Topic: Math Logic

I. Propositions
Proposition, or statement (used in logic synonymously), is a complete declarative
sentence that is either true or false, but not both. It is usually represented by a capital letter (P, Q,
and R are the most common examples of propositional variables).

The following examples are propositions:

a. Manila is the capital of the Philippines.
b. Osaka is the capital of Japan.
c. 1+1=2
d. 2+2=3

Propositions (a) and (c) are true while propositions (b) and (d) are false. The given
propositions are examples of simple propositions since it does not contain any connectives.
NOTE: The concept of “connectives” will be discussed in compound propositions in the next
parts of this handout.

The following examples are NOT propositions:

a. Is it time?
b. Pay attention to this.
c. 𝑥+1=2
d. 𝑥+𝑦 =𝑧
Sentences (a) and (b) are NOT propositions because they are not declarative sentences.
Sentences (c) and (d) are NOT propositions because they are neither true nor false. The variables
in these sentences have not been assigned values yet.

Try these:
Determine whether each of the following is either a proposition or non-statement. Take note
that it is a proposition if the given is either true or false, but not both, and non-statement if the
given can be both true and false at the same time.
1. 7 is an even number.
2. He weighs 48 kilograms.
3. Christmas is celebrated on December 25.
4. 5 + 8 < 10
 5. She is five feet tall.
6. In 𝑥 + 3 = 11, the value of 𝑥 is 8.
7. For all real numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 2 ≥ 0
8. London is in Denmark.
9. Do your homework.
10. Where are you going?

II. Compound Propositions

A propositional connective is an operation that combines two propositions P and Q to
yield a new proposition whose truth value depends only on the truth values of the two original
propositions.
Propositions built up by combining propositions using propositional connectives are
called compound propositions.
The propositional connectives are as follows:
Connectives Being read as… Symbol

Conjunction and ∧

Disjunction or ∨

Conditional/Implication if… then… ⇒

implies

Biconditional … if and only if … ⟺

These connectives are also called as logical connectors but these connectives are binary
connectives. Another logical connector that is unary is the negation of a proposition – this
contradicts the truth value of the original proposition. For instance, consider the proposition 𝑃,
then the negation of the given proposition is written as ¬𝑃.
Example:
Let the propositions
𝑃: Today is Monday.
𝑄: It is raining today.
be simple propositions. Find

a. 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄 b. 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄
c. 𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄 d. 𝑃 ⟺ 𝑄
e. ¬𝑃 f. ¬𝑄

Solution:
a. 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄: Today is Monday and it is raining today.

b. 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄: Today is Monday or it is raining today.

c. 𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄: If today is Monday, then it is raining today.

d. 𝑃 ⟺ 𝑄: Today is Monday if and only if it is raining today.

e. ¬𝑃: Today is not Monday.

f. ¬𝑄: It is not raining today.

III. Conditional Propositions

These are implication statements which are sometimes called as if-then statements. The
“if” part is called the hypothesis or premise and the “then” part is called the conclusion. The
hypothesis and conclusion may be represented by 𝑃 and 𝑄 respectively and the implication is
represented by 𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄.

Example:
The statement “If I got perfect score in the examination, then I will treat you to lunch” is
a conditional statement where the hypothesis is “I got perfect score in the examination” and the
conclusion is “I will treat you to lunch”. We write
𝑃: I got perfect score in the examination
𝑄: I will treat you to lunch
𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄: If I got perfect score in the examination, then I will treat you to lunch.

IV. Translating English Statements to Propositional Forms

A Propositional Form appears as a sequence of symbols containing propositional
variables and logical connectives or logical connectors.
Symbolizing propositions needs the use of propositional variables and logical connectors.
To show you how to do this, here are the illustrative examples:
Let
𝐺: Ginebra wins its first game
𝑇: Talk n Text wins its first game
𝐴: Alaska wins its first game

Example 1:
Symbolize the proposition: Ginebra wins its first game or Alaska loses it.
Solution:
Steps Symbols
1. Ginebra wins its first game 𝐺
2. Ginebra wins its first game or 𝐺∨
3. Ginebra wins its first game or Alaska Loses it. 𝐺 ∨ ¬𝐴

Take note that “Alaska loses it” is a negation of the statement “Alaska wins its first game”.

Example 2:
Symbolize the proposition: If Alaska wins its first game, then either Ginebra or Talk n Text wins
its first game.
Solution:
Steps Symbols
1. If Alaska wins its first game 𝐴⇒
2. If Alaska wins its first game, then either 𝐴⇒𝐺
Ginebra or
 3. If Alaska wins its first game, then either 𝐴 ⇒ (𝐺 ∨ 𝑇)
Ginebra or Talk n Text wins its first game.

Take note that the conclusion contains two subproportions and so the use of grouping symbol ()
is important to indicate that two cases may occur after the hypothesis.

Example 3:
Symbolize the propositions: If Ginebra wins its first game, then not both Alaska and Talk n Text
do not win their first games.
Solution:
Steps Symbols
1. If Ginebra wins its first game 𝐺⇒
2. If Ginebra wins its first game, then not both 𝐺 ⇒ ¬(
3. If Ginebra wins its first game, then not both 𝐺 ⇒ ¬(𝐴 ∧ 𝑇)
Alaska and Talk n Text do not win their first
games.

V. Translating Propositional Forms to English Statements

We can also translate propositional variables to English Statements. Study the following
examples.
Let
𝑃: The cooker is working.
𝑄: The food supply is adequate.
𝑅: The visitors are hungry.

Example 1:
Write the following proposition in plain English: 𝑃⋀¬𝑅
Solution:
Steps Statements
1. 𝑃 The cooker is working
2. 𝑃 ∧ The cooker is working and
3. 𝑃 ∧ ¬𝑅 The cooker is working and the visitors are not
hungry.
Example 2:
Write the following proposition in plain English: 𝑄 ∧ 𝑅 ∧ ¬𝑃

Example 3:
Write the following proposition in plain English: ¬𝑅 ∨ (𝑃 ∧ 𝑄)

VI. Truth Values of Compound Proposition with Logical Operators

A truth value is the attribute of a proposition as to whether the proposition is true or
false. We use T to represent “true” and F to represent “false”.

1. Negation. The truth value of the negation of a true proposition is false and the negation of a
false proposition is true. In symbol, refer to the table below.
𝑷 ¬𝑷
T F
F T

NOTE: This table is called the truth table – this presents the truth value of the propositions and
the truth value of the new propositions using the logical connectives.

2. Disjunction. The truth value of 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 depends on 𝑃 or 𝑄. This means that a disjunction of

two propositions 𝑃 and 𝑄 can only be false if each proposition is false.
𝑷 𝑸 𝑷∨𝑸
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

3. Conjunction. The truth value of 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄 depends on both 𝑃 and 𝑄. This means that a
conjunction of two propositions 𝑃 and 𝑄 can only be true if each proposition is true.
𝑷 𝑸 𝑷∧𝑸
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
4. Implication. The truth value of a conditional statement can be determined using the truth
values of its components: the premise and the conclusion. A conditional statement may be
considered false if a true premise is followed by a false conclusion.
𝑷 𝑸 𝑷⇒𝑸
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Types of Compound Proposition

A. Tautology – A compound proposition that is always true, no matter what the truth values of
the propositions that occur in it are.
B. Contradiction – A compound proposition that is always false.
C. Contingency – A compound proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.