to be damped
⚫ When one object vibrates at the same frequency as
another it is said to be in resonance
⚫ The ‘swing’ of a frictionless pendulum is an example of a
free oscillation.
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 Resonance
⚫ In the absence of external forces to an oscillating system, the system oscillates at its
natural frequency f0. The only forces acting are the internal forces of the oscillating
system
⚫ When an external force is applied to an oscillating system, the system is under forced
oscillations and will vibrate at the frequency of the applied force rather than at the
natural frequency of the system
⚫ Whether or not the forcing frequency equals the natural frequency, the oscillations are
said to be forced when a periodic force acts.
⚫ When the forcing frequency is equal to the natural frequency, net energy is taken in
and the amplitude of oscillation builds up further and the applied periodic force is said to
have set the system in resonance. Under such condition, further resonance will result in
more energy being taken in to build up the amplitude further.
⚫ Resonance occurs when a system is forced to oscillate at its natural frequency by the
driving frequency
⚫ When resonance occurs, the amplitude of the resulting oscillations is a maximum as
maximum energy is transferred from the forcing system
E.g. Barton's pendulum – only the pendulum with the same length as the original will
oscillate with the biggest amplitude
⚫ Applications – wind instruments, excessive noise from a moving bus, radio & tv tuning
⚫ The Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge in Washington State, USA in 1940 collapsed due
to a moderate gale (of same frequency as natural frequency of bridge) setting the bridge
into resonance until the main span broke up 26
 Damped oscillations

• A damped oscillation is one where frictional forces present

gradually slow down the oscillation and the amplitude decreases
with time i.e. decreasing energy
• Damped oscillations are divided into under-damped, critically
damped and over-damped oscillations
• An under-damped(lightly damped) oscillation is one where the
amplitude of oscillation or displacement of the system decreases
with time. Example: oscillation of a simple pendulum with the
damping or dissipative force as air resistance
• In a critically damped system, oscillations are reduced to zero in the
shortest possible time. Examples: moving coil ammeter or volt
meter, shock absorber, door closer
• In an over-damped(heavy damping) system, a displacement from its
equilibrium position takes a long time for the displacement to be
reduced to zero. Example: door dampers

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 Damped oscillations

Displacement vs Time Graph

x over-damped

under-damped critically-damped
 Effects of damping on forced oscillations

• Pg 277 Chris Mee fig 10.29 & 10.30

• As the degree of damping increases:
– The amplitude of oscillation at all frequencies is reduced
– The frequency at max amplitude shifts gradually towards lower
frequencies
– The peak becomes flatter

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