MMB241

Dynamics of Particles
Kinetics of particle:
Work & Energy
➢ Work
➢ Kinetic & Potential Energy
➢ Power
 THE WORK OF A FORCE, THE PRINCIPLE OF
WORK AND ENERGY & SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES

Today’s Objectives:
Students will be able to: • Applications
1. Calculate the work of a force. • Work of a Force
2. Apply the principle of work and • Principle of Work and
energy to a particle or system of Energy
particles.
3. Conservation of Mechanical
Energy
4. Power and Efficiency

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 APPLICATIONS

A roller coaster makes use of gravitational forces to assist the

cars in reaching high speeds in the “valleys” of the track.
How can we design the track (e.g., the height, h, and the radius of
curvature, r) to control the forces experienced by the passengers?

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APPLICATIONS (continued)

Crash barrels are often used

along roadways in front of
barriers for crash protection.

The barrels absorb the car’s

kinetic energy by deforming.

If we know the velocity of

an oncoming car and the
amount of energy that can
be absorbed by each barrel,
how can we design a crash
cushion?

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 WORK AND ENERGY
Another equation for working kinetics problems involving
particles can be derived by integrating the equation of motion
(F = ma) with respect to displacement.

By substituting at = v (dv/ds) into

Ft = mat, the result is integrated to
yield an equation known as the
principle of work and energy.

This principle is useful for solving problems that involve

force, velocity, and displacement. It can also be used to
explore the concept of power.
To use this principle, we must first understand how to calculate
the work of a force.
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 WORK OF A FORCE
A force does work on a particle when the particle undergoes a
displacement along the line of action of the force.
Work is defined as the product of force
and displacement components acting in the
same direction. So, if the angle between
the force and displacement vector is q, the
increment of work dU done by the force is
dU = F•dr
The magnitude of this dot product is
dU = F ds cos q

By using the definition of the dot product r2

and integrating, the total work can be U =
written as
1-2  F • dr
r1

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 WORK OF A FORCE (continued)
If F is a function of position (a common
case) this becomes
s2

U1-2 =
 F cosq ds
s1

If both F and q are constant (F = Fc), this equation further

simplifies to
U1-2 = Fc cosq (s2 - s1)

Work is positive if the force and the movement are in the

same direction. If they are opposing, then the work is
negative. If the force and the displacement directions are
perpendicular, the work is zero.
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 Examples of Work
When work must be calculated, we may always begin with the
definition of work:

insert appropriate vector expressions for the force F and the differential
displacement vector dr, and carry out the required integration.

constant force P applied to the body

as it moves from position 1 to position 2.

Work Associated with a

Constant External Force.

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 WORK OF A WEIGHT
The work done by the gravitational force acting on a particle
(or weight of an object) can be calculated by using

dU = F•dr
y2

U1-2 =  - W dy
y1
U1-2 = - W (y2 − y1) = - W Dy

The work of a weight is the product of the magnitude of

the particle’s weight and its vertical displacement. If Dy
is upward, the work is negative since the weight force
always acts downward.
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 Gravitational Potential Energy
The gravitational potential Energy Vg of the
particle is defined as the work mgh done against
the gravitational field to elevate the particle a
distance h above some arbitrary reference plane
(called a datum), where Vg is taken to be zero.

In going from one level at h = h1 to a higher level

at h = h2 , the change in potential energy becomes

Note:
• work done by the gravitational force on the particle is –mgΔh.
• The work done by the gravitational force is the negative of the change in
potential energy.

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 WORK OF A SPRING FORCE
When stretched, a linear elastic spring
develops a force of magnitude Fs = ks, where
k is the spring stiffness and s is the
displacement from the unstretched position.
dU = F•dr
The work of the spring force moving from position s1 to position
s2 is s2 s2
U1-2 = s F ds
s =  k s ds = 0.5 k (s2)2 – 0.5 k (s1)2
1 s1

If a particle is attached to the spring, the force Fs exerted on the

particle is opposite to that exerted on the spring. Thus, the work
done on the particle by the spring force will be negative or
U1-2 = – [ 0.5 k (s2)2 – 0.5 k (s1)2 ].
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The work done on the particle by the spring force will
be negative or
U1-2 = – [ 0.5 k (s2)2 – 0.5 k (s1)2 ].

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 SPRING FORCES
It is important to note the following about spring forces.

1. The equations above are for linear springs only! Recall

that a linear spring develops a force according to F = ks
(essentially the equation of a line).

2. The work of a spring is not just spring force times distance

at some point, i.e., (ksi)(si). Beware, this is a trap that
students often fall into!

3. Always double check the sign of the spring work after

calculating it. It is positive work if the force on the object by
the spring and the movement are in the same direction.

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 Elastic Potential Energy
• If the deformation, either tensile or compressive, of a spring
increases from x1 to x2 during the motion, then;
• the change in potential energy of the spring is its final value
minus its initial value or
which is positive.
• Conversely, if the deformation of a spring decreases during the
motion interval, then the change in potential energy of the
spring becomes negative.
• Because the force exerted on the spring by the moving body is
equal and opposite to the force F exerted by the spring on the
body, it follows that the work done on the spring is the
negative of the work done on the body.
• Therefore, we may replace the work U done by the spring on
the body by –ΔVe.
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PRINCIPLE OF WORK AND ENERGY

which is the work-energy equation for a

particle. The equation states that the total
work done by all forces acting on a
particle as it moves from point 1 to point
2 equals the corresponding change in
kinetic energy of the particle.

Although T is always positive, the change ΔT may be positive,

negative, or zero.
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 PRINCIPLE OF WORK AND ENERGY
• By integrating the equation of motion,  Ft = mat = mv(dv/ds),
the principle of work and energy can be written as
 U1-2 = 0.5 m (v2)2 – 0.5 m (v1)2 or T1 +  U1-2 = T2
• U1-2 is the work done by all the forces acting on the particle
as it moves from point 1 to point 2. Work can be either a
positive or negative scalar.
• T1 and T2 are the kinetic energies of the particle at the initial
and final position, respectively. Thus, T1 = 0.5 m (v1)2 and T2
= 0.5 m (v2)2. The kinetic energy is always a positive scalar
(velocity is squared!).
• So, the particle’s initial kinetic energy plus the work done by
all the forces acting on the particle as it moves from its initial
to final position is equal to the particle’s final kinetic energy.
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PRINCIPLE OF WORK AND ENERGY (continued)
• Note that the principle of work and energy (T1 +  U1-2 = T2)
is not a vector equation! Each term results in a scalar value.

• Both kinetic energy and work have the same units, that of
energy! In the SI system, the unit for energy is called a joule
(J), where 1 J = 1 N·m.
• The principle of work and energy cannot be used, in general,
to determine forces directed normal to the path, since these
forces do no work.

• The principle of work and energy can also be applied to a

system of particles by summing the kinetic energies of all
particles in the system and the work due to all forces acting on
the system.
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WORK OF FRICTION CAUSED BY SLIDING
The case of a body sliding over a rough surface merits special
consideration.
Consider a block which is moving over a
rough surface. If the applied force P just
balances the resultant frictional force k N,
a constant velocity v would be maintained.

The principle of work and energy would be applied

as 0.5m (v)2 + P s – (k N) s = 0.5m (v)2

This equation is satisfied if P = k N. However, we know from

experience that friction generates heat, a form of energy that does
not seem to be accounted for in this equation. It can be shown that
the work term (k N)s represents both the external work of the
friction force and the internal work that is converted into heat.
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 Work & Energy
Work is the change in energy that results from applying a force
Energy can be converted into work
• Electrical, chemical
• Or letting the weight fall (gravitational)
– Hydro-electric power station

mgh of
water

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 Conservation of energy
• When work is done on a system, its energy changes
depending on the system
• Some systems can lose energy – Non-Conservative
systems
• Some systems don’t lose energy through work –
Conservative system

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 Conservation of energy
• One of the fundamental principles of physics is that of
conservation of energy
– interactions between objects can result in an exchange of
energy, but total energy is always conserved

• When looking at the mechanical motion of objects subject to

various forces, we will often ignore certain forms of energy, such
as thermal energy. Forces (such as friction) that can change
mechanical or potential energy into “ignored” (thermal) energy
we will call non-conservative forces.
– i.e. non-conservative forces don’t violate conservation of
energy, we just can not (easily) do the proper accounting with
them to keep track of the energies.
– with conservative forces we can take account of how energy
is exchanged when they do work on objects, using the
potential energy associated with the force

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 Conservative forces
• The more conventional (textbook) definitions of a conservative
force
– a) A force is conservative when the work it does moving an
object from an initial to final position is independent of the path
taken
– b) A force is conservative if it does zero net work when an
object is moved around a closed path
• An object influenced by a conservative force has a potential
energy associated with it, and the work done by the conservative
force when the object moves is equal to minus the change in
potential energy of the object
– therefore, the gravitational force is conservative. Other
examples of conservative forces are: the electric force, an ideal
string force
– examples of non-conservative forces: friction, air resistance,
normal force, tension 24
 Example
A roller coaster has the following track:
The highest point at the start is 110m above the ground.
How much work does the gravitational force do on the coaster
car in one complete circuit?

Answer: 0 25
 Conservation of Mechanical Energy
• From the work-energy theorem, we know that the work
done by the net external force acting on an object is equal
to its change in kinetic energy:
W = DKE
if we decompose the work into the work from conservative
forces Wc and non-conservative forces Wn, and recall that
Wc equals minus the change in potential energy -ΔPE, this
becomes
W n − D PE = D K E
for the case when Wn =0, we get what is called conservation
of total mechanical energy

DK E + DPE = 0
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 Total Mechanical Energy
• An object’s total mechanical energy is the sum of its
kinetic plus potential energy:

E = KE + PE
• Thus, for an object purely under the influence of
conservative forces, its total mechanical energy is
constant.

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 Total Mechanical Energy
E = KE + PE

KE i + PE i = KE f + PE f
• (the sum in conserved)
• Total Mechanical energy is conserved

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 EXAMPLE 1
The small 0.2-kg slider is
known to move from position A
to position B along the vertical-
plane slot. Determine (a) the
work done on the body by its
weight and (b) the work done
on the body by the spring. The
distance R=0.8 m, the spring
modulus k=180 N/m, and the
unstretched length of the spring
is 0.6 m.

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 a)
If ∆y is upward, the work is negative
since the weight force always acts
downward.
UA-B = mgh=0.2x9.81x0.8=1.57J

b)
work done on the particle by the spring force is negative

(
1 2 2 1 2 2
) (
U A− B = − k x B − x A = k x A − x B
2 2
)

2 
2
((
2 2
)
= 180 (0.8 − 0.6) − 0.8 + 0.4 − 0.6 
1  2


)
= −4.2 J
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 EXAMPLE 2
Given: When s = 0.6 m, the spring is
unstretched and the 10-kg block
has a speed of 5 m/s down the
smooth plane. Determine the
distance s when the block stops.

Find: The distance s when the block stops.

Plan: Since this problem involves forces, velocity and
displacement, apply the principle of work and energy to
determine s.
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 EXAMPLE 2 (continued)
Solution:
Apply the principle of work and energy between position 1
(s1 = 0.6 m) and position 2 (s2). Note that the normal force (N)
does no work since it is always perpendicular to the
displacement.
T1 + U1-2 = T2 1S =0.6 m

S2
There is work done by three different forces;
1) work of the force F =100 N;
UF = 100 (s2− s1) = 100 (s2 − 0.6)
2) work of the block weight;
UW = 10 (9.81) (s2− s1) sin 30 = 49.05 (s2 − 0.6)
3) and, work of the spring force.
US = - 0.5 (200) (s2−0.6)2 = -100 (s2 − 0.6)2
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 EXAMPLE 2 (continued)
The work and energy equation will be
T1 + U1-2 = T2

0.5 (10) 52 + 100(s2 − 0.6) + 49.05(s2 − 0.6) − 100(s2 − 0.6)2 = 0

 125 + 149.05(s2 − 0.6) − 100(s2 − 0.6)2 = 0

Solving for (s2 − 0.6),

(s2 − 0.6) = {-149.05 ± (149.052 – 4×(-100)×125)0.5} / 2(-100)

Selecting the positive root, indicating a positive spring deflection,

(s2 − 0.6) = 2.09 m
Therefore, s2 = 2.69 m

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 EXAMPLE 3
The 100-kg crate is subjected to the forces shown. If it is
originally at rest, determine the distance it slides in order
to attain a speed of v = 8 m/s. The coefficient of kinetic
friction between the crate and the surface is μk= 0.2.

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 EXAMPLE 3 (continued)
Solution F2 =
F1 =
W

Ff=0.2N
N

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EXAMPLE 3 (continued)

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EXAMPLE 4
The 2-kg collar is released from
rest at A and slides down the
inclined fixed rod in the vertical
plane. The coefficient of kinetic
friction is 0.40. Calculate
a) the velocity v of the collar as
it strikes the spring and
b) the maximum deflection x of
the spring.

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 EXAMPLE 4 (continued)
W=2*9.81
y ΣFy= 0 N-2(9.81)cos60o = 0
N=9.81N

U1-2 = ΔT=2(9.81)(0.5sin60o)-0.4(9.81)(0.5)
N =½(2) v2
0.4N v=2.56m/s
θ = 60o

U1-3 = ΔT=2(9.81)(0.5+x) sin60o-0.4(9.81)(0.5+x)

-½(1600) x2 = 0
x=98.9mm
ANS:
a) v=2.56m/s
b) x=98.9mm
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 Power
• Power measures the rate at which work is being done.
Since work done is equal to a change in energy, power is
also a measure of the rate of change of energy.
• Average power is defined as
work W The SI unit of power is J/s, or
P= =
time t the watt (W)
Some examples:
➢ typical light bulb : 60 - 100W
➢ adult human metabolic rate at rest : 60 - 100W
➢ 1 horsepower: 746W (defined to be the power taken to raise 3,300
pounds 10 feet in one minute)
➢ typical microwave oven: ~ 1 horsepower
➢ 1980’s desktop CPU : ~ 1W
➢ modern desktop computer CPU : 30-90W
➢ space shuttle at launch : 11 trillion W (11 x 109W)
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 1736 - 1819
James Watt
Scottish inventor and engineer whose
improvements to the steam engine were
fundamental to the changes wrought by the
Industrial Revolution
➢ His father was a ship owner and contractor
➢ Mostly schooled at home by his mother
➢ Apprenticed in instrument-making but not
allowed to register by Glasgow Guild of
Hammermen
Numerous other improvements:
➢ Allowed to set up a small workshop within the ➢Steam indicator,
university. ➢Parallel motion (three-bar
linkage), which improve up to
➢ Four years after opening his shop experimented five times efficiency of steam
with steam engine engine
➢ Modifications: double acting engine, throttle
valve to control the power and a centrifugal
governor 40
 Power
• Since work (W) = force (F) • distance (d), and
assuming for simplicity that the force is acting along
the direction of motion, we have

W F d
P= =
t t
and since the average velocity v = d / t ,this gives

P = F v
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 Efficiency
• Not all energy is used to do useful work
• e.g. Heat losses (random motion k.e. of molecules)
• Efficiency () =
useful energy produced
100
total energy used
E.g. coal fired power station:
Generator
Boiler Turbine
Steam electricity
Product of efficiencies
coal 40% at each stage
Chemical Steam,
Heat Electricity
energy mechanical work
Oil or gas, energy more direct : 70%
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 Efficiency
• The ratio of the work done by a machine to work done on the
machine during the same time interval is called mechanical
efficiency (εm) of the machine.
• This definition assumes that the machine operates uniformly
so that there is no overall accumulation or depletion of
energy within it from the beginning to the end of the time
interval chosen.
• Efficiency is always less that unity since every device
operates with some loss of energy and since energy cannot
be created within the machine.
• In mechanical devices that involve moving parts, there will
always be some loss of energy due to the negative work of
kinetic friction forces. This work is converted to heat energy
that, in turn, is dissipated to the surroundings.
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 Efficiency
The mechanical efficiency at any instant of time may be
expressed in terms of mechanical power P by

Poutput
m =
Pinput
In addition to energy loss by mechanical friction, there may
also be electrical and thermal energy loss, in which case, the
electrical efficiency (εe) and thermal efficiency (εt) are also
involved.
The overall efficiency (ε) in such instances would be

 =  m e t
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 Efficiency
If energy (E) supplied to the machine occurs during the
same time interval at which it is drawn, then

= Eoutput

Einput

Since machine consists of moving parts, frictional forces

will always be developed within the machine, and as a
result, extra energy or power is needed to overcome these
forces. Consequently, power output will be less that
power input and so the efficiency of a machine is always
less than 1.
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