Lecture On

Sensors and Transducers (EE-380)

Open Elective-II

Dr. Ram Niwash Mahia

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
NIT Hamirpur (H.P.)
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 Evaluation Schemes

Continuous Assessment 20

Mid Semester Exam 30

End Semester Exam 50

Total 100

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Unit-1: Science of Measurements and Classification of Sensors and Transducers

Units

The standard measure of each kind of physical quantity is

called a Unit.

Magnitude of a physical quantity)=(Numerical ratio)X(Unit)

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 Observational Errors

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 Error analysis
 Error analysis of the measurement data is necessary to obtain the probable
true value of the measured quantity.
 Any measurement is associated with a certain amount of uncertainty. The
best method of analysis is the statistical method.
 For the statistical analysis, a large number of measurements is required.
 Also the systematic errors should be small compared with random errors.
 When temperature of liquid in a tank is to be measured, 10 readings are
taken over a period of time by means of a thermocouple. Each of these 10
readings may be different from the others. We can not find which reading is
correct. Here the statistical methods will give the most probable true value of
temperature.
 For statistical methods the terms like
1. arithmetic mean
2. deviation
3. St. deviation
4. variance
5. mode
6. median.

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Statistical methods of error analysis
Probability of errors

By the nature of the random errors, the uncertainty

associated with any measurement cannot be predetermined.

Only the probable error can be specified using statistical

error analysis.

The following are some of the statistical methods of analyzing

the errors.
(i) Normal distribution of errors
(ii) Normal or Gaussian curve of Errors
(iii) Probable error

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Histogram
When a number of multi sample observations are taken
experimentally there is a scatter of the data about some central
value. One method of presenting test results is in the form of a
"Histogram".
The technique is illustrated in figure representing the data given
in table. This table shows a set of fifty readings of a length
measurement. The most probable or central value of length is 90
mm.

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Mechanical Transducers
Mechanical transducers are a set of primary sensing
elements that respond to changes in a physical quantity
with a mechanical output.
As an example,
a Bimetallic Strip is a mechanical Transducer, which
reacts to changes in temperature and responds with
mechanical displacement.
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Mechanical devices as primary detectors

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 Electrical Transducers

• As mentioned earlier, electrical transducers are those that

respond to changes in physical quantities with electrical
outputs. Electrical Transducers are further divided into
Passive Electrical Transducers and Active Electrical
Transducers.

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UNIT II: Characteristics of Transducers
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Transducers

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1. Point accuracy
2. Accuracy as 'percentage of scale range
3. Accuracy as 'percentage of true value'

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Linearity, Span and Range

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Dynamic characteristics:
It is describe the quality of measurement when the measured
quantities vary rapidly with time.
Here the dynamic relations between the instrument input and
output must be examined, generally by the use of differential
equations

The dynamic characteristics of any measurement system are:

(i) Speed of response
(ii) Lag
(iii) Fidelity
(iv) Dynamic error

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Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which an instrument
responds to changes in the measured quantity.
Response Time: it is defined as the time required by instrument
or system to settle to its final steady position after the application
of the input.

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The transducers can be categorized into
1. Zero-order transducers
2. First-order transducers
3. Second-order transducers
4. Higher-order transducers
Test Inputs
• The transducers are normally subjected to inputs of random nature.
• The following test inputs are applied to the transducer to determine its
dynamic behavior.
1. impulse input
2. step input
3. ramp input
4. Parabolic input
5. Sinusoidal input

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 Table (2.1.):Test inputs

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A thermometer is suddenly dipped in a water bath which is kept
at 100 0C and the reading are tabulated as follows.
Time (s) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Temperature in 25 50 70 75 80 82 88 92 96 99.5
(0C)

(a) Find the time constant of the transducer.

(b) Find the steady state error, if the thermometer is used for
measuring the temperature of liquid cooling at a constant
rate of 2 0C for every 5s.

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