12

MINERAL NUTRITION
KEYNOTES 2.0
By: Dr. Anand Mani

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All organisms require macromolecules (Carbohydrates, proteins, fats etc), water &
minerals for growth and development.

METHODS TO STUDY THE MINERAL REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS

The technique of growing plants in a defined nutrient solution (without soil) is

known as hydroponics.

It is demonstrated by Sir Julian Von Sachs (Germany, 1860).

The nutrient solution is aerated for optimum growth.

Hydroponics is used to identify the essential elements required for plants and their
deficiency symptoms.

In this, plant roots are immersed in nutrient solutions and an element is added /
removed or given in varied concentration.

Hydroponics is used for commercial production of vegetables such as tomato ,

seedless cucumber & lettuce.

ESSENTIAL MINERAL ELEMENTS

More than 60 elements are found in Some plants growing near nuclear
different plants. test sites take up radioactive
strontium.
Some plant species accumulate
selenium, gold etc. There are techniques to detect the
minerals even at a very low
concentration (10-8g/mL)

Criteria for essentiality of an elemnt

An element must be needed for normal growth and reproduction. In the

absence of the element the plants do not complete their life cycle or set
the seeds. The requirement of an element must be specific i.e.,deficiency
of an element cannot be met by another element. It must be directly
involved in the plant metabolism. Only 17 elements are absolutely
essential for plant growth and metabolism.

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 Based on quantitative requirements, essential elements
are 2 types: Macronutrients & Micronutrients.

1. Macronutrients

They are present in They include carbon, C, H & O are mainly

plant tissues in large hydrogen, oxygen, obtained from CO2&
amounts (more than nitrogen, phosphorus, H 2 O. Others are
-1
10 mmole Kg of dry sulphur, potassium, absorbed from soil as
matter). calcium & magnesium mineral nutrition.

2. Micronutrients (trace elements)

-1
They are needed in very small amounts (less than 10 mmole Kg of dry matter).

They include iron, manganese, copper, molybdenum, zinc, boron, chlorine and nickel.

Higher plants also need sodium, silicon, cobalt, selenium etc.

Based on functions , essential elements are divided in 4 categories

1. Components of biomolecules & structural elements of cells: E.g. carbon, hydrogen,

oxygen & nitrogen.
2+
2. Components of energy-related chemical compounds: E.g. Mg in chlorophyll and
phosphorus in ATP.

3. Elements that activate or inhibit enzymes: E.g. Mg2+ an activator for RuBisCo &
PHOSPHOENOL. pyruvate carboxylase (critical enzymes in photosynthetic carbon
2+
fixation). Zn is an activator of alcohol dehydrogenase and Mo nitrogenase during
nitrogen metabolism.

4. Elements that alter the osmotic potential of a cell: eg, Potassium helps in opening &
closing of stomata.

ROLE OF Micro & macro nutrients

Essential elements have role in metabolic processes such as
permeability of cell membrane. Maintenance of osmotic
concentration of cell sap. Electron transport systems. Buffering
action. Enzymatic activity. Constituents of macromolecules and
Co enzymes.

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 NITROGEN:
This is required by plants in the greatest amount. It is absorbed mainly as NO -3
Some are also taken up as NO -2 , NH4 ion. It is essential for all plant parts,
+

particularly the meristematic tissues and the metabolically active cells.

It is the major constituents of amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, chlorophyll,
vitamins and hormones.

Phosphorus: 2-
It is absorbed by plants from soil as phosphate ions (as H2PO 4- or HPO4 ).
It is a constituent of cell membranes, certain proteins, all nucleic acids and
nucleotides.
It is required for all phosphorylation reactions.

Potassium:
+
It is absorbed as potassium ion (K )
Essential in meristematic tissues, buds, leaves & root tips.
It maintains anion-cation balance in cells.
It is involved in protein synthesis, opening & closing of stomata, activation of
enzymes and in the maintenance of the turgidity of cells.

Calcium:
2+
It is absorbed from the soil as calcium ions (Ca ). It is required by
meristematic and differentiating tissues.
During cell division, it is used in the synthesis of cell wall, particularly as
calcium pectate in middle lamella. It is also needed during the formation
of mitotic spindle.
It accumulates in older leaves.
It is involved in the functioning of the cell membranes. It activates some
enzymes and regulates metabolic activities.

Magnesium:
2+
It is absorbed by plants as divalent Mg
It activates enzymes of respiration & photosynthesis. It is involved in the
synthesis of DNA & RNA.
It is a constituent of the ring structure of chlorophyll. It helps to maintain the
ribosome structure.

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Sulphur:
2-
Plants obtain it as sulphate SO4
It is present in 2 amino acids (cysteine & methionine). It is the constituent of
several coenzymes, vitamins (thiamine, biotin, Coenzyme A) and ferredoxin

Iron:
3+
Plants obtain iron as ferric ions (Fe ).
It is required in larger amounts in comparison to other micro nutrients.
It is a main constituent of proteins involved in the transfer of electrons like
2+ 3+
ferredoxin and cytochromes. It is reversibly oxidized from Fe to Fe during electron
transfer.
It activates catalase enzyme, and is essential for the formation of chlorophyll.

Manganese:
2+
It is absorbed as manganous ions (Mn ).
It activates many enzymes involved in photosynthesis, respiration and nitrogen
metabolism.
The best defined function of manganese is in the splitting of water to liberate
O2 during photosynthesis.

Zinc:
+
Plants obtain zinc as ions Zn 2
It activates various enzymes, especially carboxylases. It is needed in the
synthesis of auxin.

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COPPER:
+
Absorbed as Cu 2 (Cupric) ions.

Important for overall metabolism and involved with enzymes of redox reaction

Boron:
3- 2-
It is absorbed as or BO3 & B4O 7
+
It is required for uptake & utilisation of Ca 2 membrane functioning, pollen
germination, cell elongation, cell differentiation & carbohydrate translocation.

Molybdenum:
2+
Plants obtain it as molybdate ions (MoO2 )
It is a component of many enzymes such as nitrogenase.
These enzymes participate in & nitrate reductase nitrogen metabolism

Chlorine:
It is absorbed as chloride anion(Cl-)
Along with Na+ & K + it helps in determining the solute concentration and the
anion-cation balance in cells.
It is essential for the water-splitting reaction in photosynthesis that leads to
oxygen evolution.

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 Deficiency Symptoms of Essential Elements

Deficiency of an essential element

causes retarded growth.
The deficiency symptoms include chlorosis,
necrosis, stunted growth, premature fall
of leaves and Buds and inhibition of cell
The morphological changes due to
division.
deficiency or absence of an element
are called deficiency symptoms.
If the elements are relatively immobile
Deficiency symptoms vary from and are not transported out of the
element to element. mature organs, the deficiency symptoms
appear first in the young tissues. S and ca
are part of the structural component of
In older leaves, biomolecules the cell and hence are not easily released.
containing these elements are
broken down It makes these
elements available for mobilizing to
younger leaves. This aspect of mineral nutrition has great
significance in agriculture and
The plant parts that show the horticulture.
deficiency symptoms depend on the
mobility of the element. For
elements that are actively mobilized
Concentration of an essential element
and exported to young developing
below which plant growth is retarded is
tissues, the deficiency symptoms
called critical concentration. The element
appear first in the older tissues. eg:
is said to be deficient when present below
nitrogen, potassium, magnesium
the critical concentration.
deficiency symptoms of are visible
first in the senescent leaves.

Chlorosis
• is the loss of chlorophyll leading to yellowing in leaves. It is due to the
deficiency of elements N, K, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn and Mo

Necrosis
• It is the death of tissue, particularly leaf tissue. It is due to the deficiency of Ca, Mg, Cu, K. Lack
or low level of N, K, S, Mo. inhibits cell division. Low concentration of N, S, Mo etc. delay flowering.

• Deficiency of different elements may cause same symptoms. Hence, to identify the
deficient element, all the symptoms are studied. Also, different plants respond differently
to the deficiency of the same element.

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 Toxicity of Micronutrients

A moderate increase in micronutrients

Excess of an element may inhibit the
causes toxicity
uptake of another element. Excess of
Mn induces deficiencies of Mg, Fe & Ca
Any mineral ion concentration in because it competes with Fe & Mg.
tissues that reduces the dry weight of for uptake and with for binding with Mg
tissues by about 10% is considered enzymes. Mn also inhibits Ca
toxic. Such critical concentrations vary translocation in shoot apex. Thus
widely among different micronutrients. symptoms of Mn toxicity may actually
be the deficiency symptoms of Fe, Mg,
Ca Main symptom of manganese
The toxicity symptoms are difficult to
toxicity is the appearance of brown
identify.Toxicity levels for an element
spots surrounded by chlorotic veins.
also vary for different plants.

MECHANISM OF ABSORPTION OF ELEMENTS

INFLUX
• The inward movement of ions into the cells is called and the outward
n
movement is efflux.

• The process of absorption includes 2 main Phases:

• First Phase: Initial rapid and passive uptake of ions into the apoplast (free
space or outer space) of cells. It usually occurs through ion-channels (trans-
membrane proteins that function as selective pores).

• Second Phase: The ions are taken in slowly into the symplast (inner space or
cytoplasm) of the cells. It is an active process( requires energy).

Translocation of solutes

Mineral salts are translocated through xylem along with the

ascending stream of water.

Analysis of xylem sap shows the presence of mineral salts in it,

use of radiolsotopes of mineral elemnts also proved that they are
transported through the xylem.

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 Soil as Reservoir of Essential Elements
Weathering and breakdown of rocks enrich the soil with dissolved ions and inorganic salts.

Roles of soil:
• It supplies minerals and holds water.
• It harbours nitrogen-fixing bacteria and other microbes.
• It supplies air to the roots.
• It acts as a matrix that stabilizes the plant.

Deficiency of essential minerals affects the crop-yield. So fertilisers should be supplied.

Both macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients form components of fertilisers.

METABOLISM OF NITROGEN

NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen is the most prevalent element

in living organisms.

Plants compete with microbes for the

limited nitrogen in soil. Thus, nitrogen is
a limiting nutrient for natural and
agricultural eco-systems.

The process of conversion of nitrogen

(N2or N-N) to ammonia is called
nitrogen fixation.

In nature, lightning and UV radiation Some of this ammonia volatilizes and

provide energy to convert nitrogen to re-enters atmosphere but most of it is
nitrogen oxides Industrial combustions, oxidised into nitrate by soil nitrifying
forest fires, automobile exhausts and bacteria (Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus & Nitrobacter-
power-generating stations are also chemo-autotrophs). These steps are
sources of atmospheric nitrogen oxides. called nitrification.
2NH3 + 3O2 Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus
Decomposition of organic nitrogen of 2NO - + O 2 Nitrobacter 2NO -
2 3
dead plants and animals into ammonia is
called ammonification.

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 Plants absorb the nitrate and is transported to the leaves. In leaves, it is reduced to
form ammonia that finally forms the amine group of amino acids

- -
NO 2 NO 3

fibration
Nitrate present in the soil is also reduced to nitrogen by the process of dinitrification It
is carried by bacteria Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus

Biological Nitrogen Fixation

It is the reduction of N 2 & H2 by living organisms in presence of nitrogenase enzyme.

nitrogen
N=N NH3

Only certain prokaryotic species have

Very few organisms can utilize the
Nitrogenase enzyme and capability
nitrogen in the form of N2 in the air.
to fix N2. They are called N2- fixer

Nitrogen-fixing microbes are 2 types:

• Free-living: E.g. Azotobacter & Beijerinckia (aerobic microbes),
Rhodospirillum & Bacillus (anaerobic), cyanobacteria such as Anabaena
& Nostoc • Symbiotic: E.g. Rhizobium.

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 SYMBIOTIC BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN FIXATION

Legume-bacteria relationship: Most Rhizobium & Frankia are free-living in

prominent. Rhizobium species (rod-shaped) soil, but as symbionts, can fix
seen in the roots of legumes such as atmospheric nitrogen.
alfalfa, sweet clover, sweet pea, lentils,
garden pea, broad bean, clover beans etc. Central part of a nodule is red or pink
coloured due to the presence of
The most common association on roots is
(leguminous haemoglobin (leg-
as nodules.
hamoglobin).

The microbe, Frankia also produces N2 02 Scavenger

fixing nodules on the roots of non-
leguminous plants(Ainus)
ALNUS

Princilal stages in the nodule formation

An infection thread is produced

Rhizobia multiply and colonise the
carrying the bacteria into root
surroundings of the roots and get
cortex, where they initiate nodule
attached to epidermal and root
formation.
hair cells.
The bacteria are released from
Root hair curl and the bacteria thread into cells. It leads to
invade the root-hair. differentiation of specialized
nitrogen fixing cells.

The nodule establishes

a direct vascular
connection with the
host for exchange of
nutrients

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Nodule contains nitrogenase enzyme & leg haemoglobin.

Nitrogenase (a Mo-Fe protein) catalyzes the conversion of nitrogen to NH3 ,

the first stable product of N 2 fixation

Nitrogenase is highly
Ammonia synthesis needs sensitive to the molecular
high input energy (8 ATP oxygen. So it requires
for each NH3). It is anaerobic conditions to
obtained from the protect from oxygen. For
respiration of host cells. this, leg-haemoglobin acts
as an oxygen scavenger.

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 These microbes live as aerobes under free-living conditions (where nitrogenase is
not operational), but during N2 fixing events, they become anaerobic (to protect
nitrogenase).

FATE OF AMMONIA
+
• At physiological pH, the is NH3 protonated to form NH4 (ammonium) ion.
Most of the plants can assimilate nitrate and NH +4 But NH4+ is quite toxic to
plants and so cannot accumulate in them.

• In plants, NH+4 is used to synthesize amino acids by 2 ways: a. Reductive

amination: In this, ammonia reacts with a-ketoglutaric acid to form glutamic
acid.

TRANSAMINATION
It is the transfer of amino group (NH2 ) from one amino acid
to the keto group of a keto acid in presence of
transaminase
enzyme. Glutamic acid is the main amino acid from which
the transfer of NH2 takes place and other amino acids are
formed through transamination. For example,

• Asparagine & glutamine are most important amides found in plants.They are
structural part of proteins. They are formed from 2 amino acids (aspartic acid
& glutamic acid) by addition of another amino group to each. The hydroxyl part
of the acid is replaced by another NH radical.

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• Since amides contain more nitrogen than the amino acids, they are
transported to other parts of the plant via xylem vessels. In addition, along
with the transpiration stream the nodules of some plants (e.g.soyabean)
export the fixed nitrogen These compounds also have particularly high
nitrogen to carbon ratio. URIEDES

Additional Points

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