C O R D O V A

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS AND THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF COUPLES

James V. Cordova
Clark University

Behavior analysis has recently contributed a great deal to the study of couples. The current paper
reviews several of those contributions. First, the contributions of behavior analysis to the
development of Integrative Behavioral Couple Therapy (ICT) are discussed. It is concluded that
behavior analysis has guided ICT to be more flexible, more thoroughly contextual, and more
attentive to naturally occurring contingencies for change. Second, a behavior analytic exploration
of acceptance is discussed, highlighting the what, when, and how of acceptance in therapy. Third, a
behavioral conceptualization of intimacy is reviewed, highlighting the contributions that behavior
analytic principals make to our understanding of the intimacy process. Finally, the contributions of
behavior analysis to the study and treatment of depression are briefly reviewed, with an emphasis
on conceptualizing depression in context.

Behavior analysis has recently perspective, these group differences were

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contributed a great deal to the study of couples. interpreted as skill deficits and interventions
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Although the study of couples has a long history were formulated to teach partners the skills that
of using behavioral observation as a key method, would allow them to communicate and solve
a great deal of the work has been either problems more effectively, and exchange
consciously pre-theoretical (in an inductive positive behaviors more frequently.
sense; e.g., Gottman, 1994) or inspired by Unfortunately, these topographical group
common-sense theory. Recently, however, those differences in many instances may have been
in the field are rediscovering the theoretical and simple reflections of other problems having little
practical utility of behavior analysis. to do with literal skill deficits. For example,
what appeared to be poor problem-solving skills
A Behavior Analytic Approach to Couple Therapy may have been in fact the end result of partners
being too emotionally upset with each other to
An excellent example of this process of cooperate effectively. In their daily lives, the
rediscovery can be found in the evolution of partners in these couples tend to have no
traditional behavioral marital therapy (Jacobson difficulty communicating and problem solving
& Margolin, 1979) into its current manifestation with others. It is only in the context of an
as integrative couple therapy (Christensen & emotionally strained marriage that these
Jacobson, 1991; Jacobson & Christensen, 1998). “deficits” materialize. In addition to seeing skill
Traditionally, behavioral marital therapy was deficits where no such deficits actually existed,
rooted in social learning and behavior exchange outcome studies of traditional behavioral marital
theories. As such it was primarily focused on therapy were finding that only approximately
identifying relationship skill deficits as the half of those couples presenting for therapy
etiology of relationship distress and addressing eventually improved their marital satisfaction
those skill deficits through systematic skills and remained improved over time (Jacobson &
training. In addition to being focused on Follette, 1985; Jacobson, Schmaling, &
observable interpersonal skills, traditional Holtzworth-Munroe, 1987). Although a 50%
behavioral marital therapy was inspired by the success rate is admirable, it remained the case
results of nomothetic research that highlighted that a great many couples were not benefiting as
the differences between groups of distressed much as would be ultimately desirable. Further
couples versus groups of non-distressed couples. investigation suggested that those couples who
In other words, the targets of intervention were did not do well in traditional marital therapy
those things that had been found through were those likely to be the least collaborative in
nomothetic research to distinguish distressed working together to learn new skills (e.g.,
from non-distressed couples. For example, couples too emotionally polarized or in very
distressed couples appeared to communicate traditional relationships; Jacobson, Follette, &
more poorly, to have more difficulty solving Pagel, 1986).
even small problems, and to engage in fewer
exchanges of positive behaviors than non- Given this set of circumstances,
distressed couples. From a social learning theory Jacobson and Christensen (1998) set out to

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formulate a more powerful form of couple intimacy, and more compassionate

therapy capable of successfully treating those understanding.
couples who were difficult to treat with the
original form of therapy. They called this new In short, attention to the behavior
approach Integrative Couple Therapy (ICT) to analytic emphasis on context and functional
denote the integration of traditional skills-based analyses allows an approach to couple therapy
change strategies with the newer emphasis on that is more flexible and thus capable of dealing
promoting acceptance. This is where an appeal with the variety of issues that couples bring to
to behavior analytic principals was found to be therapy. Where traditional behavioral marital
most useful. For example, in ICT a greater therapy was blinded by the topography of the
emphasis is placed on issues of context and couple’s problem, ICT, with its roots in behavior
functional analyses. Thus, rather than assuming analysis, is more conscientious about pursuing
that distressed couples have communication skill the meaning of the problem in context.
deficits, ICT focuses on developing an
individualized case conceptualization based on a Another example from the development
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functional analysis of the couples’ complaints in of ICT involves greater attention to naturally
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context. Thus, one couple may fight about occurring versus arbitrary reinforcers. For
money because they have very little and it is a example, it was often found that even those
cause of genuine deprivation, whereas another couples who initially did very well learning the
couple may fight about money because, although communication and problem-solving techniques
they have enough to live comfortably on, they taught in traditional marital therapy, did not
both have very different styles of managing it. necessarily use those skills at home. Upon
How an ICT therapist effectively addresses these reflection, the absence of generalization could be
arguments over money is likely to be quite explained by the arbitrary nature of the
different for these two couples if considered reinforcers for those behaviors. The
contextually. Thus, rather than focus on the reinforcement for learning and using the
apparent communication problem (which communication skills, such as active listening,
Christensen and Jacobson would call a came primarily from the therapist through active
derivative problem) and intervene by training coaching, correcting, and assigning homework.
both of these couples in “better” communication When the therapist was no longer around to
techniques, the ICT therapist would first work to deliver consequents, the behavior failed to
understand the functional context of the issue for emerge, because salient consequents in the
each set of partners. For the first couple, the natural environment of the relationship were
principal source of suffering is limited access to missing. Alternatively, ICT helps partners make
necessary resources. In this case, the therapist contact with naturally occurring contingencies
can help the partners to work as a team to by drawing their attention to those destructive
manage available resources and to actively seek patterns they engage in with each other and by
assistance in the community. For the second helping partners to discover their own strategies
couple, the principal source of suffering is for addressing their major issues. For example, if
framing their differences as something aversive, two partners tend to have their biggest fights
located within each of them, that must be around issues of closeness and distance, then
defeated. In this case, the therapist can help by recognizing that pattern as something normal
fostering empathic understanding. For example, and non-blameworthy allows them to better
the therapist might guide the partners toward accept those individual differences. In other
discovering that one partner, having experienced words, changing the meaning of their different
genuine deprivation in the past, now feels needs for closeness sets the stage for different
genuine fearfulness when she does not feel like behavior, and that different behavior in turn is
they are saving enough money to protect them in shaped and maintained by its effects in the
an emergency, whereas the other partner, having relationship.
suffered genuine loss, wants to use money to
enjoy life before it is too late. Through processes Another example was a couple we
described later, the new stories about their worked with who had particularly dismal
differences foster greater acceptance, deeper communication skills. They snapped at each
other constantly, fought often, were prone to

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serious miscommunication, and tended to infer therapeutic strategies that are more likely to lead
malicious intent to the other’s behavior. The to change maintained by the circumstances in
therapeutic goals for this couple included partners’ daily lives rather than by the arbitrary
decreasing the frequency and destructiveness of attentions of the therapist.
the partners’ arguments, improving the level of
understanding between them, and diminishing There are several other examples of the
their negative attributions. These goals would influence of behavior analytic principals on the
likely be the same in both traditional behavioral development of ICT (Christensen & Jacobson,
marital therapy and ICT. Within the traditional 1991; Cordova, Jacobson, & Christensen, 1998;
approach, the therapist would reinforce Jacobson & Christensen, 1998; Jacobson,
compliance with the rules of communication and Christensen, Prince, Cordova, & Eldridge,
problem solving in the hopes that that behavior 2000). Perhaps most important of the
would (1) be reinforced by beneficial effects on developments has been the greater focus on
the partners and, thus (2) replace the targeted promoting acceptance, itself a movement within
destructive behavior. Unfortunately, what was the behavior therapy community that has been
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reinforced was compliance with the therapist’s heavily influenced by behavior analysis.
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rules, rather than effective communication and

problem-solving behavior, so couples would A Behavior Analytic Conceptualization of Acceptance
learn to look like they were communicating and
problem solving when the therapist was salient, Although acceptance as a therapeutic
but would not engage in similar behavior under goal has received widespread attention within
the control of their actual daily problems. the behavior therapy community (e.g., Hayes,
Jacobson, Follette, & Dougher, 1994), the
Alternatively, ICT helped the couple conceptualization of what acceptance is remains
examine the pattern of their interactions in the somewhat murky. As with most such terms, the
search for how those interactions emerged field was initially quite comfortable with the
naturally from their daily lives. Over the course common understanding of its meaning, and in
of therapy, this couple found that they became most circumstances, that common, fuzzy
more contemptuous, more dismissive, and more meaning was perfectly adequate. However,
easily moved to anger when the pressures of progress in the conceptualization and empirical
daily life interfered with the amount of time they study of the phenomenon itself is greatly
spent talking and enjoying each other’s company hindered to the degree that the referent
(possibly because their salience as sources of phenomenon is inadequately specified. Some
positive reinforcement diminished in relation to preliminary conceptual work has been done
their salience as sources of frustration and defining acceptance as “a change in the behavior
annoyance). Recognizing this pattern increased evoked by a stimulus from that functioning to
the salience of the circumstances contributing to avoid, escape, or destroy to behavior functioning
their distress, thus allowing those circumstances to maintain or pursue contact (Cordova, 2001).”
to gain control over healthier behavior. As a The benefit of this conceptualization is that it
result, the partners developed, on their own, defines acceptance as an observable change in
ways of spending more quality time together an individual’s behavior in relation to a given
that, in turn, had dramatically positive effects on stimulus, thus potentially facilitating the
the quality of their interactions. In addition, observational study of acceptance in the
when they found themselves slipping into transaction of organism and environment. In
bickering again, that bickering itself set the stage addition, behavior analytic principals provide a
for renewed efforts to increase the amount of framework for addressing how and when to
shared quality time. Finally, these new facilitate acceptance. We have argued that
opportunities for spending time together techniques for facilitating a change from
developed outside of therapy and were well aversion to acceptance of a given stimulus can
maintained, theoretically because they resulted be targeted at any of the three components of the
from naturally occurring circumstances rather three-term contingency.
than arbitrary circumstances arranged in therapy.
Thus, greater attention to behavior analytic Acceptance can be promoted by directly
principals has aided in the development of targeting the function of an aversive stimulus

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(the Sd). An aversive stimulus, such as a avoidance, or withdrawal to one that elicits a
partner’s “tightfistedness,” can be discussed in relationship-healthy tendency to approach and
therapy in relation to a related but more offer comfort. Thus these two fairly well
“attractive” stimulus in an attempt to promote a documented behavioral phenomena (the transfer
transfer of function through derived bidirectional of stimulus function and derived bidirectional
relating. In ICT, one technique for promoting relating) allow for an effective and actionable
acceptance involves uncovering the explanation of the therapeutic phenomenon.
“understandable reasons” for a partner’s
aversive behavior. In this example, a partner’s Acceptance techniques have also been
tightfistedness might be discussed in terms of developed that target the aversion behavior itself
his or her need to actively save money in order (e.g., attacking, avoiding or withdrawing). One
to feel safe and comfortable in the world. The might target aversion behavior, for example,
partner’s stinginess can be related to his or her with techniques such as exposure and response
fearfulness of financial insecurity stemming prevention for compulsive hand washing (e.g.,
from a childhood in which lack of money was a Abramowitz, 1997). This technique places the
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significant emotional hardship. In the couple individual in contact with the aversive stimulus
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therapy literature, this kind of intervention, in and then prevents him or her from engaging in
which understandable reasons are uncovered and the usual aversion behavior (e.g., hand washing).
sympathy-eliciting emotions are disclosed, is Such techniques have been found to be very
presented as the type of intervention likely to effective treatments for a range of problems,
promote increases in acceptance of one partner’s including obsessive-compulsive behavior and
frugality by the other partner. The behavioral post-traumatic stress disorder (Foa, Rothbaum,
processes by which this type of technique works Riggs, & Murdock, 1991). The changes in
are not specified, but attention to the behavior behavior that result fit our definition of
analytic literature suggests reasonable acceptance in that the stimulus remains
candidates for the processes at work. For topographically the same (e.g., unwashed
example, vocal discussion of the partner’s hands), but the function changes from eliciting
tightfistedness involves utterances that have aversion (compulsive hand washing) to
acquired some of the stimulus functions of maintaining contact while pursuing a richer life.
events in which the partner actually engaged in
tightfisted behavior. Similarly, discussion of the One might also promote acceptance by
associated fearfulness involves utterances that targeting the consequences of aversion by, for
have acquired some of the stimulus functions of example, differentially reinforcing behavior that
experienced fearfulness. Pairing these two results in greater interpersonal contact (e.g.,
classes of stimuli in talk therapy theoretically increased eye contact, increased self-disclosure)
allows for the transfer of function from the more in a client with a history of difficulty with
sympathy-eliciting “fearfulness” to the more intimate relationships (e.g., Kohlenberg & Tsai,
aversion-eliciting “tightfistedness.” Then 1991). In this instance, all approximations of the
through the process of derived bidirectional behavior class in question (making and
relating, it is theoretically possible for actual maintaining interpersonal contact) are
instances of tightfistedness occurring outside of differentially reinforced by the therapist, shaping
the therapy session to take on some of the over time a change in the relationship between
stimulus function of experienced fearfulness. If the client and other people from one in which
such a transfer of function does successfully take the presence of others elicits withdrawal and
place, then future instances of tightfistedness avoidance to one in which the presence of others
should elicit less aversion and more sympathy. is more likely to elicit approach and
In other words, the stimulus function involving engagement. A more detailed exploration of the
expressions of tightfistedness are transformed application of behavior analytic principals to our
toward stimulus functions involving expressions understanding of acceptance can be found in
of fearfulness. Note that this change fits our Cordova (2001).
definition of acceptance in that the topography
of tightfistedness does not necessarily change,
but its stimulus function for the other partner
does change from one that elicits attack,

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A Behavior Analytic Conceptualization of Intimacy The downside of the intimacy process is

The principals of behavior analysis have that as vulnerable behavior becomes more and
also influenced us (Cordova & Scott, 2001) in more frequent in the presence of the intimate
our understanding of the intimacy process. Our partner, the probability of punishment also
theory posits that intimacy is a process driven by increases. In other words, more and more
the reinforcement of interpersonally vulnerable opportunities for the reinforcement of vulnerable
behavior. The theory defines interpersonally behavior are also more and more opportunities
vulnerable behavior as any behavior occurring in for the punishment of interpersonally vulnerable
an interpersonal context that has been associated behavior. We refer to the punishment of
with punishment by others in the past. In other interpersonally vulnerable behavior as the
words, a behavior is considered interpersonally occurrence of a suppressive event, because such
vulnerable to the extent that a person has (1) sequences continue to suppress the occurrence
been punished for it in the past, (2) seen others of that vulnerable behavior. For example, the
punished for it, or (3) been informed that it is same partner who reinforces loud exuberance,
may also contingently punish loud displays of
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subject to punishment. The process of intimacy

anger. Suppressive events become inevitable
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is set in motion when one person engages in

vulnerable behavior and another person given the process set in motion by intimate
reinforces it. This sequence of events is called an events. As the intimacy process unfolds, the
intimate event and results in an increase in the individual will eventually engage in some form
frequency of the first person’s subsequent of vulnerable behavior that is actually aversive
interpersonally vulnerable behavior in relation to to the other person. In response, that other
the reinforcing partner. In other words, not only person will respond punitively and thus, the
does the reinforcement of vulnerable behavior behavior will be contingently punished. These
result in its increase, but it results in its increase are thought of as interpersonal boundary
specifically in relation to the person who conditions and are posited to be part and parcel
reinforced it. This increase in behavioral of all developing partnerships. Over time,
frequency in relation to the context within which partners learn to effectively discriminate
reinforcement occurs constitutes a gain in between those vulnerable behaviors that will be
stimulus control, and in this context is the reinforced by the partner and those that will be
process of intimate partnership formation. punished. They also learn to effectively
Given the opportunity, this intimacy process will discriminate between those times when the
continue to result in more and more frequent partner is more and less likely to reinforce
displays of vulnerable behavior in relation to the vulnerable behavior. In addition to the
intimate partner. Thus, the reinforcement of contingent punishment of vulnerable behavior,
interpersonally vulnerable behavior is the engine increased frequencies of vulnerable behavior
that drives the process of intimacy. also increase the probability of non-contingent
punishment. In other words, suppressive events
Thus, if a person has a history of being are also likely to occur by accident. For
punished for being loud and exuberant and then example, an intimate partner might inadvertently
meets someone who consistently reinforces punish a vulnerable attempt to talk about a
exuberance, the theory would predict that the touchy subject by being distracted or by
first person will come to feel particularly close responding with irritation spilling over from
to the second person and will engage in a wider work stress. In short, the process of intimate
variety of vulnerable behaviors with that person partnership development necessarily includes
than with most others. In a sense, intimate both intimate and suppressive events, and thus,
events release behavior that is at strength but theoretically, all developing intimate
that has been previously suppressed by others. partnerships can at any point be characterized by
That release is a fundamental aspect of the their accumulated ratio of intimate to
process of intimacy, leading to the frequent suppressive events.
statement that people feel they can be “more
themselves” with intimate others. If the ratio of intimate to suppressive
events favors intimate events, then people will
develop a sense that they are generally safe
behaving vulnerably with that partner. We refer

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to this developing feeling of safety behaving symptoms within the context of an intimate
vulnerably as a person’s experienced level of relationship (Cordova & Gee, 2001; Cordova &
intimate safety. The more the ratio favors Jacobson, 1997). Research has repeatedly
intimate events, the more intimately safe the demonstrated that depression both affects and is
person will feel. The more the ratio favors affected by intimate relationships (e.g., Beach,
suppressive events, the less intimately safe the Whisman, & O’Leary, 1994). A substantial body
person will feel. It is this feeling of intimate of evidence suggests that relationship difficulties
safety that I posit is the principal feeling often set the stage for depressive symptoms
emerging from the intimacy process. (e.g., Beach & Cassidy, 1991). In addition, a
great deal of research suggests that the onset and
In summary, intimacy theory posits that presence of depressive symptoms has
intimate events necessarily set in motion a predictable negative effects on relationship
process that, given the opportunity, becomes the quality (e.g., Billings, Cronkite, & Moos, 1983),
process of intimate partnership formation and because most depressed people will experience
generates feelings of intimate safety that reflect symptoms within the context of the primary
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the ratio of intimate to suppressive events intimate relationship. Behavior analysts present
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accumulated over the course of the partnership. a unique way of thinking about depression,
A behavioral conceptualization of intimacy also emphasizing both the context in which
throws light on the emotional and social depressive symptoms emerge and the function of
complexity of intimacy. For example, it the symptoms (or the associated lack of
highlights that the process of intimate reinforced behavior) in those contexts. For
partnership development necessarily involves example, according to Martell, Addis, and
the emotional pain associated with the Jacobson (2001), a contextualist
occasional punishment of vulnerable behavior. conceptualization of depression does not posit a
One simply cannot engage in a genuine intimate “defect model,” but instead conceptualizes
partnership without accepting one’s own depression as “a set of behaviors in context” that
vulnerability in that relationship. Vulnerability is are “understandable and predictable given a
a necessary component of intimacy, and the person’s life history and current context (p.
frequency of vulnerable behavior will be highest xxv).” In addition, Ferster (1973) noted that the
(and therefore most susceptible to punishment) most striking thing about depression is what the
within intimate partnerships. Many other person is not doing rather than what the positive
conceptualizations describe intimacy in wholly symptoms look like. In fact, depression can be
positive terms and specifically exclude the conceptualized as a marked deterioration in the
negative products of the process (e.g., Prager, active pursuit of positive consequences
1995). Such exclusions blind us to aspects of the (Cordova & Jacobson, 1997). Ferster also noted
intimacy process that are vital to our that most of the behavior that depressed people
understanding of the phenomenon. In addition, a actually do engage in primarily serves primitive
behavioral conceptualization allows that escape and avoidance functions (i.e., aversion).
intimate partnerships can develop that reinforce
topographically destructive behavior, such as Ferster (1973) identified three
drug usage or other criminal activity (e.g., gang characteristics of a person’s repertoire that might
membership). A behavioral conceptualization predispose him or her to depression. The first is
implies that some types of destructive behavior a rigid repertoire that does not adapt well to
may be maintained through the same processes changing circumstances. Although such a
that develop within and maintain other, more repertoire may function well within appropriate
socially accepted forms of intimacy. domains, it predisposes a person toward
depression because, as the Buddhists put it, the
Behavior Analysis and Couples Therapy for nature of life is change, so successful living
Depression requires adaptability. The second is a repertoire
that ineffectively avoids aversive situations. It is
Behavior analysis has contributed to simply the case that some means of addressing
thinking about the etiology and treatment of aversive circumstances are more effective than
depression in general (e.g., Ferster, 1973), and others at removing those aversive circumstances.
more specifically, to addressing depressive A person with an aggressive or avoidant

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repertoire for coping with aversive support network, scheduling regular time alone
circumstances may be more prone to depression together, and checking in with each other
because efforts to cope with aversive situations throughout the day to maintain their sense of
are more likely to result in either greater connectedness. In short, the therapist helped
negative consequences or diminished positive them develop a more flexible repertoire to
engagement. Finally, the third depression-prone address that aspect of the depression stemming
repertoire is one that is minimally exploratory or from their failure to adapt together in the
that inhibits the normal exploration of the transition to parenthood.
environment. The less exploratory a person is,
(1) the less he or she learns how to behave The second repertoire, characterized by
effectively in the world, (2) the smaller their avoidance or aggression, can be depressogenic
effective repertoire, and (3) the more aversive because of the resentment that builds when a
circumstances he or she accumulates. In short, partner copes with problems through avoidance
behavior analysis contributes to the study and or emotional withdrawal. The depressive
treatment of depression by providing a useful symptoms develop as the relationship
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conceptualization of depression that is deteriorates and intimacy decreases. Couples

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contextualized and pragmatic. Couples therapy therapy for depression within such a relationship
for depression (Cordova & Gee, 2001; Cordova helps partners learn how to cope both with the
& Jacobson, 1997) is informed by behavior class of problems that lend themselves to
analysis in that its goal is to address the instrumental problem solving and with the
depression-prone repertoire as a deficit in problems that lend themselves more to
effective behavior. acceptance. For the solvable problems, partners
can be taught how to break them down into
For example, rigid repertoires are manageable units and to work together toward a
particularly problematic in intimate relationships solution. For unsolvable problems, partners can
because such relationships continually change as be guided toward a healthy acceptance, opening
they develop. Those who have difficulty up an entire category of effective strategies for
adapting to changing circumstances may be managing relationship difficulties.
particularly prone to relationship deterioration
and depression. The key to addressing a rigid For example, Michelle and Robert
repertoire is to promote flexibility by helping sought couple therapy, in part, because their
partners accept a degree of unpredictability in frequent disagreements about family finances
the intimate relationship while promoting more resulted in a chronic state of tension and
effective ways of adapting to changing emotional withdrawal. Robert worked as an
interpersonal circumstances. independent contractor and, as a result, his
monthly income varied considerably and was
For example, consider Steve and Tina’s often less than they needed to stay out of serious
relationship. Steve reported experiencing a debt. Robert managed his own finances and did
return of his depression following the birth of not like to include Michelle because he felt
their one-year-old son. Over the course of criticized by her and because he felt that
therapy, it became increasingly clear to both including her would not help improve their
Steve and Tina that they did not spend as much financial situation. Michelle, for her part, was
time together as they use to because of their new anxious about their financial situation and
focus on parenting. Although they both reported wanted Robert either to find another line of
feeling the strain on their relationship, Steve work with more regular income or to become
found himself feeling more and more depressed involved in the bookkeeping so she could try to
about the loss of intimacy with Tina. He was improve the financial management of the
stuck without a viable repertoire for maintaining business. Robert had developed depressive
emotional closeness with her. Essentially, they symptoms that he attributed to financial stress,
had failed to develop new ways of attending to marital stress, the failure of the business to
the quality of their relationship. Targeting this thrive, and a general sense of being stuck in a
aspect of the depression involved coaching them situation with no way out. From the current
toward a new, shared repertoire for maintaining perspective, Robert’s repertoire was
intimacy, including strengthening their social ineffectively avoidant in that he made frequent

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contact with several sources of aversive explore the shops and galleries in the
stimulation for which he had no adequate neighborhood. This new context for their
response. His depressive symptoms had emerged relationship had dramatically positive effects on
as a result of that chronic, inescapable the quality of their affection for each other,
aversiveness. Therapy, therefore, focused on which appeared to contribute greatly to
helping Robert and Michelle develop a greater improvements in both their relationship and
degree of compassion for the pain that they both Pamela’s depressive symptoms. Activating the
experienced. This served two relevant purposes. couple to become more exploratory of their
One was to improve the quality of their shared world increased the size and flexibility of
emotional relationship and thus to remove one their repertoires, in a sense displacing depressive
source of chronic aversiveness (the tension symptoms with more effective behavior.
between them). The second purpose was to
facilitate their willingness to work together to CONCLUSION
confront their financial situation. As a result, In summary, I have provided a brief
Robert became more willing to include Michelle
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overview of how the principles of behavior

in the day-to-day finances of the business and
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analysis have influenced some of the current

Michelle became more accepting of the work in the study and treatment of couples.
unpredictable nature of the work. In addition, as These theoretical and conceptual contributions
their willingness and ability to talk about their have in turn inspired a good deal of empirical
financial concerns without withdrawing research. For example, work has been done
improved, they were able to brainstorm viable evaluating the efficacy of ICT as intervention for
and creative ways to resolve their debt load. relationship distress (Jacobson, Christensen,
Thus, through a combination of acceptance and Prince, Cordova, & Eldridge, 2000) and
change techniques, Michelle and Robert were studying the theoretical mechanisms of change,
both able to develop more effectively avoidant including increases in partner acceptance
repertoires, which in turn helped to alleviate (Cordova, Jacobson, & Christensen, 1998). In
both their relationship distress and Robert’s addition, we are currently developing a system
depressive symptoms. for studying the process of acceptance
development over the course of couples therapy.
The third depression-prone repertoire,
We are also developing both observational
limited exploratory, creates a vulnerability to
(Dorian & Cordova, in press) and paper-and-
relationship distress and depression because it
pencil measures (Cordova, Gee, Warren, &
stunts a couple’s capacity for shared positive
McDonald, 2002) inspired by the behavioral
experiences, creating stagnation in the
conceptualization of intimacy, and preliminary
relationship. Couple therapy for depression
studies have found these to be useful and
addresses a limited exploratory repertoire by
informative. Finally, we are also beginning to
educating partners about the patterns that may be
study the efficacy of couple therapy for
interfering with their exploration of the
depression and continue to develop its
environment, and encourages them to view their
applications (e.g., Cordova & Gee, 2001).
surroundings together, within the context of a
mutually satisfying relationship. In conclusion, the study of couples has a
great deal to gain from greater attention to the
For example, Pamela’s depression was
principals of behavior analysis. The most
embedded in her relationship with Phil and they
positive outcome of this interaction would be the
had become almost completely withdrawn from
benefits that behavior analysis brings to the
each other after a series of misunderstandings
scientific study of couples and the opportunity
and emotionally damaging arguments. In
this work has to demonstrate the vitality of
addition to a great deal of work in therapy to
behavior analysis to mainstream clinical
repair the couple’s intimacy, the therapist also
researchers.
worked with them to discover new ways of
finding time together and developing active
curiosity about each other. After several months
of therapy, Phil and Pamela started meeting for
lunch once or twice a week to be alone and to

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