Photosynthesis

Water weeds oxygenate the water in fish tanks, ponds, lakes and
rivers . During daylight hours they release bubbles of gas that are rich
in oxygen - the waste product of photosynthesis (Figure 4.2.1).
At the end of this topic you
should be able to : Photosynthesis is a process that uses light energy to drive chemical
reactions in which carbon dioxide and water are changed to glucose
• define the term
photosynthesis and oxygen.

• state the source of energy, Light is absorbed by chlorophyll, a green pigment which is found
the raw materials and the only in chloroplasts .
products of photosynthesis The process is summarised in this word equation :
• write word and balanced light energy
chemical equations for carbon dioxide + water ) glucose + oxygen
photosynthesis chlorophyll

• state the role of chlorophyll in The chemical equation for photosynthesis is:
photosynthesis light energy
• describe the fate of the 6C0 2 + 6Hp ) C6H,P6 + 60 2
chlorophyll
products of photosynthesis .
In the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water diffuse
into ch loroplasts. Chlorophyll absorbs light to split water to form
hydrogen ions, electrons and oxygen. These ions and electrons are
used to reduce carbon dioxide to a simp le sugar.
The simple sugar produced in photosynthesis is used to produce a
wide range of substances for the plant. Some is respired immediately
by cells as it provides the energy needed to keep the cells alive.

The fate of glucose

The plants use the glucose they produce to make:
• sucrose - this is transported around the plant in the phloem . It is
,--~_ _---.J In bright sunshine the
freshwater plant, Elodea, used in nectar and fleshy fruits to attract animals for pollination
releases bubbles of gas rich and seed dispersal (see 6.8,9.5 and 9.6)
in oxygen. • starch in storage organs, such as seeds, swollen roots (e.g. yams),
swollen stems (e.g . Irish potatoes). as a long-term energy store
STUDY FOCUS • starch in leaves to store energy for use in respiration at night
You should learn these two • cellulose to make cell walls, also used to make fibres in cotton bolls
equations, but realise they to help seeds disperse in the wind
summarise many reactions that • lipids to make cell membranes and for energy storage, e.g. in seeds.
occur within chloroplasts . In
By combining sugars with nitrogen from nitrate ions, plants can make
one of these reactions carbon
amino acids and then use them to make proteins, such as enzymes
dioxide gains electrons. These
(see 5.3) and carrier proteins in cell membranes (see 3.4).
come from the splitting of
water. A reaction where a
substance gains electrons is
called a reduction reaction .
Gas exchange in plants STUDY FOCUS
plants use the oxygen they make for their own aerobic respiration
Using bullet points is a good
(see 5.8). However, they cannot use all of it and much diffuses out
way to make your learning
of leaves into the atmosphere for other organisms, like us, to use. So
notes . You can also put the same
during the day carbon dioxide diffuses into leaves through stomata and
information into spider diagrams
oxygen diffuses out. At night, photosynthesis cannot occur as there is
or flow chart diagrams. Try
no light. Most stomata tend to close at night to conserve water, but
converting the information on
some remain partially open to allow some oxygen to diffuse into leaves
the fate of glucose into a diagram
and some carbon dioxide to diffuse out. Much more carbon dioxide is
(see question 3) .
absorbed during the day than is produced at night (Figure 4 .2.2).

t
Uptake of
carbon
dioxide
I
I
I
I
I I
r i~ 1
--------------- ---------------------- ----------_ No net
I
I uptakeI
Release of I -- - + - 1- -' I or release
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
~
carbon
de
dr 1 j' 1 a Write out the balanced
chemical equation for
photosynthesis.
00.00 06 .00 12 .00 18.00 24.00
b Annotate the equation
Time/h
by identifying the raw
Figure 4.2.2 The uptake and release of carbon dioxide from a plant during 24
hours on a very bright sunny day. materials, the source of
energy and the products
The graph shows that at night, the plant releases carbon dioxide on the equation .
because it is respiring and not photosynthesising. The sun rises at 2 Explain the role of chlorophyll
07.00; over the next hour the light intensity increases and so does the in photosynthesis.
rate of photosynthesis. At 08.00, the plant uses all the carbon dioxide
produced in respiration for its photosynthesis and does not absorb 3 Make a spider diagram to
any from the air. Between 09.00 and 11 .00 the rate of photosynthesis show what happens to
becomes higher than the rate of respiration so the plant absorbs more the glucose produced in
carbon dioxide from the air. photosynthesis.
4 Make a diagram to show the
exchanges of substances that
occur between mitochondria
1 Photosynthesis is the conversion of carbon dioxide and water and chloroplasts during the
to sugars using light as a source of energy. day.
2 Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts . S Describe the gas exchange
3 Chlorophyll is the green pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs that occurs between leaves
light energy. and the atmosphere a during
the day, and b at night.
4 The sugar produced in photosynthesis is converted to starch Explain your answers by
for storage, sucrose for transport and cellulose for cell walls. reference to photosynthesis
Some is combined with nitrogen to make amino acids which and respiration .
are used to make proteins .
6 Discuss the importance of
S During the day carbon dioxide diffuses into leaves through photosynthesis for life on
stomata and oxygen diffuses out; at night the reverse happens. Earth .
 Leaf structure

Leaves are plant organs adapted for photosynthesis. A typical leaf,

like that of hibiscus, is green with a large flat surface . The petiole or
leaf stalk attaches the leaf to the stem . Extending from the petiole is
At the end of this topic you
the midrib which contains the main vein. Minor veins branch from
should be able to:
the main vein allover the thin part of the leaf known as the blade
• describe the external structure (Figure 4.3.1).
of a typical leaf
Some of the external features are adaptations for photosynthesis:
• describe the internal structure
of a typ ica l leaf as seen in • green to absorb light - the green colour is'chlorophyll
cross-section • large surface area - to absorb as much light as possible
• explain how leaves are • veins - to carry water and ions throughout the leaf and carry
adapted for photosynthesis. sucrose out of the leaf
• thin - so there is are short diffusion distances for carbon dioxide
and oxygen
If you tear the blade of some leaves it is possible to peel off the
lower epidermis. Figure 4.3.2 shows the lower epidermis of a leaf
as viewed with a light microscope. You can see that there are many
stomata scattered throughout the epidermis. Each stoma consists of
two guard cells that control the width of the hole in between them.
Stomata allow gases to diffuse in and out of the air spaces inside the
leaf. They are another adaptation for photosynthesis.
When typical leaves are cut in cross-section and studied under a
microscope, they have the appearance of the leaf in Figure 4.3 .3.
Figure 4.3.4 is drawn from a section through another leaf from the
same plant.

Chloroplast ---¥-if'll Palisade

mesophyll
Carbon dioxide and oxygen Air space _ _HlJ>.1--J.JL
'--'''-------' diffuse through these
stomata (x 200).

Spongy
mesophyll

Lower
} epidermis
Figure 4.3.3 A cross-section of the edge
of a leaf blade. You can
see large intercellular air air space
spaces, a stoma and a vein
Figure 4.3.4 This drawing shows the tissues inside the blade of a leaf.
(x 100).
Table 4.3.1 summarises the functions of the tissues that you can see
in Figures 4.3.3 and 4.3.4.

Table 4.3.1 Functions of the tissues in a leaf

Tissue Function
Upper Cells make a wary cuticle that reduces the loss of water
epidermis vapour to the air (see 6.7); cuticle and epidermal cells
are transparent to allow light to pass through to the
mesophyll; may have stomata (see lower epidermis below)
Palisade Cells contain many chloroplasts to absorb much light;
mesophyll the cells are packed together to allow the chloroplasts
to capture as much light as possible; large vacuole
pushes chloroplasts to the edge of each cell
Spongy Cells separated by larger air spaces than in palisade
mesophyll mesophyll to allow diffusion of carbon dioxide
throughout the leaf
Xylem Supplies water and ions
Phloem Phloem transports sucrose away from the leaf to other
parts of the plant
shows that palisade cells
Lower Cells are like those of the upper epidermis; some are
are cylindrical in shape and
epidermis specialised as pairs of guard cells that control the that there is a very extensive
aperture of stomata through which carbon dioxide and system of air spaces inside
oxygen diffuse in and out and water vapour diffuses out. the leaf (x 200).

Some of the internal features are adaptations for photosynthesis:

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
• close packed palisade mesophyll cells near the upper surface of the
leaf - to maximise absorption of light where its intensity is highest 1 Make a large drawing of the
• stomata (usually in lower epidermis) to allow carbon dioxide to hibiscus leaf in Figure 4.3 .1.
diffuse into the leaf (and oxygen to diffuse out) Annotate your drawing
• thin - short distance for diffusion of carbon dioxide from the to show how the external
atmosphere to the cells of the palisade and spongy mesophyll features are adaptations for
photosynthesis.
• large intercellular air spaces - for diffusion of carbon dioxide to all
the mesophyll cells 2 Make a diagram of a cross-
• xylem to bring water and ions section of a leaf, showing
each tissue with two or three
• phloem to transport sucrose to the rest of the plant.
cell s. Annotate your diagram
to show how the internal
structure of a leaf is adapted
1 Leaves are the site of most photosynthesis that takes place in for photosynthesis.
plants.
3 State the functions of the
2 Leaves are green as they contain chlorophyll to absorb light following in leaves: epidermis,
energy; they have a large surface area to maximise light vein, palisade mesophyll,
absorption and they are th in so that there are short distances guard cells and intercellular
for diffusion of carbon dioxide. air spaces.

3 Internally, leaves are adapted for photosynthesis by having many 4 Use Figure 4.3.5 to draw a
cells closely packed in the palisade layer for maximum absorption diagram to show a horizontal
of light and large intercellular air spaces to allow diffusion of section through the palisade
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to all the mesophyll cells. mesophyll.
 Investigating
photosynthesis

Testing leaves for starch

Testing leaves for starch is a good way to show that a plant has been
At the end of this topic you photosynthesising. Some of the sugar produced in photosynthesis is
should be able to : converted into starch. Iodine solution is used to detect the presence
• describe how to use iod ine of starch. The colour change with iodine solution cannot be seen
solution to test leaves for the if you simply put the solution on a leaf. The leaves must first be
presence of starch decolourised by removing the chlorophyll.
• describe how to show that 1 Put a leaf into boiling water for one minute. This destroys
light and chlorophyll are membranes, so you can extract the chlorophyll.
necessary for photosynthesis
2 If you use a Bunsen burner to boil the water, turn it off afterwards .
• explain what is meant by a
3 Put the leaf into a test tube of ethanol. The chlorophyll dissolves
destarched leaf
in the ethanol.
• outline how to investigate
the effect of light intensity, 4 Stand the test tube in a beaker of hot water for about 10 minutes .
temperature and carbon 5 Remove and wash the leaf in cold water. This removes the
dioxide concentration on the ethanol and rehydrates the leaf which softens it and makes it
rate of photosynthesis .
easy to spread out.
6 Spread the leaf out flat on a white surface and put iodine
solution on it.

Safety: wear eye protection Safety: ethanol is flammable If the leaf goes blue-black, starch is present. If it stays a light
yellow-brown colour there is no starch .
If you test a leaf from a plant that has been in a dark place
for about a week you will find it has no starch in it. All of the
starch has been converted to sugars and used in respiration .
The plant is destarched . Plants that have been destarched are
used to show that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

Is light needed for photosynthesis?

Follow these instructions to show that light is needed for the
production of starch in photosynthesis.
1 Take a destarched plant and cover part of a leaf with some
tin foil or black paper to prevent light getting through.
Safety: be Make sure you attach it firmly using tape or paper clips.
careful not
to burn yourself 2 Leave the plant in the light for a few hours.
3 Test the leaf for starch as in Figure 4.4.1 .

Figure 4.4.1 Testing a leaf for starch

STUDY FOCUS
The results from testing leaves for starch show whether starch is
present or not; they do not tell us how much starch is present and
therefore how much photosynthesis took place.
Results:
• Only the parts of the test leaf that were left uncovered and received
light go blue-black.
• The parts of the leaf that were covered did not receive light and are
a yellow-brown colour.

Is chlorophyll needed for photosynthesis?

Follow these instructions to show that chlorophyll is needed for the
production of starch in photosynthesis.
1 Take a destarched, variegated plant such as a hibiscus (Figure 4.4.2).
(Variegated means the leaves have different colours; in this case
the leaves must be green and white. There is no chlorophyll in
the white parts of the leaf.)
2 Place the plant in the light for about six hours . Examples of these experiments
and their results are shown in
3 Pick a leaf and draw it carefully to show the distribution of the questions 9 and 10 on page 59.
white and green parts (or take a photograph).
It is possible to test leaves for
4 Test this variegated leaf for starch as in Figure 4.4.1 and make a reducing sugar rather than
drawing of the results or take a photograph. iodine. This test using Benedi ct's
solution is described in 5.1 .
How much photosynthesis?
The effect of light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and SUMMARY QUESTIONS
temperature on the rate of photosynthesis can be investigated with
water weed as in Figure 2 on page 59. The three factors that affect 1 Exp lain why:
the rate of photosynthesis can be investigated by changing: a Leaves must first be
• light intensity - by putting a lamp at different distances from the decolourised when testing
plant for starch .
• temperature - by putting the plant in beakers of water at different b Destarched leaves shou ld
temperatures be used when finding out
whether light is needed
• carbon dioxide concentra tion - by adding different quantities of
sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHC0 3 ) to the water. for photosynthesis.
2 a Predict the result you
would expect if variegated
hibi scus leaves are tested
~']1~11.1 1
for starch .
1 To test for starch, chlorophyll has to be removed from leaves b Explain your prediction .
first by boiling in ethanol and then testing with iodine
3 In experiments to measure
solution .
the effect of changing light
2 A plant kept in the dark for a week uses up all the starch in its intensity on the rate of
leaves and is destarched . photosynthesis it is important
to keep the temperature
3 The need for light can be shown by using destarched leaves
constant. Suggest why this
that are partially covered with light-proof material.
is so.
4 Variegated leaves with green and white parts are used to
4 Suggest why counting
show that chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis.
bubbles is a good way
5 Counting the bubbles produced by a water weed can be used to measure the rate of
to determine the rate of photosynthesis . photosynthesis.