Study Material Biology Class Xi

केंद्रीय विद्यालय संगठन जयपरु संभाग
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN JAIPUR REGION
शैक्षिक सत्र / Session – 2022-23

कक्षा-ग्यारहवी / Class – XI
ववषय -जीव ववज्ञान / Subject –BIOLOGY
विषय कोड /Subject Code-044
1
हमारे संरक्षक
OUR INSPIRATION
SHRI. B. L. MORODIA
DEPUTY. COMMISSIONER
OUR PATRONS
SHRI. DIGGRAJ MEENA

ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER
SHRI. M. R. RAWAL
ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER
OUR MENTOR
MR. DILBAHADUR SINGH
PRINCIPAL
KV NO-1 UDAIPUR
PREPARED & VETTED BY SUBJECT TEACHERS
1. K. TEJPAL SINGH 2. MR.M.A. SHEIKH 3. MR. SANJAY TANWAR

PGT ‘BIOLOGY’ PGT ‘BIOLOGY’ PGT ‘BIOLOGY’
KV NO-1 UDAIPUR KV NO-2 UDAIPUR KV BHILWARA
4. MR. SUNIL KUMAR DADHICH 5. MR. VISHAL KUMAR TAK

PGT ‘BIOLOGY’ PGT ‘BIOLOGY’
KV CHHITTORGARH KV NO-1 AJMER
2
Message
I am very much pleased to forward the Study Material of Biology for class
XI. Every year, the Study Material of most of the subjects is
updated/revised as per the most recent changes made by CBSE. The team of
subject experts, Principals has made it possible to make available unsurpassed
material to students.
Consistence use of Study Material by the students and teachers will make the
year long journey seamless and enjoyable. The Study Material has always
been a ready to use material, which is matchless and most appropriate.
I would like to congratulate all the Team Members for their tireless,
unremitting and valuable contributions and wish all the best to teachers and
students.
B L Morodia
Deputy. Commissioner
Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan
Jaipur Region
3
Message
Dear students
Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan is committed to providing qualitative and best
education to all its students. We are continuously engaged in the endeavour to
make available the best study material for uplifting the standard of our
students and schools.
The present study material in your hands is the outcome of continuous and
consistent efforts of our talented and hardworking teachers of Jaipur Region.
They have developed and prepared this material especially for you. A huge
amount of money and time has been spent on it to make you updated and perform
well in your examinations.
Last, but not the least, this is the perfect time for you to build the foundation
of your future. I have full faith in you and the capabilities of your teachers.
Please make the fullest and best use of this study material.
Dilbahadur Singh
Principal
Kendriya Vidyalaya No-1
Pratap Nagar, Udaipur
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STUDY MATERIAL FOR BIOLOGY
CLASS XI
TEAM MEMBERS
S. No. Name Designation and School Contribution
MR. DILBAHADUR SINGH

1. PRINCIPAL MENTOR
KV NO-1 UDAIPUR
Chapter-1: The Living World

K. TEJPAL SINGH Chapter-2: Biological Classification
2. PGT ‘BIOLOGY’ Chapter-3: Plant Kingdom
KV NO-1 UDAIPUR Chapter-4: Animal Kingdom
Compilation Of Study Material & Final
Drafting
Chapter-5: Morphology of Flowering Plants

Chapter-6: Anatomy of Flowering Plants
3. MR. M A SHEIKH Chapter-7: Structural Organisation in
PGT ‘BIOLOGY’ Animals
KV NO-2 UDAIPUR Chapter-8: Cell-The Unit of Life
Chapter-9: Biomolecules
Chapter-10: Cell Cycle and Cell Division
Chapter-13: Photosynthesis in Higher
4. MR. SANJAY TANWAR Plants
PGT ‘BIOLOGY’ Chapter-14: Respiration in Plants
KV BHILWARA Chapter-15: Plant - Growth and
Development
Chapter-17: Breathing and Exchange of
Gases
Chapter-18: Body Fluids and Circulation
Chapter-19: Excretory Products and their
5. MR. SUNIL KUMAR DADHICH Elimination
PGT ‘BIOLOGY’ Chapter-20: Locomotion and Movement
KV CHHITTORGARH Chapter-21: Neural Control and
Coordination
Chapter-22: Chemical Coordination and
Integration
MR. VISHAL KUMAR TAK Sample Papers

6. PGT ‘BIOLOGY’
KV NO-1 AJMER
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INDEX
S.NO. CONTENT PAGE NO.
1 Weightage of marks 7
2 CBSE Syllabus 8-10
3 Chapter-1: The Living World 11-20
4 Chapter-2: Biological Classification 21-42
5 Chapter-3: Plant Kingdom 43-62
6 Chapter-4: Animal Kingdom 63-85
7 Chapter-5: Morphology of Flowering Plants 86-95
8 Chapter-6: Anatomy of Flowering Plants 96-103
9 Chapter-7: Structural Organisation in Animals 104-109
10 Chapter-8: Cell-The Unit of Life 110-119
11 Chapter-9: Biomolecules 120-130
12 Chapter-10: Cell Cycle and Cell Division 131-142
13 Chapter-13: Photosynthesis in Higher Plants 143-154
14 Chapter-14: Respiration in Plants 155-166
15 Chapter-15: Plant - Growth and Development 167-178
16 Chapter-17: Breathing and Exchange of Gases 179-191
17 Chapter-18: Body Fluids and Circulation 192-202
18 Chapter-19: Excretory Products and their Elimination 203-211
19 Chapter-20: Locomotion and Movement 212-222

20 Chapter-21: Neural Control and Coordination 223-230
21 Chapter-22: Chemical Coordination and Integration 231-238
22 Sample Papers 239-289
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BIOLOGY (Code No. 044)
COURSE STRUCTURE
CLASS XI (2022 -23) (THEORY)
Time: 03 Hours Max. Marks: 70
Weightage of Marks
Unit Title Marks
I Diversity of Living Organisms 15
II Structural Organization in Plants and Animals 10
III Cell: Structure and Function 15
IV Plant Physiology 12
V Human Physiology 18
TOTAL 70
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CBSE Syllabus
Unit-I Diversity of Living Organisms
Chapter-1: The Living World
Biodiversity; Need for classification; three domains of life; taxonomy and systematics; concept of
species and taxonomical hierarchy; binomial nomenclature
Chapter-2: Biological Classification
Five kingdom classification; Salient features and classification of Monera, Protista and Fungi into
major groups; Lichens, Viruses and Viroids.
Chapter-3: Plant Kingdom
Classification of plants into major groups; Salient and distinguishing features and a few examples of
Algae, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae (Topics excluded – Angiosperms, Plant Life Cycle
and Alternation of Generations)
Chapter-4: Animal Kingdom
Salient features and classification of animals, non-chordates up to phyla level and chordates up to
class level (salient features and at a few examples of each category).
Unit-II Structural Organization in Animals and Plant
Chapter-5: Morphology of Flowering Plants
Morphology of different parts of flowering plants: root, stem, leaf, inflorescence, flower, fruit and
seed. Description of family Solanaceae
Chapter-6: Anatomy of Flowering Plants
Anatomy and functions of tissue systems in dicots and monocots.
Chapter-7: Structural Organisation in Animals
Morphology, Anatomy and functions of different systems (digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous
and reproductive) of frog.
Unit-III Cell: Structure and Function
Chapter-8: Cell-The Unit of Life
Cell theory and cell as the basic unit of life, structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; Plant cell
and animal cell; cell envelope; cell membrane, cell wall; cell organelles - structure and function;
endomembrane system, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies, lysosomes, vacuoles, mitochondria,
ribosomes, plastids, micro bodies; cytoskeleton, cilia, flagella, centrioles (ultrastructure and
function); nucleus.
Chapter-9: Biomolecules
Chemical constituents of living cells: biomolecules, structure and function of proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids; Enzyme - types, properties, enzyme action. (Topics excluded:
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Nature of Bond Linking Monomers in a Polymer, Dynamic State of Body Constituents – Concept of
Metabolism, Metabolic Basis of Living, The Living State)
Chapter-10: Cell Cycle and Cell Division
Cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis and their significance
Unit-IV Plant Physiology
Chapter-13: Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
Photosynthesis as a means of autotrophic nutrition; site of photosynthesis, pigments involved in
photosynthesis (elementary idea); photochemical and biosynthetic phases of photosynthesis; cyclic
and non-cyclic photophosphorylation; chemiosmotic hypothesis; photorespiration; C3 and C4
pathways; factors affecting photosynthesis.
Chapter-14: Respiration in Plants
Exchange of gases; cellular respiration - glycolysis, fermentation (anaerobic), TCA cycle and electron
transport system (aerobic); energy relations - number of ATP molecules generated; amphibolic
Pathways; respiratory quotient.
Chapter-15: Plant - Growth and Development
Seed germination; phases of plant growth and plant growth rate; conditions of growth;
differentiation, dedifferentiation and redifferentiation; sequence of developmental processes in a
plant cell; growth regulators - auxin, gibberellin, Cytokinin, ethylene, ABA
Unit-V Human Physiology
Chapter-17: Breathing and Exchange of Gases
Respiratory organs in animals (recall only); Respiratory system in humans; mechanism of breathing
and its regulation in humans - exchange of gases, transport of gases and regulation of respiration,
respiratory volume; disorders related to respiration - asthma, emphysema, occupational respiratory
disorders.
Chapter-18: Body Fluids and Circulation
Composition of blood, blood groups, coagulation of blood; composition of lymph and its function;
human circulatory system - Structure of human heart and blood vessels; cardiac cycle, cardiac
output, ECG; double circulation; regulation of cardiac activity; disorders of circulatory system -
hypertension, coronary artery disease, angina pectoris, heart failure.
Chapter-19: Excretory Products and their Elimination

Modes of excretion - ammonotelism, ureotelism, uricotelism; human excretory system – structure
and function; urine formation, osmoregulation; regulation of kidney function - renin - angiotensin,
atrial natriuretic factor, ADH and diabetes insipidus; role of other organs in excretion; disorders -
uremia, renal failure, renal calculi, nephritis; dialysis and artificial kidney, kidney transplant.
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Chapter-20: Locomotion and Movement
Types of movement - ciliary, flagellar, muscular; skeletal muscle, contractile proteins and muscle
contraction; skeletal system and its functions; joints; disorders of muscular and skeletal systems -
myasthenia gravis, tetany, muscular dystrophy, arthritis, osteoporosis, gout.
Chapter-21: Neural Control and Coordination
Neuron and nerves; Nervous system in humans - central nervous system; peripheral nervous system
and visceral nervous system; generation and conduction of nerve impulse
Chapter-22: Chemical Coordination and Integration
Endocrine glands and hormones; human endocrine system - hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads; mechanism of hormone action (elementary idea); role of
hormones as messengers and regulators, hypo - and hyperactivity and related disorders; dwarfism,
acromegaly, cretinism, goitre, exophthalmic goitre, diabetes, Addison's disease.
Note: Diseases related to all the human physiological systems to be taught in brief.
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THE LIVING WORLD
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SIGNIFICANT FACTS
Characteristics of Living Organisms
The word biodiversity was first used by W. Rosen in 1985. It refers to the variation of lifeforms
on earth from the genetic level to the ecosystems.
The nomenclature process is guided through international codes that provide rules and
regulations. They are— International Code for Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) and the
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN).
Each living being has a scientific name composed of a generic and a specific epithet. Such a
two-term composed naming process is known as binomial nomenclature. This process was
first given by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753.
Rules followed while naming an organism through binomial nomenclature are discussed
below.
1. It should be Latinised.
2. The name must be written in italics and if handwritten, the two parts of the name
must be underlined separately.
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3. The first letter of the generic epithet is a capital letter while that of a specific epithet
is a small letter.
4. A short form of the scientist’s name who first described the species is added after the
specific epithet. This is not italicised.
SIGNIFICANT EXAMPLES
SIGNIFICANT DIAGRAMS
Taxonomic Categories
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QUESTION BANK
Short Answer Type
What are the three fields of Systematics?

The three fields of Systematics are as follows-
Nomenclature
Classification
Taxonomy
What do you mean by “chemotaxonomy?
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Understanding taxonomic relationships based on the distribution of certain characteristic
chemical constituents is called chemotaxonomy.
Differentiate between taxonomy & systematic.
TAXONOMY SYSTEMATICS
i) The science of identification, i) It refers to the science of
nomenclature & classification is called identification description, nomenclature
taxonomy. & classification.
ii) It deals with the rules & the ii) It deals with unique characteristics at
principles of classification. every level of classification.
“Consciousness is a defining property of living organisms.” Explain.

Answer: Flora and fauna both respond to physical-chemical or biological environmental
stimuli. Awareness of their surroundings makes organisms live. Mimosa pudiea respond to
touch. Photoperiodic affects flowering in plants. Thus, unicellular microscopic to
multicellular huge organisms show the property of consciousness.
Reproduction can’t be an all-inclusive defining characteristic of living organisms? Illustrate
the statement.
Answer: In nature, there are many organisms that can’t reproduce. Mules, sterile worker
bees are some examples of such organisms.
But the non-living object is strictly unable to reproduce.
Viruses are placed between living and non-living. They are crystallized like non-livings but
replicate when enter inside living organisms.
Why do the brinjal and potato belong to the same genus but different species?
Answer: The brinjal and potato belong to different species because-
• Brinjal and potato are unable to interbreed.
• Their morphological features are not the same.
What are the two components of scientific name in binomial nomenclature?
Ans: a) The binomial nomenclature given by Carolus Linnaeus is the universally recognized
method for giving scientific names to organisms.
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b) Each scientific name is made up of 2 parts – the Generic name and the specific epithet
hence it is called the Binomial nomenclature.
c) For example, the scientific name of mango is written as Mangifera indica. In
this Mangifera is the genus and indica is species, or specific epithet.

Long Answer Type
Explain two defining characteristics of living organisms.
Answer: Growth Unicellular and multicellular organisms increase their mass and number
through cell-division. Non-livings increase their size by the accumulation of matter.
(a) Cell has protoplasm which is living matter. Cell before division increases their mass
through replication of genetic matter. It is absent in non-livings.
(b) Metabolic Activity: Anabolic and catabolic reaction constantly occurs in living organisms,
formation and conversion of biomolecules is metabolism.
‘In Vitro, such reactions can be maintained. In non-living, there is the absence of
metabolism.
Explain the utility of systematics for classification.

Answer: For classification, systematic studies have to carry out.
First, the organisms have to be described for all their morphological and other
characteristics.
Based on its characteristic, it is seen whether it is similar (or different) to any known group
or taxa-identification is carried out.
Based on its similar characteristic it is then placed in known taxa or the organism is
classified. Sometimes organisms are very different from the ones already described
anywhere in the world, then they are placed in a new group or ‘taxa’ and named.
Once the organism has been placed in the right taxa-the last step is nomenclature or
naming. If the organism is already known-it’s correct name is determined. If an organism is
not described before-it is given a new name.
Write the universal rules of nomenclature.
Answer: Biological names are generally in Latin and written in Italics. They are Latinised or
derived from Latin irrespective of their origin.
The First word in a biological name represents the genus while the second component
denotes a specific epithet.
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Both the words in a Biological name when written in hand are separately underlined or
printed in Italics to indicate their Latin origin.
First-world denoting genus starts with a capital letter while the specific epithet is written
starting with a small word. It can be illustrated with the example of Mangifera indica.
The name of the author appears after a specific epithet i.e., the end of the biological name,
and is written in the abbreviated form e.g., Mangifera indica (Linn). It indicates that species
was first described by Linnaeus.
CASE BASED QUESTIONS
CASE 1
While teaching the significance of classification to the student, teacher says inadvertently
that the natural classification is better than artificial one. After the class Chinmay asked
about the particular statement in detail.
(i) What is the significance of classification?
(ii) What are natural characteristics?
(iii) What are the bases of natural system of classification?
(iv) Give any two disadvantages of natural system.
Answer Key
(i) The primary significance of classification of large number of organisms is to ease in their
study. The grouping made on the basis of similarities and differences makes the study easy.
(ii) Natural characteristics are those features which can be noticed by general observation
like colour, shape, size, structure, habitat, etc.
(iii) The natural system of classification is based on the morphological and internal natural
characteristics. It shows natural relationship among organisms and helps in preventing the
grouping of unrelated species.
(iv)Disadvantages of natural system are as follows
(a) Several related families are separated and unrelated families are put together.
(b) There is more emphasis on natural characters.
CASE 2
Taxonomists refrain from using vernacular names of living organisms. They widely use
binomial nomenclature as it has universal acceptance and explicitness. The scientific name
of each organism is assigned by esteemed organisations, viz., ICBN and ICZN.
(i) What is the full form of ICBN and ICZN?
(ii) What do the two components of binomial nomenclature represent?
(iii) Who proposed binomial nomenclature and what is the origin of biological names?
(iv)How does the author's name is mentioned in binomial nomenclature?
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(v) Give the scientific names of: Onion, Dog, and Wheat.
Answer Key
(i) ICBN International Code for Botanical Nomenclature ICZN International Code for
Zoological Nomenclature
(ii) The first word in biological name is the generic name while the second word is the
specific epithet.
(iii) Binomial nomenclature system was proposed by Carolus Linnaeus. Biological names are
Latin in origin and they are written in italics.
(iv) The name of the author is written at the end of the biological name, after the specific
epithet and in abbreviated form.
(v) Onion - Allium cepa
Dog -Canis familiaris
Wheat - Triticum aestivum
CASE 3
Hierarchy of categories is the arrangement of organisms in a definite sequence of categories
depending upon their relative dimensions. The hierarchy includes seven obligate categories.
The categories are arranged in descending order. In order to make taxonomic position of
species more precise, certain categories have been added to the list. They are called
intermediate categories. A category is a rank or level in the hierarchical classification of
organisms.
(i) How many obligate categories are used in hierarchical classification?
(ii) What is the difference between taxon and category?
(iii) Define family.
(iv)Mango belongs to which class of kingdom Plantae?
Answer Key
(i) Seven obligate categories are used in hierarchical classification.
(ii) A taxon deals with real biological object whereas category is an abstract term that simply
represents a rank or level of classification.
(iii) A group or related genera with less number of similarities as compared to genus and
species.
(iv) Dicotyledonae
MCQ
Match the following columns.
Column I Column II
A. Planaria 1. Binary fission
B. Fungi 2. Asexual spores
C. Spirogyra 3. Budding
D. Hydra 4. True regeneration
E. Amoeba 5. Fragmentation
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Codes
A B C D E
(a) 1 2 4 5 3
(b) 4 2 5 3 1
(c) 5 2 3 1 4
(d) 4 2 1 3 5
Ans: (b)
Homeostasis is:
(a) Tendency to change with change in environment
(b) Tendency of resist change
(c) Disturbance in regulatory control
(d) Plants and animals extracts used in homeopathy
Ans: (b) Tendency of resist change
The most important feature of all living systems is to:
(a) Utilize oxygen to generate energy
(b) Replicate the genetic information
(c) Produce gametes
(d) Utilize solar energy for metabolic activities
Ans: (b) Replicate the genetic information
Reason of diversity in living being is:
(a) Mountain
(b) Gradual change
(c) Long term evolutionary change
(d) Short term evolutionary change
Ans: (c) Long term evolutionary change
The living organisms can be un - exceptionally distinguished from the non - living things on
the basis of their ability for:
(a) Responsiveness to touch
(b) Interaction with the environment and progressive evolution
(c) Reproduction
(d) Growth and movement
Ans: (b) Interaction with the environment and progressive evolution
Nomenclature is governed by certain universal rules. Which one of the following is
contrary to the rules of nomenclature?
(a) The first word in a biological name represents the genus name and the second is a
specific epithet.
(b) The names are written in Latin and are italicized.
(c) When written by hand, the names are to be underlined.
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(d) Biological names can be written in any language.
Ans: (d) Biological names can be written in any language.
The number of similar features increases as we progress from species to kingdom in a
taxonomic hierarchy
(a) Remain constant
(b) Increases
(c) Decreases
(d) Is not affected by similar features
Ans: (c) Decreases
The highest level or taxon of classification in living organism is
(a) Family
(b) Species
(c) Kingdom
(d) Genus
Ans: (c) Kingdom
Taxonomic categories showing hierarchical arrangement in ascending order
a) Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom
b) Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.
c) Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, species, genus.
d) Species, genus, family, class, order, phylum, kingdom
Ans: a) Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom
The sum total of all the chemical reactions occurring in our body is known as
(a) Metabolism (b) Growth
(c) Regeneration (d) Reproduction
Ans: (a) Metabolism
Which of the following term is used to refer the number of varieties of plants and animals
on earth?
(a) Taxonomy (b) Identification
(c) Biodiversity (d) Classification
Ans: (c) Biodiversity
ICBN stands for
(a) International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
(b) International Congress of Biological Names
(c) Indian Code of Botanical Nomenclature
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(d) Indian Congress of Biological Names
Ans: (a) International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
Binomial nomenclature means
(a) One name given by two scientists.
(b) One scientific name consisting of a generic and specific epithet.
(c) Two names, one Latinised, other of a person.
(d) Two names of same plant.
Ans: (b) One scientific name consisting of a generic and specific epithet.
Directions: In the following questions, a statement of assertion is followed by

a statement of reason.
Mark the correct choice as:
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) If Assertion is true but Reason is false.
(d) If both Assertion and Reason are false.
1. Assertion: Botany deals with the study of plants and zoology deals with the study of
animals.
Reason: Biology is the study of living beings.
2. Assertion: Study of internal structure is called anatomy.
Reason: It is useful for phylogenetic study.
3. Assertion: The science of classifying organisms is called taxonomy.
Reason: Systematics and taxonomy have same meaning.
4. Assertion: Chemotaxonomy is classifying organisms at molecular level.
Reason: Cytotaxonomy is classifying organisms at cellular level.
5. Assertion: Living organisms are regarded as closed systems.
Reason: Energy of living organisms cannot be lost or gained from external environment.
Question 1 2 3 4 5
Answer A B C B D
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SELF EVALUATION TEST
S.NO QUESTION MARKS NCERT PAGE NO

1 Why do you need to classify organisms? 2 7
2 A cat and a dog have similarities and some differences. Due to their 2 9-10
differences, they are put into two families. Name them. But due to
their similarities they are put under the same order. Name
it.
3 Write the taxonomic categories showing hierarchical arrangement 2 10
in ascending order.
4 What is systematics? How is it different from ‘Taxonomy’? 2 8-7
5 Given below is the scientific name of Mango. Identify the correctly 2
written name. 9
Mangifera Indica
Mangifera indica
6 Who proposed Binomial Nomenclature? Write the rules citing one 5 6-7
example.
7 Define and understand the following terms: 5 9-10
(i) Phylum (ii) Class (iii) Family (iv) Order (v) Genus
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BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
The process of grouping living organisms into convenient categories based on simple
characters is known as Biological Classification.
Importance of classification-
• It is not possible to study every organism. Study of one or two organism of a group
gives sufficient information about the essential features of the group.
• It helps in identification of new organism.
• Classification helps in knowing the relationship amongst different groups of
organisms.
• The organism of past cannot be studied without a proper system of classification.
Two Kingdom Classification- (Linnaeus)
Plantae & Animalia
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• Plants. (autotrophs, cell wall, do not move)
• Animals (heterotrophic, no cell wall, can move)
Later found two kingdom classification was not sufficient because in that
1. Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes were grouped together.
2. Heterotrophs & Autotrophs were together.
3. No difference between unicellular and multicellular
4. Simple organisms were placed along with higher organism.
Five Kingdom Classification. (R.H Whittaker 1959)
Main criteria for classification:
1. Complexity of cell structure (prokaryotes/ eukaryote)
2. Body organization (unicellular/ multicellular)
3. Mode of nutrition (autotrophic / heterotrophic/ holozoic)
4. Life style (producers/ consumers/ decomposers)
5. Phylogenic relationships (revolutionary history)
Five kingdoms are
1. Kingdom Monera (bacteria) – prokaryotic unicellular
2. Kingdom Protista (amoeba) – eukaryotic unicellular
3. Kingdom Fungi - multicellular eukaryotic
4. Kingdom Plantae - multicellular eukaryotic
5. Kingdom Animalia – multicellular eukaryotic
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Kingdom - Monera (e.g., Bacteria)
1. Unicellular, prokaryotes and contain the most primitive of living forms.
2. Habitats- omnipresent
2. The cells are microscopic and cell wall is generally present.
3. Genetic materials are not organized into nucleus and contain naked DNA.
4. Membrane bounded organelles are absent.
5. Reproduction is asexual except gene recombination.
6. Flagella may be present and are of single stranded.
Bacteria Grouped in to 4 groups based on their shape.
1. Coccus (spherical)
2. Bacillus (rod)
3. Vibrio (comma)
4. Spirillum (spiral)
Mode of nutrition – autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Kingdom Monera – includes;
1. Archaebacteria
2. Eubacteria (Cyanobacteria, Chemosynthetic and Heterotrophic)
3. Mycoplasma
a) Archaebacteria –
• Harsh habitats – Halophiles (saline)
• Thermoacidophiles (hot spring),
• Methanogens (gut of ruminants)
b) Eubacteria – True bacteria - Rigid cell wall - Motile flagellum
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Autotrophic bacteria –
• Cyanobacteria (BGA) have chlorophyll a unicellular, colonial/ filamentous.
• Marine /terrestrial habitat/ gelatinous sheath
• Form blooms - can fix nitrogen in heterocyst.
• E.g., Nostoc, Anabaena.
Chemosynthetic bacteria –
• Oxidise nitrates, nitrites and ammonia.
• (e.g., Pseudomonas, nitrobacter)
Heterotrophic bacteria –
• Decomposers: making curd from milk, antibiotics, nitrogen fixing (Rhizobium)
• Some are pathogenic (cause diseases) cholera, T.B, diarrhea.
• Reproduction by binary fission, spore / sexual reproduction.
c) Mycoplasma.
• They are the simplest free-living prokaryotes. They are also known as PPLO
(Pleuropneumonia like organism). They lack cell wall and can survive without
oxygen. They cause disease in plants and animals.
• Anaerobic – pathogenic in animals
and plants.
2. Kingdom - Protista
• Unicellular – Eukaryotic.
• Aquatic
• Flagella / cilia present
• Reproduce sexually / asexually
1. Chrysophyta:
• Planktons diatoms and golden algae (desmids)

• Fresh water/ marine
• Microscopic – photosynthetic
• In diatoms, cell wall is indestructible (silica) form diatomaceous earth, its being gritty
used for polishing, filtration of oil and syrups.
• Chief producers in oceans
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2. Dinoflagellates.
• Marine photosynthetic, yellow, green, blue or red pigments.

• Cell wall is cellulosic.
• Have 2 flagella.
• Red dinoflagellate (Gonyaulax) forms red tides.
3. Euglenoid e.g., Euglena
• Fresh water – stagnant water.

• No cell wall but protein rich layer is present, called pellicle.
• Pellicle is flexible with flagella.
• They are Myxotrophic, because Photosynthetic (in light) Heterotrophs (when
no light).
• Myxotrophs – Mixture of both autotrophs and heterotrophs.
4. Slime moulds.
• Saprophytic – body moves on decaying twigs and leaves

• During suitable conditions form aggregation called plasmodium (mass of
slime moulds)
• In Unfavorable conditions form spores and survive for many years.
5. Protozoans –
• Heterotrophs.
• Predators/ parasites.
There are 4 major groups;
• Amoeboid protozoans. Fresh water, sea and moist soil -pseudopodia – marine
forms have silica shells. Entamoeba (parasite) cause Amoebic dysentery
• Flagellated protozoans - free living / parasites have flagella – parasites cause diseases
– Sleeping sickness (Trypanosoma) is a parasite of flagellated protozoans.
• Ciliated protozoans – aquatic cilia, cavity gullet e.g., Paramecium.
• Sporozoans – Spore stage in their life cycle. Plasmodium causes malarial fever.
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3. Kingdom - Fungi:
• Multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic, cosmopolitan, grow in warm and humid

places.
• Fungi are filamentous with long, slender thread like Hyphae and the network of
hyphae is known as Mycelium – They can be septate or non-septate (aseptate)
• Multinucleated cytoplasm (coenocytic hyphae)
• Cell wall is made up of chitin.
• Parasitic/ symbionts (Lichens and Mycorrhizae)
• Symbionts of algae and fungi (Lichens) and Pine tree’s roots and fungi (Mycorrhizae)
on roots to absorb water.
• Reproduction may be vegetative (fragmentation, fission or budding), asexual
(conidia, sporangiospores or zoospores) or sexual reproduction by oospores,
ascospore and basidiospores.

• Sexual reproduction has three steps.
1. Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes called
plasmogamy.
2. Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
3. Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
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Based on morphology of mycelium mode of spore formation, fruiting bodies, there are 4
classes;
1. Phycomycetes
2. Ascomycetes
3. Basidiomycetes
4. Deuteromycetes
1. Phycomycetes:
▪ Aquatic decaying wood mycelium is aseptate, coenocytic
▪ asexual reproduction by zoospores (motile) / aplanospores (non-motile)
▪ E.g., Rhizopus, mucor.
2. Ascomycetes :(Sac fungi)
▪ Multicellular (Penicillium)/Unicellular (yeast)
▪ Saprophytic – decomposers – parasitic – coprophilous
▪ Mycelium is branched and septate –asexual spores are called conidia
▪ Sexual spores are called ascospores.
▪ E.g., Aspergillus, Neurospora
3. Basidiomycetes: (E.g., Mushroom/ bracket fungi/ puffballs)
▪ Grow in soil, logs, tree stumps, in plant bodies as parasitic (as rust and smuts)
▪ Mycelium is branched and septate
▪ Reproduction by fragmentation
▪ Dikaryon – basidium –karyogamy
▪ E.g., Agaricus(mushroom)
4. Deuteromycetes:
▪ Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or vegetative phases of
these fungi are known. When the sexual forms of these fungi were discovered, they
were moved into classes they rightly belong to.
▪ Saprophytes/ parasitic / decomposers
▪ Help in Mineral cycling
▪ E.g., Trichoderma, Alternaria
4. Kingdom - Plantae:
Autotrophs – size varies from herbs to tall trees. There are different groups;
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5. Kingdom Animalia:
• Heterotrophic, eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and cell wall is absent in
the cell.
• Mode of nutrition is holozoic and reserve food is glycogen or fats.
• Sexual reproduction is by copulation between male and female followed by
embryological development.
Virus, Viroids and Lichens
Five kingdom system of classification do not include Virus, Viroids and Lichens
Virus:
• Viruses are non-cellular organisms having inert crystalline structure outside the
living. When they enter the living cell, they take over the machinery of living cell to
replicate themselves.
• D.J. Ivanowsky recognized certain microbes as causal organism of mosaic disease
of tobacco.
• Pasteur coined the term virus, which means Venom / poison.
• It is made of an outer protein coat and a centre genetic material (RNA / DNA). A virus
is a nucleoprotein and the genetic material is infectious.
• Virus that infects plants have single stand RNA and those infect animals have either
single or double RNA or double stranded DNA.
• Bacteriophages are viruses that infect the bacteria.
• Viruses cause disease like mumps, small pox, herpes, influenza and AIDS.
• In plants the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing,
dwarfing and stunted growth.
Viroids
• T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious agent that was smaller than viruses and
30
caused potato spindle tuber disease.
• It has only a free RNA and lacked the protein coat, so named as viroid.
Lichens
• Symbiotic association between algae and fungi.
• Phycobiont algal component, which prepare food for fungi and Mycobiont is a fungal
component, which provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and water for its
partner.
Cryptogame
Examples of Thallophytes: Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Spirogyra, Zygnema, Ulothrix,
Cladophora, etc.
Examples of Bryophytes: Riccia, Marchantia, Porella, Funaria, Sphagnum, Polytrichum, etc.
31
Examples of Pteridophytes: Psilotum, Rhynia (fossil), Lycopodium, Selaginella, Equisetum,
Pteris, Dryopteris, Nephrolepis, Adiantum, etc.
Phanerogamae
Examples of Gymnosperms: Cycas, Pinus, Ginkgo, Gnetum, Ephedra, Juniperus, etc.
Examples of Angiosperms: Apple, Mango, Cabbage, Carrot, Rice, Wheat, Atropa, Cinchona,
Rauwolfia, etc.
Different Shapes of Bacteria
Nostoc Protozoans
Virus
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QUESTION BANK
Short Answer Type
How is the five-kingdom classification more advantageous than the two-kingdom
classification?
Ans: The five-kingdom classification is based on the following criteria:
The structure of the cell
The structure of the body
The mode of nutrition
The kind of reproduction and
Phylogenetic relationships among different organisms and kingdoms.
The two-kingdom classification is based simply on plants and animals.
Mention the main difference between a virus and a viroid?
Ans: A virus contains protein coal called the capsid and a core containing the genetic
material. That genetic material may be either DNA or RNA. But the viroid contains only
genetic material, but a protein coat.
How can a farmer improve his crop yield by using cyanobacteria in his agricultural fields?
Ans: Blue-green algae that belong to the kingdom Monera are also called cyanobacteria.
They have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen due to the presence of heterocyst. After
the death and decay of their filaments, a lot of nitrate-nitrogen is mixed up with the soil.
Crop plants can absorb this nitrate nitrogen, grow vigorously, and produce more grains.
Write a short note on Mycoplasma.
Ans: Discovered by E. Nocard and E.R. Roux (1998) mycoplasma is the smallest known
aerobic prokaryotes without a cell wall.
They were isolated from cattle suffering from bovine pleuropneumonia and hence they
were designated as PPLO (pleuropneumonia-like organisms)
They are found in different forms as a spheroid, thin, stellate called pleomorphic.
They occur in soil, sewage, human, and plants.
Why is Neurospora extensively used in genetic experiments?
Ans: Neurospora is used in genetic experiments for three reasons.
(1) It can easily be grown in a nutrient medium containing simple organic substances,
mineral salts, vitamins, and hormones in the lab.
(2) Its life cycle is very short.
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(3) It is very easy to introduce mutations in Neurospora by using X-rays.
Define the terms ‘phycobiont’ and ‘mycobiont’?
Ans: Lichens consist of a permanent association between an alga and a fungus. The algal
component is called phycobiont, and the fungal component is mycobiont. In this permanent
symbiosis, the fungus mycelium absorbs and supplies water and mineral nutrients to the
alga. The alga prepares food by photosynthesis and supplies it to the fungus.
How are fungi useful in our daily lives?
Ans: Saprophytic fungi keep the earth and our surroundings clean by decomposing the dead
plants and animals. Fungal mycelium binds the soil particles together and improves the soil
structure. Some fungi can be used in the biological control of pests and diseases. Edible
mushrooms are rich in proteins and vitamins. Some fungi are cultured in labs to produce
useful organic acids. Yeast is used in the bakery industry and also in the fermentation of
carbohydrates into alcohol.
How are ‘fairy rings’ formed on the forest floor after heavy rains?
Ans: Soil consists of a thick mat for the mycelium of mushrooms. After heavy rains, nutrients
in the soil get dissolved in soil moisture and easily absorbed by mycelia. The mycelia grow in
such a way that the central part gets exhausted and the peripheral part grows in diameter.
The mycelia produce a ring of fruiting bodies called basidiocarps. They appear like fairy
rings.
Long Answer Questions
What are the slime moulds?
Ans: 1. The slime moulds are both plant and animal-like.
2. They are plant-like in the production of spores during reproduction and animal-like in the
mode of nutrition and rheumatic organization.
3. Their rheumatic structure consists of an acellular, multinucleate mobile mass of
protoplasm which lacks a good wall called plasmodium.
4. The reproductive stage consists of sporangia and spores formed after meiosis. The spores
on germination produce either flagellated swarm cells or myxamoebae.
5. These divide mitotically, then behave as gametes and fuse in pairs to form a diploid
zygote. The zygote nucleus divides mitotically but the nuclear division is not followed by cell
wall formation so that all nuclei lie free in the cytoplasm.
6. The enlargement of the zygote into plasmodium takes place which moves freely on the
substratum and feeds on bacteria, fungal and algal spores, and also absorbs nutrients
directly from the substratum. The plasmodium then settles on dry places and develops into
sporangia. Therefore, asexual stage is plant-like and the sexual stage is animal-like.
How are bacteria classified?
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Ans: (i) Bacteria are classified on the basis of the shapes of cells
A rod-shaped bacterium is called bacillus.
A spiral-shaped bacterium is called the spirillum.
A comma-shaped bacterium is called the vibrio.
The spherical shaped bacterium is called the coccus.
A corkscrew-shaped bacterium is called the spirochaete.
(ii) Bacteria are classified on the basis of the nature of the cell wall
Gram-positive bacteria.
Gram-negative bacteria.
(iii) Bacteria are classified on the basis of the type of respiration
Aerobic bacteria or Aerobes in the presence of oxygen.
Anaerobic bacteria or Anaerobes in the absence of oxygen
(iv) Bacteria are classified on the basis of mode of nutrition
Autotrophic Bacteria: prepare their own food material
Heterotrophic Bacteria: cannot prepare their own food material
What are the different characteristic features of euglenoids?
Ans: The characteristic features of euglenoids are given as follows:
They are unicellular organisms with a true nucleus.
They are commonly found in freshwater bodies.
The outer hard and tough cell membrane is called a pellicle.
The anterior part of the cell has two flagella.
There is a photosensitive eyespot near the flagella.
They are autotrophic in nutrition due to the presence of a photosynthetic pigment
called chlorophyll.
In the absence of sunlight, euglenoids behave as heterotrophs.
What are the different asexual spores produced by algae?
Ans: Algae reproduce by asexual spores like zoospores, aplanospores, tetraspores, akinetes,
exospores, and endospores.
Zoospores: Motile spores are called zoospores. They are motile due to the presence
of flagella. Chlamydomonas produces biflagellate zoospores, Ulothrix produces quadri-
flagellate zoospores and Oedogonium produces multi-flagellate zoospores.
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Aplanospores: The non-motile spores produced inside the sporangium are called
aplanospores. They are formed during unfavourable conditions. E.g. Microspora
Tetraspores: These are haploid aplanospores formed on diploid plants in a tetra sporangia.
E.g., Red algae
Akinetes: Akinetes are thick-walled spores with abundant reserve food material. They are
formed to tide over unfavourable conditions.
Exospores: They are externally formed without a sporangium. E.g., Chamaesiphon
Endospores: The protoplast of the mother cell divides to form many endospores. They are
also called conidia or conidia. E.g., Dermocarpa.
Write the distinct characters of protozoa.
Ans: 1. Protozoa are single-celled heterotrophs or ‘first animal’. They can be free-living and
parasitic members, mobile with flagellar movement, by pseudopodia, or by ciliary
movements e.g., Euglena and Amoeba.
2. Cell wall is absent in some like Amoeba so they can change their shape. The Euglena is
autotrophic because of the presence of chlorophyll it performs photosynthesis but in the
absence of light, it becomes heterotrophic and ingests other protists or food particles.
3. They reproduce asexually by binary fission but some reproduce sexually by fusion of
gametes followed by meiosis. Another important member of protists is the malarial
parasite, Plasmodium, causing the notorious disease malaria in man, carried by mosquitoes,
it multiplies rapidly in the liver of humans and brings about the cyclic fever releasing toxins
into the bloodstream of its host.
CASE 1
Rimjhim observed polluted water bodies. She found green gelatinous organisms which
spread the all over the water. She studied some of these organisms under microscope and
discussed with her teacher.
(i) What are these green gelatinous organisms?
(ii) What is heterocyst?
(iii) Write any two features of the cyanobacteria.
(iv)Write any one similarity between cyanobacteria and plants.
(v) What is the other name of cyanobacteria?
Answer Key
(i) Cyanobacteria are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath. They form blooms in
polluted water bodies.
(ii) Some cyanobacteria can fix nitrogen in a specialised cells called heterocyst, e.g., Nostoc.
(iii) Cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial or filamentous, freshwater/marine or terrestrial
algae.
(iv) Cyanobacteria have chlorophyll-a similar to green plants.
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(v) Due to the presence of chlorophyll-a in cyanobacteria. These are also called
photosynthetic autotrophs.
CASE 2
The fungi constitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms. They show a great
diversity in morphology and habitat. Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast is used to make
bread and beer. Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals; wheat rust-causing
Puccinia is an important example. Some are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium. Fungi
are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and plants. With the exception
of yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are filamentous. Their bodies consist of long, slender
thread-like structures called hyphae. The network of hyphae is known as mycelium. Some
hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm – these are called
coenocytic hyphae. Others have septae or cross walls in their hyphae. The cell walls of fungi
are composed of chitin and polysaccharides. Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb
soluble organic matter from dead substrates and hence are called saprophytes. Those that
depend on living plants and animals are called parasites. They can also live as symbionts – in
association with algae as lichens and with roots of higher plants as mycorrhiza.
Reproduction in fungi can take place by vegetative means – fragmentation, fission and
budding. Asexual reproduction is by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores,
and sexual reproduction is by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores. The various spores
are produced in distinct structures called fruiting bodies. The sexual cycle involves the
following three steps:
Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes called plasmogamy.
Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating types come
together and fuse. In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in
diploid cells (2n). However, in other fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes), an intervening
dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell) occurs; such a condition is called a dikaryon
and the phase is called dikaryophase of fungus. Later, the parental nuclei fuse and the cells
become diploid. The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading to
formation of haploid spores.
(1) ______________ Hyphae are without septa and filled with multinucleated cytoplasm.
(a) Septate
(b) Nucleated
(c) Coenocytic
(d) Both a and c
(2) _____________ is the only single celled fungi organism.
(a) Penicillium
(b) Yeast
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(c) Mycorrhiza
(d) Both a and b
(3) What are saprophytic fungi?
(4) Give reason – why fungi are referred as cosmopolitan organism?
(5) Name the fungi which is responsible for rusting disease in wheat plant.
Answer Key
(1) C
(2) B
(3) Saprophytic is the mode of obtaining food by absorption of dissolved organic material
which is produced by decaying of organic matters. Those fungi obtain their food by this
mode are termed as saprophytic fungi.
(4) Fungi shows a great diversity in morphology and habitat. Fungi are widespread. They can
be found in air, water, soil, on the body of other living animal, inside the body. They can be
found almost every, because of this these fungi are referred as cosmopolitan organism.
(5) Puccinia is the fungi, which case rusting disease in wheat plant.
CASE 3
Deepshikha in her biology class, learnt about how algae and fungi exhibited mutualism in
nature. To explore more on the topic, she asked her brother about the same and found out
that there were many more associations like algae and fungi that benefitted each other.
(i) Name the association that is being talked about.
(ii) State any two habitats where associations named in (i) are found.
(iii) Write about the internal structure of these associations.
(iv) What is the algal and the fungal component of the association called?
(v) What are fruticose?
Answer Key
(i) Lichens are symbiotic associations between algae and fungi.
(ii) Lichens can be found in habitats like walls, tree bark aquatic habitats, etc.
(iii) The major part of the lichen body constitutes fungus and only 5% part is algal
component.
(iv) Algal component is autotrophic and is called phycobiont. Fungal component is
heterotrophic and is called mycobiont.
(v) Fruticose are lichens that are branched and erect, having bushy appearance, e.g. Usnea
MCQ
Match the following columns.
Column I Column II
A. Halophiles 1. Aquatic environment
B. Thermoacidophiles 2. Gut of ruminant
C. Methanogens 3. In hot springs
D. Cyanobacteria 4. Salty areas
38
Codes
A B C D
(a) 1 4 3 2
(b) 3 2 1 4
(c) 2 1 4 3
(d) 4 3 2 1
Ans: (d)
Given figure is of a filamentous blue-green algae. Identify the algae and choose the option
that is correct for A, B and C in the figure.
(a) A–Gelidium, B–Vegetative cell, C–Heterocyst

(b) A–Volvox, B–Somatic cell, C–Mucilaginous sheath
(c) A–Chara, B–Mucilaginous sheath, C–Heterocyst
(d) A–Nostoc, B–Heterocyst, C–Mucilaginous sheath
Ans: (d) A–Nostoc, B–Heterocyst, C–Mucilaginous sheath
Observe the diagram and name all the three A, B and C (name of the virus) in correct
order.
(a) A-RNA, B-Capsid, C-Tobacco mosaic virus

(b) A-DNA, B-Capsid, C-Bacteriophage
(c) A-RNA, B-Capsomere, C-TMV
(d) A-DNA, B-Capsid, C–Bacteriophage
Ans: (a) A-RNA, B-Capsid, C-Tobacco mosaic virus
39
Identify the label A, B, C and D in the following figure.
(a) A–Head, B–Collar, C–Sheath, D–Tail fibres

(b) A–Collar, B–Head, C–Sheath, D–Tail fibres
(c) A–Head, B–Collar, C–Tail fibres, D–Sheath
(d) A–Collar, B–Tail fibres, C–Head, D–Sheath
Ans: (a) A–Head, B–Collar, C–Sheath, D–Tail fibres
The cyanobacteria are also referred to as:
(a) Protists
(b) Golden algae
(c) Slime moulds
(d) Blue - green algae.
Ans: (c) Slime moulds
Pigment containing membranous extensions in cyanobacteria are:
(a) Heterocyst
(b) Basal bodies
(c) Pneumatophores
(d) Chromatophores
Ans: (d) chromatophores
Which of the following shows coiled RNA strand and capsomeres?
(a) Polio virus
(b) Tobacco mosaic virus
(c) Measles virus
(d) Retrovirus
Ans: (b) Tobacco mosaic virus
The imperfect fungi which are decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling belong to:
(a) Deuteromycetes
(b) Basidiomycetes
(c) Phycomycetes
(d) Ascomycetes
Ans: (a) Deuteromycetes
The structures that help some bacteria to attach to rocks and/or host tissues are:
(a) Rhizoids
40
(b) Fimbriae
(c) Mesosomes
(d) Hold fast
Ans: (b) fimbriae
Out of major components of cell wall of most fungi is:
(a) Peptidoglycan
(b) Cellulose
(c) Hemicellulose
(d) Chitin
Ans: (d) Chitin
Which of the following would appear as the pioneer organisms on bare rocks?
(a) Liverworts
(b) Mosses
(c) Green algae
(d) Lichens
Ans: (d) Lichens
Which of the following statements is wrong for viroids?
(a) They are smaller than viruses
(b) They cause infections
(c) Their RNA is of high molecular weight
(d) They lack a protein coat
Ans: (c) Their RNA is of high molecular weight
The primitive prokaryotes responsible for the production of ‘biogas’ from the dung of
ruminant animals include the:
(a) Thermoacidophiles
(b) Methanogens
(c) Eubacteria
(d) Halophiles
Ans: (b) methanogens

1. Assertion: Several ruminant animals contain methanogens within their gut.
41
Reason: Methanogens help in the production of methane from dung of ruminants.
2. Assertion: The nitrogen-fixing bacteria in leguminous plant nodules live as symbionts.
Reason: Leg-haemoglobin synthesized by leguminous plants protect bacteria.
3. Assertion: Bacteria are classified among plants.
Reason: They have cell walls.
4. Assertion: Bacteria do not always move with the help of flagella.
Reason: Rotary motion of flagellum is employed by flagellated bacteria for movement.
5. Assertion: Some bacteria have the capacity to retain Gram stain after treatment with acid
alcohol.
Reason: They are known as gram positive as they are attracted towards positive pole
under influence of electric current.
Question 1 2 3 4 5
Answer B A A B C

1 How are red tides formed? 2 21
2 How is Plasmodium different from plasmodium? 2 21-22
3 Mention the main criteria for classification of organisms into five 2 17
kingdoms.
4 Name two disease causing protozoa and mention their organ of 2 21-22
locomotion. What is the function of heterocyst? Name one
organism which possess it.
5 What is the function of heterocyst? Name one organism which 2 19
possess it.
6 What is the meaning of Contagium vivum fluidum? 2 26
7 Give technical names the two components of a Lichen. 2 27
8 The following table shows differentiation between Phycomycetes, 3 23-24
Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes fungi. Some of the blocks are
left blank and marked A-F. Mention the characters.
Characters Phycomycetes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes
Mycelium A Branched, B
Septate
Asexual Zoospore / C D
spore Aplanospore
Sexual spore E Ascospore F

9 Explain in brief the three phases of sexual cycle in fungi. 3 23
10 Describe briefly the major groups of Protozoa. 5 21-22
42
PLANT KINGDOM
Different systems of classification

• Artificial classification – oldest classification and it is based on few vegetative and
sexual characters.
• Natural classification system – it is based on natural affinities among the
organisms in their external and internal features.
• Phylogenetic classification system – it is based on evolutionary relationship
• Numerical taxonomy – by using computers numbers and codes are assigned to all
the characters and data are processed.
• Cytotaxonomy – it is based on cytological information like chromosome number,
structure and behavior.
• Chemotaxonomy – it is based chemical constituents of the plants.
1. ALGAE:
▪ Simple, thalloid, autotrophic, aquatic organisms.

▪ Habitats – grow in moist soil and wood.
▪ Symbiotic (Lichens) grow on other animals (sloth bear)
▪ Size ranges from Unicellular colonial (volvox), Filamentous (spirogyra) and
massive bodies (kelp)
▪ Reproduce vegetatively, asexually and sexually
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▪ Spores are Zoospores (male)
▪ Isogamous / anisogamous; Oospores (egg).
Economic importance:
▪ Porphyra, Laminaria, Sargassum are used as food.
▪ Marine brown algae (Algin) and red algae (Carrageen) are used as
Hydrocolloids, which is a fibrous structure holds water and used to
transport seedling.
▪ Gelidium, Graularia are used to grow microbes, make ice creams and jellies.
▪ Chlorella and Spirullina are rich in proteins and used as food supplements.
Algae are divided into 3 main classes:
a) Chlorophyceae (Green algae):
• Colonial / filamentous / unicellular

• Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation / spores
• Asexual reproduction is by flagellated Zoospores
• Sexual reproduction is by isogamous / anisogamous / oogamous
Examples: - Volvox, Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas
b) Phaeophyceae (Brown algae)
• They are attached to substratum by Holdfast (root like), Stalk (stipe) and leaf (frond).
• Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation.
• Asexual reproduction is by biflagellated zoospores.
• Sexual reproduction is by Isogamous / Anisogamous / Oogamous.
• Examples: - Laminaria, Sargassum, Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Fucus.
44
c) Rhodophyceae (Red algae)
• Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation.

• Asexually by non-motile spores.
• Sexually by non-motile gametes.
• Examples: - Porphyra, Gracilaria, Gelidium.
II.BRYOPHYTES
▪ They live in moist shaded areas in the hill.
▪ It is known as “amphibians of plant kingdom”.
▪ They occur in damp soil, humid and shaded places.
▪ Plant body lacks true roots, stem, leaves; they are attached to the substratum
by unicellular / multicellular Rhizoids.
▪ The main plant is haploid and they produce gametes (Gametophyte – dominant).
▪ The male sex organ is Antheridium (antherozoids)
▪ The female sex organ is Archegonium (single egg)
▪ Antherozoids are released in water come into contact with Archegonium to
form Zygote.
▪ Zygote develops into Sporophyte (diploid) undergoes meiosis to form haploid
spores germinate to produce Gametophyte.
Economic importance:
▪ Provide food for herbaceous mammals / birds.
▪ Sphagnum species (mosses) provide peat, used as a fuel.
▪ Due to its water holding capacity is used as packing material for trans-shipment of
living materials.
▪ Mosses and Lichens form Pioneer community on bare rocks.
▪ Form dense mats on soil, so reduce the impact of rain and soil erosion.
45
Classes: - There are two classes - Liverworts, Mosses.
a) Liverworts:
▪ Moist, shady habitats, damp soil, bark of trees and deep in the woods.
▪ Plant body is Thalloid, have a tiny leaf structures.
▪ Asexual reproduction is by fragmentation / form gemmae (green, multicellular,
asexual bodies) they detach from parent body and form as a new individual.
▪ Sexual reproduction
▪ Form male & female sex organs sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, setae and
capsule.
▪ Spore germinates to form gametophyte.
▪ Example: - Marchantia
b) Mosses:
▪ The gametophyte of mosses consists of two stages- the first stage is protonema
stage, which develops directly from spores. It is creeping, green and frequently
filamentous. The second stage is the leafy stage, which develops from secondary
protonema as lateral bud having upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged
leaves.
▪ Attached to the soil by Rhizoids.
▪ Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation / budding in secondary protonema.
▪ Sexual reproduction is by antheridia and archegonia.
▪ Zygote develops into sporophyte and form capsule and it contains spores (haploid)
▪ Example: - Sphagnum, Funaria
III. PTERIDOPHYTES (first land plants):
• They are used for medical purpose, ornamental and as soil binders and first
terrestrial plants.
• They grow in cool, damp, shady places.
• Possess vascular tissues (xylem and phloem)
• Main plant body is Sporophytes.
• The body is differentiated into true roots, stem and leaves.
• Leaves may be small (microphylls – selaginella) or large (macrophylls – ferns) and
bear sporangia and form sporophylls (leaf carrying spores).
• Sporangia produce spores by meiosis.
• Spore germinates to form gametophyte, called Prothallus.
• They need water for fertilization.
• Gametophyte bear male & female sex organs called Antheridia and Archaegonia
respectively.
• Gamete fusion results in zygote formation. Zygote develops into sporophytes
(dominant phase).
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• If all the spores are similar kind, it is called Homospores.
• Selaginella produce two kinds of spores, Macro and micro spores, hence
known as Heterosporous.
• Macro and micro spores develop into female and male gametophytes
respectively.
• Female gametophyte retained on sporophyte. It leads to the development of
seed habit.
Classes: - There are four classes in Pteridophtae;
a) Psilopsida – Ex. Psilotum
b) Lycopsida – Ex. Selaginella
c) Sphenopsida – Ex. Equisetum
d) Pteropsida – Ex. Pteris
IV. GYMNOSPERMS (Naked seeds)
• They are seed bearing plants.

• The ovules are not enclosed in an ovary, so no fruits.
• Tallest gymnosperm is Sequoia (red wood tree).
• Plant body is differentiated into roots, stems and leaves.
• Roots are tap root – associated with other organisms like Pinus roots with Mycorrhizae
and Cycas roots with Cyanobacteria like Nostoc and Anabaena (nitrogen fixing
microbes).
• Stem can be branched / unbranched.
• Leaves are simple / needle like – leaves show xerophytic adaptation.
• Gymnosperms are heterosporous, produce microspores and megaspores.
• They form male cones & female cones.
• Both cones can occur on some plant / different.
• Fertilization results in Zygote and embryo develop.
• Ovules form seeds.
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• Gymnosperms show diplontic life cycle.
• They show Alternation of generation.
• Examples: - Pinus, Cycas, Cedrus
Liverwort (Marchantia)
Moss (Funaria)
Features of Monocotyledons
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Features of Dicotyledons
QUESTION BANK
Short Answer Questions
Explain the different types of sexual reproduction in green algae.
Ans: Sexual reproduction in green algae can be of three different types:
Isogamy: Both the fusing gametes are morphologically and physiologically similar.
Anisogamy: The fusing gametes are structurally similar but differ in size and behaviour.
Oogamy: The female gamete is bigger, food-laden and non-motile, whereas the male
gamete is smaller, without food reserve and motile.
Give five distinguishing characteristics of red algae.
Ans: Five distinguishing characteristics of red algae are:
Most of the red algae are marine.
The motile stage is absent in the life cycle.
The plant body varies from unicellular filamentous to parenchymatous form.
The cell wall possesses cellulose and hydrocolloids.
Photosynthetic pigments include chlorophyll a, carotenoids and phycobilins.
Discuss the development of seed habit.
Ans: The development of seed habit takes place due to the
Development of heterospory.
The megasporangium developed an intelligent covering with a micropyle.
The development of female gametophyte takes place from functional-megaspore.
Development of pollen tube.
The fertilized ovule developed into a seed.
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Distinguish between Antheridia and Archaegonia.
Ans:
Antheridia Archaegonia
1. It is the male reproductive organ. 1. It is the female reproductive organ.
2. It is racket-shaped 2. It is usually flask-shaped.
3. Neck canal cells, venter canal cells form the sterile

3. Sterile cells are absent inside antheridia.
cells.
4. It produces many male gametes 4. It produces only one female gamete.
5. The male gamete is usually motile 5. The female gamete is usually non-motile.
How do red algae differ from brown algae?

Ans:
Red algae Brown algae
1. Unicellular and microscopic only a few are

1. Filaments and heterotrichous.
filamentous and Heterotrichous.
2. Phycoerythrin, Phycocyanin and

2. Fucoxanthin pigment is present.
phycobilins pigments are present.
3. Reserve food material is Floridian starch. 3. Reserve food material is Laminarian starch.
4. Chlorophyll ‘a’ present. 4. Chlorophyll ‘a’ + ‘c’ present.
5. e.g., Gelidium Polysiphonia. 5. e.g., Laminaria, Fucus and Sargassum.
How gymnosperms differ from bryophytes and pteridophytes in terms of gametophytes?

Ans: In bryophytes and pteridophytes, the gametophytes have free-living existence whereas
in gymnosperms they do not have an independent free-life existence.
Why Bryophytes are known as pioneers of ecological succession?
Ans: Bryophytes play an important role in plant succession. They grow on bare rocks and
secrete organic acids. These acids degrade the rocks gradually and convert rock into soil by
the process of weathering. Then other plants start growing in the soil and increase their
number. Thus, they are pioneers in primary plant succession.
Describe the important characteristics of gymnosperms.
Ans: Characteristic features of gymnosperms:
Gymnosperms are evergreen woody, perennial plants.
Plants are heterosporous.
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Reduction of gametophytic generation.
The enclosure of the female gametophyte by the megasporangium.
Ovules are exposed to receive pollen grains.
Gymnosperms possess exposed or naked seeds.
Polyembryony is a common occurrence.
Xylem lacks vessels and phloem lacks companion cells. Example Cycas, Pinus.
What are the commercial uses of algae?
Ans: The commercial uses of algae are as follows-
Algae such as Gelidium and Gracilaria are used to grow microbes.
They are used in the preparations of ice-creams and jellies.
Chlorella is rich in proteins and is used as a food supplement by space travellers.
Many species of Laminaria and Sargassum marine algae are used as food.
Describe different types of gametes in algae.
Ans: In algae, sexual reproduction takes place by the fusion of two gametes. These gametes
may vary in their size. If gametes are similar in size (as in Spirogyra), such reproduction is
called isogamous. If two gametes are dissimilar in size, as in species of Eudorina is termed
anisogamous. If there is one large and one smaller gamete fusion, then it is termed
oogamous, e.g., Volvox, Fucus.
Write three differences between Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.
Ans: The differences are as follows:
Type of Algae Major pigments Stored food Cell wall
Chlorophyceae
Chlorophyll a, b Starch Cellulose
(Green algae)
Phaeophyceae Chlorophyll a, c,
Mannitol, laminarin Cellulose and algin
(Brown algae) fucoxanthin
Rhodophyceae Chlorophyll a, d, Cellulose, pectin and poly-

Floridean starch
(Red algae) phycoerythrin sulphate esters
Describe gametophyte in bryophyte and pteridophyte.

Ans: Gametophyte in bryophyte has a protonemal and leafy stage. The first stage is the
protonema stage, which develops directly from a spore and the second stage is the leafy
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stage, which develops from the secondary protonema as a lateral bud. Female
gametophytes are not free-living in gymnosperms. Marchantia is a liverwort and consists of
Antheridiophores and archegoniophores. In pteridophytes, the development of the zygotes
in female gametophytes is a precursor to the seed habit and is thus considered an important
step in evolution.
List five characteristic features of Bryophytes.
Ans: The characteristic features of Bryophytes are as follows:
They are thallus-like, prostate or erect.
They have a root-like structure called rhizoids.
They possess root-like, stem and leaf-like structures.
The main plant body is a haploid.
They have dominant gametophyte
What is the economic importance of bryophytes?
Ans: The economic importance of bryophytes is as follows:
Mosses provide food for herbivores, birds and other animals.
Sphagnum provides peat that is used as a fuel.
They help in the ecological succession of plants.
Marchantia has been used for the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis etc.
Write advantages of fern?
Ans: The advantages of ferns are as follows-
Medicinal use- They are used as astringents to stop bleeding during the birth of a child.
Ornamental- They are used for decoration.
Furniture- Their wood is resistant to termites and thus is good for making high-quality
furniture.
Discuss the development of seed habit.
Ans: The seed plants have two kinds of sporangia. These sporangia are borne on the
sporophylls.
One type of sporangia is ovule or megasporangium. The other type of sporangia is the
pollen sac or archegonium. The egg develops a pollen sac or microsporangium. The egg
develops in the ovule from the megaspores. Many pollen grains are produced in the pollen
sac.
The pollen grains are dispersed by the air. They reach the ovule. The male gamete and the
female egg cell fuse together. The zygote is formed as a result of fertilization. Later on, the
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zygote forms the embryo. The seed is developed from the ovule. The development of seed
habit in gymnosperm and angiosperm do not require liquid water during fertilization
CASE 1
Nitin a biology student of class XI has shortness of breath and bronchial inflammation for
two weeks, when he visited to doctor, the doctor suggests him to take ephedrine. He got
amazed about the utility of gymnosperms.
(i) What are gymnosperms?
(ii) The drug ephedrine is used to treat what types of ailments.
(iii) Mention other products of therapeutic use from gymnosperms.
(iv) Write two economic importance of gymnosperm other than in the field of medicine.
Answer Key
(i) Gymnosperms are archegoniate, non-flowering, seeded plants, e.g., Cycas, Pinus,
Ephedra.
(ii) Ephedrine is used to treat asthma and other respiratory ailments. It is produced by
Ephedra, a member of gymnosperm and class-Gnetopsida.
(iii) The resinous oil of pine, fir and spruce are used as fresheners and disinfectants. The
"Taxol' from the bark of yew (Taxus) is used in cancer treatment.
(iv) (a) Gymnosperms provide softwood for construction, plywood and paper industry.
(b) Branches of gymnosperm trees are used as fuel.
CASE 2
Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic and largely aquatic (both fresh
water and marine) organisms. They occur in a variety of other habitats: moist stones, soils
and wood. Some of them also occur in association with fungi (lichen) and animals (e.g., on
sloth bear). The form and size of algae is highly variable, ranging from colonial forms like
Volvox and the filamentous forms like Ulothrix and Spirogyra.
The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods. Vegetative reproduction is
by fragmentation. Asexual reproduction is by the production of different types of spores,
the most common being the zoospores. Sexual reproduction takes place through fusion of
two gametes. The algae are divided into three main classes: Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae
and Rhodophyceae.
The members of chlorophyceae are commonly called green algae. The plant body may be
unicellular, colonial or filamentous. They are usually grass green due to the dominance of
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pigments chlorophyll a and b. The chloroplasts may be discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-
shaped, spiral or ribbon-shaped in different species. Most of the members have one or
more storage bodies called pyrenoids located in the chloroplasts. Green algae usually have a
rigid cell wall made of an inner layer of cellulose and an outer layer of pectose. Vegetative
reproduction usually takes place by fragmentation or by formation of different types of
spores. Asexual reproduction is by flagellated zoospores produced in zoosporangia. The
sexual reproduction shows considerable variation in the type and formation of sex cells and
it may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous. Some commonly found green algae are:
Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra and Chara.
The members of phaeophyceae or brown algae are found primarily in marine habitats. They
show great variation in size and form. They possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and
xanthophylls. They vary in colour from olive green to various shades of brown depending
upon the amount of the xanthophyll pigment, fucoxanthin present in them. Food is stored
as complex carbohydrates, which may be in the form of laminarin or mannitol. The
vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall usually covered on the outside by a gelatinous coating
of algin. Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation. Asexual reproduction in
most brown algae is by biflagellate zoospores that are pear-shaped and have two unequal
laterally attached flagella. Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous or
oogamous. The common forms are Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum and Fucus.
1) ______________ is the colonial form of algae.
a) Ulothrix
b) Spirogyra
c) Volvox
d) Chara
2) _______________ are a micro compartment storage bodies located in the chloroplasts
of algae.
a) Align
b) Pyrenoids
c) Carrageen
d) Mannitol
3.) Name the animal which shows mutual association with algae.
4) Give reason – Why members of chlorophyceae class are named as green algae?
5) Name the pigment which determine the colour of the brown algae.
Answer Key
1) C
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2) B
3) Sloth bear and algae share a mutual association, as the algae grows on the fur of sloth
bear for shelter and water.
4) The members of chlorophyceae class have dominance of pigments chlorophyll a and b.
Due to the dominance of these pigments they appear green, hence they are named as green
algae.
5) The presence of Xanthophyll pigment and fucoxanthin pigment levels determine the
colour of the brown algae.
CASE 3
The gymnosperms are plants in which the ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall and
remain exposed, both before and after fertilisation. The seeds that develop post-
fertilisation, are not covered, i.e., are naked. Gymnosperms include medium-sized trees or
tall trees and shrubs. One of the gymnosperms, the giant redwood tree Sequoia is one of
the tallest tree species. The roots are generally tap roots. Roots in some genera have fungal
association in the form of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some others (Cycas) small specialised
roots called coralloid roots are associated with N2 – fixing cyanobacteria. The leaves may be
simple or compound. In Cycas the pinnate leaves persist for a few years. The leaves in
gymnosperms are well-adapted to withstand extremes of temperature, humidity and wind.
In conifers, the needle-like leaves reduce the surface area. Their thick cuticle and sunken
stomata also help to reduce water loss.
The gymnosperms are heterosporous; they produce haploid microspores and megaspores.
The two kinds of spores are produced within sporangia that are borne on sporophylls which
are arranged spirally along an axis to form lax or compact strobili or cones. The strobili
bearing microsporophylls and microsporangia are called microsporangiate or male strobili.
The microspores develop into a male gametophytic generation which is highly reduced and
is confined to only a limited number of cells. This reduced gametophyte is called a pollen
grain. The development of pollen grains take place within the microsporangia. The cones
bearing megasporophylls with ovules or megasporangia are called macrosporangiate or
female strobili. The male or female cones or strobili may be borne on the same tree (Pinus).
However, in Cycas male cones and megasporophylls are borne on different trees. The
megaspore mother cell is differentiated from one of the cells of the nucellus. The nucellus is
protected by envelopes and the composite structure is called an ovule. The ovules are borne
on megasporophylls which may be clustered to form the female cones. The megaspore
mother cell divides meiotically to form four megaspores. One of the megaspores enclosed
within the megasporangium develops into a multicellular female gametophyte that bears
two or more archegonia or female sex organs. The multicellular female gametophyte is also
retained within megasporangium.
1.) In gymnosperms, seeds that develop after fertilisation are ________________
a) Covered in ovary walls
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b) Not covered in ovary walls
c) Covered in ovary sheath
d) None of the above
2.) Identify the correct characteristics of Cycas
Characteristic 1 –Leaves pinnate for a few years
Characteristic 2 – Small specialised coralloid roots present
Characteristic 3 – Roots are associated with nitrogen fixing bacteria
Characteristic 4 – Male and female cone are present on different plant
a) Both 2 and 3
b) Only 2
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) All of the above
3) Name the special type of root found in Cycas tree.
4) Why gymnosperms are referred as heterosporous group of plants.
5) What is the reason behind needle-like leaves adaptation in gymnosperms?
Answer Key
1) B
2) D
3) In Cycas, small specialised roots i.e., coralloid roots are found. Coralloid roots show
symbiotic association with Nitrogen – fixing cyanobacteria.
4) Gymnosperms are referred as heterosporous group of plants, because they produce
haploid microspores and megaspores.
5) The leaves in gymnosperms are well-adapted to survive in extremes of temperature,
humidity and wind. The needle-like leaves reduce the surface area. Their thick cuticle and
sunken stomata also help to reduce water loss.
CASE 4
Bryophytes are mostly terrestrial plants. They are found in moist shady places. But they
need water for fertilization and completion of their life cycle. Hence, they are called
‘amphibious plants’. The plant body of bryophytes is more differentiated than that of algae.
It is thallus-like and prostrate or erect, and attached to the substratum by unicellular or
multicellular rhizoids. They lack true roots, stem or leaves. They may possess root-like, leaf-
like or stem-like structures. The main plant body of the bryophyte is haploid. It produces
gametes, hence is called a gametophyte. The sex organs in bryophytes are multicellular. The
56
male sex organ is called antheridium. They produce biflagellate antherozoids. The female
sex organ called archegonium is flask-shaped and produces a single egg. The antherozoids
are released into water where they come in contact with archegonium. An antherozoid
fuses with the egg to produce the zygote. Zygotes do not undergo reduction division
immediately. They produce a multicellular body called a sporophyte. The sporophyte is not
free-living but attached to the photosynthetic gametophyte and derives nourishment from
it. Some cells of the sporophyte undergo reduction division (meiosis) to produce haploid
spores. These spores germinate to produce gametophyte.
They include approximately 960 genera and about 25,000 species. Life cycle of Bryophytes
shows sporophytic and gametophytic stages. Vegetative plant body is thalloid or leafy which
represents gametophytic generation. Spore producing capsule represents sporophytic
generation. Bryophytes have root-like structures called rhizoids. Rhizoids are unicellular in
liverworts while multicellular in mosses. Rhizoids absorb water and minerals and also help in
fixation of thallus on the substratum. Bryophytes are divided into two groups: liverworts
and mosses.
Liverworts (Hepaticeae) – These are lower members of Bryophyta. These are primitive
group of Bryophytes. Gametophyte possesses flat plant body called thallus. The thallus is
green, dorsiventral, and prostrate with unicellular rhizoids. E.g., Riccia, Marchantia
Hornworts (Anthocerotae) – These members possess flattened thallus. The thallus produces
horny structures which are called sporophytes hence the name hornworts. E.g., Anthoceros.
Mosses (Musci) – These are advanced members of Bryophyta which possess erect plant
body. Gametophytic phase of the life cycle includes two stages namely; protonema stage
and leafy stage. The protonema is prostrate green, branched and filamentous (it is also
called juvenile gametophyte). It bears many buds. Leafy stage is produced from each bud.
Thus, protonema helps in the vegetative propagation. The leafy stage has erect, slender
stem like (Cauloid) main axis bearing spiral leaf like structures (Phylloid). It is fixed in soil by
multicellular branched rhizoids. This stage bears sex organs. Vegetative reproduction takes
place by fragmentation and budding in secondary protonema. E.g., Funaria, Polytrichum,
Sphagnum, etc.
Bryophytes in general are of little economic importance but some mosses provide food for
herbaceous mammals, birds and other animals. Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat
that have long been used as fuel, and as packing material for trans-shipment of living
material because of their capacity to hold water. Mosses along with lichens are the first
organisms to colonise rocks and hence, are of great ecological importance. They decompose
rocks making the substrate suitable for the growth of higher plants. Since mosses form
dense mats on the soil, they reduce the impact of falling rain and prevent soil erosion. The
bryophytes are divided into liverworts and mosses.
1.) Lower members of bryophytes are represented by _____________ group of bryophytes
A) Mosses
b) Liverworts
57
c) Hornworts
d) Both a and b
2.) In bryophytes, capsule which produces spore represents ____________
a) Amphibious generation
b) Gametophytic generation
c) Sporophytic generation
3) Define rhizoids and give its functions
4) Enlist the name of the male and female sex organ present in bryophytes and what they
produce.
5) Name the group of plant which are commonly called as “Amphibians of Plant Kingdom”
and why?
Answer Key
1) B
2) C
3) Bryophytes have root-like structures called rhizoids. Rhizoids absorb water and minerals
and also help in fixation of thallus on the substratum.
4) The male sex organ is called antheridium. They produce biflagellate antherozoids. The
female sex organ called archegonium is flask-shaped and produces a single egg.
5) Bryophytes are called as “amphibians of the plant kingdom” because they are terrestrial
plants, but require water to complete their life cycle at the time of sexual reproduction.
CASE 5
In pteridophytes, the main plant body is a sporophyte which is differentiated into true root,
stem and leaves. These organs possess well differentiated vascular tissues.
(i) What is sporophyll?
(ii) Name any two species of pteridophytes which are heterosporous.
(iii) Name the male and female sex organ of pteridophytes.
(iv) In which pteridophytes, secondary growth takes place?
(v) What is the economic importance of Azolla?
Answer Key
(i) The sporophytes bear sporangia that are subtended by leaf like appendages called
sporophylls.
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(ii) Selaginella and Salvinia produce two kinds of spores, i.e., macro and micro are known as
heterosporous.
(iii) In pteridophytes, male and female sex organs are called antheridia and archegonia,
respectively.
(iv) Secondary growth does not take place in majority of the pteridophytes, except Isoetes.
(v) Azolla is a water fern; it plays an important role in maintaining the fertility of rice field by
fixing the nitrogen.
MCQ
Examine the figure given here and select the right option giving all the four parts (A, B, C
and D) correctly identified.
(a) A–Archegoniophore, B–Female thallus, C–Gemma cup, D–Rhizoids

(b) A–Archegoniophore, B–Female thallus, C–Bud, D–Foot
(c) A–Seta, B–Sporophyte, C–Protonema, D–Rhizoids
(d) A–Antheridiophore, B–Male thallus C–Globule, D–Roots
Ans: (a) A–Archegoniophore, B–Female thallus, C–Gemma cup, D–Rhizoids
Which one of the following statements is wrong?
(a) Agar - agar is obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria
(b) Laminaria and Sargassum are used as food
(c) Algae increase the level of dissolved oxygen in the immediate environment
(d) Algin is obtained from red algae, and carrageen from brown algae
Ans: (d) Algin is obtained from red algae, and carrageen from brown algae
In which of the following gametophyte is not independent free living?
(a) Funaria
(b) Marchantia
(c) Pteris
(d) Pinus
Ans: (d) Pinus
An alga which can be employed as food for human being is:
(a) Polysiphonia
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(b) Ulothrix
(c) Chlorella
(d) Spirogyra
Ans: (c) Chlorella
Select the wrong statement:
(a) Anisogametes differ either in structure, function or behaviour
(b) In oomycetes, female gamete is smaller and motile while male gamete is larger and non-
motile
(c) Chlamydomonas exhibits both isogamy and anisogamy and Fucus shows oogamy
(d) Isogametes are similar in structure, function in behaviour
Ans: (b) In oomycetes, female gamete is smaller and motile while male gamete is larger
and non-motile
Which one of the following is a xerophytic plant in which the stem is modified into the
flat, green and succulent structure:
(a) Opuntia
(b) Casuarina
(c) Hydrilla
(d) Acacia
Ans: (a) Opuntia
Algae have cell wall made up of:
(a) Cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin
(b) Cellulose, galactans and mannitol
(c) Hemicellulose, pectins and proteins
(d) Pectins, cellulose and proteins
Ans: (d) Pectins, cellulose and proteins
A prothallus is:
(a) A structure in pteridophytes formed before the thallus develops
(b) A sporophytic free living structure formed in pteridophytes
(c) A gametophytic free living structure formed in pteridophytes
(d) A primitive structure formed after fertilization in pteridophytes
Ans: (c) A gametophytic free living structure formed in pteridophytes
Fusion of two gametes which are dissimilar in size is called:
(a) Oogamy
(b) Isogamy
(c) Anisogamy
(d) Zoogamy
Ans: (c) Anisogamy
Which one of the following is heterosporous?
(a) Adiantum
(b) Equisetum
(c) Dryopteris
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(d) Salvinia
Ans: (d) Salvinia
Which is responsible for peat formation:
(a) Riccia
(b) Marchantia
(c) Funaria
(d) Sphagnum
Ans: (d) Sphagnum

1. Assertion: Algae and fungi are grouped in thallophyta.
Reason: Algae and fungi show no differentiation in thallus.
2. Assertion: Chlorella could be utilised to keep the air pure in space vehicles.
Reason: The space travellers feed on Chlorella soup.
3. Assertion: Members of phaeophyceae vary in colour from olive green to various shades
of brown.
Reason: Phaeophyceae possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and xanthophylls.
4. Assertion: Rhodophyta is red in colour of due to abundant formation of r-phycoerythrin.
Reason: r-phycoerythrin is able to absorb blue green wavelength of light and reflect red
colour.
5. Assertion: The colour of brown algae varies from olive green to brown.
Reason: In brown algae, fucoxanthin is responsible for colour variation.
Question 1 2 3 4 5
Answer A B A A B
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1 Why Bryophytes are called Amphibians of plant kingdom? 2 35
2 Differentiate between Prothallus and Protonema. 2 36-37
3 Draw and label the life cycle of a typical moss. 2 35
4 Algae are useful to man in various ways. How are the following 2 30
useful to us?
a) Spirulina
b) Porphyra
c) Gelidium
d) Laminaria
5 What is the speciality of the roots of Pinus and Cycas? 2 38
6 Write a note on economic importance of algae. 2 32
7 Draw a labelled diagram of male and female thallus of liverwort. 2 34
8 What is heterospory? Briefly comment on its significance. Give two 3 38
examples.
9 How do algae reproduce sexually? 3 30
10 Compare the types of algae on the basis of major pigments, stored 5 32-33
food and cell wall giving two examples of each.
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ANIMAL KINGDOM
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
Animals are classified on the basis of arrangement of cells, body symmetry, and nature of
coelom, pattern of digestive, circulatory and reproductive system.
1. Levels of organization:
2. Body symmetry
3. Nature of coelom (cavity)
4. Embryonic germinal layers
5. Segmentation of the body
6. Presence/absence of notochord
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1. Level of organization
• Cellular level - organ level
• Tissue level – organ system level (open and closed circulation)
• Complete/incomplete digestive system. (hydra)
• The digestive system in Platyhelminthes has only a single opening to the outside of
the body that serves as both mouth and anus, and is hence called incomplete. A
complete digestive system has two openings, mouth and anus. Similarly, the
circulatory system may be of two types:
• Open type in which the blood is pumped out of the heart and the cells and tissues
are directly bathed in it.
• Closed type in which the blood is circulated through a series of vessels of varying
diameters (arteries, veins and capillaries).
• Body symmetry
• Nature of Coelom (Body cavity)
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• Embryonic germinal layers
• A. Diploblastic (Coelenterates) – only ectoderm and endoderm

• B. Triploblastic organization (Platyhelminthes to Chordates) - ectoderm, endoderm
and mesoderm.
2. Segmentation- In some animals, body is externally and internally divided into

segments with serial repetition as in earthworm, called metameric segmentation.
3. Notochord
It is a mesodermal origin – rod like structure – animals with notochord are chordates
and without that are non-chordates.
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS:
1. Phylum - Porifera - Ex. Sponges.

• Marine, asymmetrical, cellular level of organization
• They have water transport or canal system. Water enters through minute pores, Ostia
into central cavity Spongocoel, from where it goes out through Osculum.
• Choanocytes/ collar cells line in the spongocoel
• Digestion is intracellular
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• Skeleton made up of spicules/ sponging fibres
• Hermaphrodite –male and female organs present on the same body.
• Reproduce asexually by fragmentation.
• Sexually by gametes
• Fragmentation is internal and development is indirect.
• E.g., Sycon, spongilla.
2. Phylum Coelenterata (cnidaria) - Ex. Hydra

• Aquatic /marine
• Sessile (fixed) /free swimming
• Radially symmetrical
• Have cnidoblasts/ cnidocytes, stinging capsule on tentacles.
• Cnidoblasts are used for defense, anchorage and to capture the prey.
• Tissue level of organization diploblastic
• Mouth on hypostome.
• Digestion extracellular and intracellular
• Corals have skeleton made of calcium carbonate.
• Exhibit 2 basic forms called polyp and medusa.
• Polyp is sessile cylindrical (hydra)
• Medusa is umbrella shaped free living (jelly fish)
• They show alternation of generation (metagenesis) where polyp forms medusa
asexually and medusa forms polyp sexually. Ex. Obelia
• Ex. - Hydra, Physalia, Sea anemone, Sea pen, Sea fan, Brain coral.
3. Phylum - Ctenophora (sea walnuts/comb jellies)

• Marine, radially symmetrical diploblastic
• Tissue level of organization
• Body bears 8 rows ciliated comb plates help in locomotion.
• Digestion by intra and extra cellular
• Bioluminescence is well developed
• Sexes are not separate(monoecious)
• Reproduce by sexual reproduction
• Fertilization is external and indirect development.
• Ex.-Pleurobrachia and ctenoplana
4. Phylum – Platyhelminthes (flat worms)

• Dorso-ventrally flattened body
• Endoparasites, bilaterally symmetrical
• Organ level of organization
• Triploblastic - acoelomate
• Hooks and suckers are present
• Flame cells for excretions
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• Sexes are not separate - fertilization is internal and development is through many
larval stages.
• Have high regeneration capacity Ex. - Tape worm, Planaria, Liver fluke
5. Phylum - Aschelminthes (round worms)

• Free living, aquatic, terrestrial parasitic
• Organ system level of body organization
• Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic
• Pseudocoelomate
• Digestive system is complete (mouth and anus)
• Sexes are separate (dioecious)
• Fertilization is internal and development is direct.
• Ex. Ascaris, Wuchereria (filarial worm) and Ancylostoma (hookworm)
6. Phylum – Annelida (annulus little ring)

• Aquatic/terrestrial
• Free living/ parasites
• Bilaterally symmetrical
• Triploblastic
• Metamerically segmented – coelomate
• Metameres/body is segmented
• Marine Nereis possess parapodia
• Possess longitudinal and circular muscles help in locomotion.
• Closed circulatory system
• Nephridia help in osmoregulation and excretion
• Dioecious (sexes are separate)
• Earthworm and leeches are monoecious
• Reproduction is sexual
• E.g., Nereis, Pheretima (earth worm) and Hirudinaria (blood sucking leech)
7. Phylum – Arthropoda – (jointed legs)

• Largest phylum 2/3 are insects
• Segmented and coelomate
• Chitinous exoskeleton.
• Body has head thorax and abdomen.
• Have jointed appendages (organs for locomotion) respiratory organs are gills/book
gills/Book lungs / tracheal system.
• Open circulatory system.
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• Sense organs are antennae, eye, statocysts (balance organs)
• Fertilization is internal.
• Excretion by Malpighian tubules.
• Sexes are separate (Dioecious)
• Oviparous
• Development may be direct/ indirect
Economic importance-
• Honey bees (Apis)
• Silkworm worm (Bombyx)
• Vectors. Mosquito, Housefly
• Aquatic –crab, prawn, lobster
8. Phylum - Mollusca: (soft bodied and shelled)

• Second largest phylum
• Terrestrial and aquatic
• Triploblastic and Coelomate
• Calcareous shell and unsegmented body with head muscular foot and visceral hump.
• Soft spongy layer of skin forms a mantle over the visceral hump.
• Gills for respiration and excretion
• Head has sensory tentacles
• Mouth has file like rasping organ for feeding radula
• Sexes are separate (Dioecious)
• Oviparous
• Indirect development
• E.g., Oyster, snail, squid, devil fish
9. Phylum - Echinodermata: (spiny skinned)

• Spiny skin has exoskeleton which is calcareous ossicles.
• Marine organ level of body organization
• Radially symmetrical
• Coelomate
• Triploblastic
• Mouth of the lower side and anus on the upper side.
• Have water vascular system, help in locomotion, to capture and transport of food
and for respiration.
• Excretory system is absent
• Dioecious and fertilization is external, development is indirect with free
swimming larva Ex. Starfish, sea urchin, sea lily, sea cucumber.
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10. Phylum – Hemichordata
• Under non-chordate
• Worm like marine animals
• Organ system level of organization
• Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic
• Coelomate – body has anterior proboscis, a collar and a long trunk
• Circulatory system is open type
Respiration is through gills
• Excretory organ is proboscis gland
• Sexes are separate
• Fertilization is external
• Development is indirect
• Ex. Balanoglossus
11. Phylum – Chordata

• Presence of notochord dorsal hollow spinal cord –nerve cord and paired pharyngeal
gill slits.
• Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
• Coelomate organ system level of organization.
• Have post and tail
• Closed circulatory system Chordata -Urochordata, Cephalochordate and Vertebrata
(protochordates) Urochordata – notochord present in larval tail e.g., Ascidia, salpa
Cephalochordate – notochord extends from head to tail e.g., Amphioxus.
Subphylum – Vertebrata:
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• Possess notochord (replaced by vertebral column)
• All vertebrates are chordates but not all chordates are vertebrates (all
vertebrates have vertebral column, but all chordates do not have vertebral
chord).
• Ventral muscular heart
• Excretion by kidneys
• Fins / limbs for locomotion
a) Super class – Agnatha (without jaw)

Class – Cyclostomata
• Ectoparasites on some fishes.
• Elongated body with 6-15 pairs of gill slits.
• Sucking circular mouth without jaw.
• Body is devoid of scales – paired fins.
• Cranium and vertebral column are cartilaginous.
• Circulation is closed.
• Cyclostomes are marine but migrate for spawning to fresh water.
• After spawning, within a few days, they die.
• Their larva after metamorphosis return to the ocean.
• Ex. Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).
b) Super class – Gnathostomata (with jaw)

• Jaws are present
• Paired lateral appendages There are six classes:
Class – Chondrichthyes:
• Cartilage fish, endoskeleton is cartilage
• Body has placoid scales.
• Body is stream lined.
• Pelvic fins in male with claspers.
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• 5-7 pairs of gills.
• No operculum.
• Mouth in ventral with teeth.
• Jaws are powerful.
• Due to the absence of air bladder, they have to swim constantly to avoid sinking.
• Heart is 2 chambered ( one auricle and one ventricle )
• Some possess electric /poison stings.
• Poikilothermous (cold blooded)
• Unisexual
• Viviparous and fertilization is internal.
• E.g., Shark, sting rays.
Class – Osteichthyes - bony fish

• Endoskeleton is bone.
• Skin is covered by cycloid scales.
• Four pairs of gill slits with operculum, mouth is terminal, air bladder is present and
help in buoyancy.
• Heart is two chambered (I auricle and I ventricle)
• Poikilotherms (cold blooded)
• Sexes are separate, fertilization is external and oviparous.
• Ex. Angel fish, Clown fish, Rohu, Tilapia, Hippocampus.
Class – Amphibia - dual life

• Live on land and move to water for breeding.
• Body has head and trunk.
• Tail is in larval stage – two pairs of limbs.
• Digits without claws.
• Poikilotherms – eyes are with nictitating membranes.
• Skin is smooth and moist with mucous glands.
• Tympanum is ear drum.
• Heart is three chambered (two auricle and one ventricle)
• Respiration by gills in larva and by lungs and skin in adults.
• Digestive system
• Urinary tract and reproductive tract open in to a common cloacal chamber and the
opening is called cloacal aperture.
• Sexes are separate
• Oviparous
• Fertilization is external and development is indirect with tadpole larva.
• Ex. Toad, Frog
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Class – Reptilia
• Skin is dry without glands.
• Covered by horny epidermal scales (scutes)
• Tympanum is small no external opening.
• 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
• Trunk bears two pairs of pentadactyl limbs with claws.
• Heart with three and half chambered (two auricle, one which is incompletely
partitioned ventricle).
• Only Crocodiles have four chambered heart.
• Respiration is by lungs.
• Fertilization is internal.
• Oviparous and egg is covered by hard calcareous shells.
• Ex. Snake, Tortoise, Turtle, Viper, Lizard
Class – Aves
• Streamlined body and covered with feathers.
• Jaws are modified in to beaks, teeth absent, various shapes and sizes of beaks.
• Digestive system has two structures – crop and gizzard (grinding the food)
• Forelimbs form wings.
• Hind limbs modified for perching, swimming, running, etc.
• Skin is dry with oil glands, at the base of tail.
• Bones are pneumatic (air cavities) helps to make the body light.
• Homoiothermous
• Heart is 4 chambered.
• Oviparous and egg is with calcareous shells.
• Sexes are separate, Fertilization is internal, and development is direct.
• Ex. Pigeon, Crow, Sparrow, Ostrich.
Class- Mammalia
• Aquatic/aerial/terrestrial.
• Body has head, neck, trunk and tail.
• Have mammary glands in females.
• External ear (pinna) is present.
• Skin has sweat glands and sebaceous glands.
• Heart is 4 chambered.
• Body has hair.
• Excretion is by kidneys (ureotelic – urea)
• Sexes are separate.
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• Viviparous (give birth young ones)
• Few are oviparous – egg laying mammals (Platypus)
• Few are marsupials – pouched mammals with brood pouches (Kangaroo)
• Ex. Canis macaca, Camelus dolphin.
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QUESTION BANK
Short Answer Questions
What are the different levels or grades of the organisation?
Ans: There are four levels or grades of the organisation.
Cellular level
Tissue level
Organ level
Organ- system level
In which phylum do the adults exhibit radial symmetry and larva exhibit bilateral
symmetry?
Ans: The adults exhibit radial symmetry and larvae exhibit bilateral symmetry in
Echinodermata.
How are pneumatic bones and air sacs important in Aves?
Ans: Pneumatic bones are hollow and filled with air that helps Aves in flying. Air sacs are
basically the air reservoirs. Plus, they regulate the body temperature and act as cooling
devices in Aves.
Provide a technical term for the following:
Blood filled cavity in arthropods
A stinging organ of jellyfish
Free-floating form of Cnidaria
Lateral appendages in aquatic annelids
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Ans: Haemocoel
Nematocysts
Medusa
Parapodia
Mention the role of the radula in Molluscs.
Ans: The radula facilitates scraping and scratching the food. It also creates depressions in
the rocks. Meanwhile, Molluscs use rocks as their habitat.
What do you understand about metagenesis? Explain with an example.
Ans: The phenomenon in which one generation of plants and animals reproduces asexually,
followed by a sexually reproducing generation is known as Metagenesis. For example,
Coelenterates.
What is bioluminescence? Elaborate with an example.
Ans: Bioluminescence is known as the production and emission of light by a living organism.
It is widely observed in marine animals and some fungi. Additionally, a few terrestrial
invertebrates. Jellyfish and fireflies exhibit this phenomenon known as bioluminescence.
Short Answer Type
Define radial symmetry and bilateral symmetry.
Ans: Animals can be grouped into two categories based on symmetry. When any plane
passing through the central axis of the body divides the organism (like spokes of a bicycle
wheel) into halves that approximately mirror images, it is called radial symmetry.
Cnidarians, ctenophores, and echinoderms have this kind of body plan.
Bilateral symmetry - Animals like annelids, arthropods, etc.
Where the body can be divided into identical left and right halves in only one plane, exhibit
bilateral symmetry.
Distinguish between the Chordates and Non-Chordates.
Ans:
Chordates Non-Chordates
1. Notochord present. 1. Notochord absent.
2. Central nervous system is dorsal, hollow, 2. Central nervous system is ventral solid
and single. and double.
3. Pharynx perforated by gill slices 3. Gill slits are absent.
4. Heart is ventral. 4. Heart is dorsal.
5. A post-anal (tail) is present. 5. Past-anal tail is absent.
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Name the classes of vertebrates with two, three and four-chambered hearts.
Ans: Two-chambered hearts– Fish. One atrium and one ventricle are present. Thus, the
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mixes together.
Three-chambered hearts- Amphibians. Two auricles and one ventricle.
Four-chambered hearts- Mammals. Two auricles and two ventricles.
What is the function of feathers in birds?
Ans: The function of feathers in birds are as follows:
The feathers help in maintaining the body temperatures of birds.
They provide air foil shapes for wings to help in flight.
They act as the secondary sex characters in both the sexes of birds. The colour and markings
help in attracting mates.
Give an example of:
An oviparous mammal
Roundworm
A limbless reptile
Fish possessing poison sting
Ans: Duck-billed Platypus
Ascaris
Ichthyophis
Trygon
Enlist the main features of Aschelminthes and give examples.
Ans: The main features of Aschelminthes are: -
They are known as roundworms because they appear circular in C.S.
Free-living, aquatic, terrestrial or parasitic.
The organization of the body is organ level.
Bilaterally symmetrical animals.
They are triploblastic and pseudocoelomate.
Alimentation is complete with the muscular or pharynx.
Sexes are Separate.
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The body is covered by a cuticle.
Fertilization is internal.
Some examples of Aschelminthes are: Ascaris, Filarial worm (Wuchereria), Hookworm
(Ancylostoma), and Pinworm (Enterobius).
CASE 1
In a fishery lecture, Divyansh was stunned to learn about the variety of fishes across world.
Upon further investigation, Divyansh found that these fishes belong to three major classes,
viz. Cyclostomata, Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes.
(i) Mention any two characteristic features of cyclostomes.
(ii) Give two examples of class-Cyclostomata.
(iii) What type of scales are found in Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes?
(iv) In which class would you find – Operculum and air bladder?
Answer Key
(i) Cyclostomes have sucking and circular mouth without jaws. They bear 6-15 pairs of gill
slits but lack paired fins and scales.
(ii) Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).
(iii) Chondrichthyes contain placoid scales whereas Osteichthyes possess cycloid or ctenoid
scales.
(iv) Operculum and air bladder are found in bony fishes of class-Osteichthyes.
CASE 2
Coelenterates are aquatic, mostly marine organisms exhibiting tissue level of organisation.
Their body is characterised by tentacles, stinging cells and horny or calcareous exoskeleton.
They possess well-defined gastrovascular cavity having single opening, polymorphism is one
of the major characteristics of coelenterates. In this, the organism exists in different forms
out of which one is sessile, while the other is free-swimming. These forms exhibit division of
labour and alternation of generation. Major representative animals of this group are
Adamsia, Physalia, Gorgonia, etc.
(i) Name a freshwater coelenterate.
(ii) The exoskeleton of corals is composed of
(iii) In which coelenterates medusae form is seen?
(iv) What is the common name of Adamsia?
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(v) What is the special character of Coelenterata?
Answer Key
(i) Hydra is a freshwater coelenterate, while the rest are found in marine water.
(ii) The exoskeleton of corals is formed of calcium carbonate.
(iii) Medusa or free-swimming form is seen in Aurelia.
(iv) The common name of Adamsia is sea anemone.
(v) The nematocysts are special characteristics of coelenterates having chitinous double wall
collagenous capsule with an operculum (lid). It is an organ of offence and defence in
coelenterates. It also helps in food capture, locomotion and anchorage. It contains a
poisonous fluid of proteins and phenol.
CASE 3
On a trip to coral island, Bhumika observed many sessile, pore bearing animals. She saw that
many animals were having stinging capsule laden tentacles also. On being asked, tour guide
told Bhumika that these animals are poriferans and coelenterates, respectively.
(i) Name any two pore-bearing animals.
(ii) What type of skeleton is found in poriferans?
(iii) Mention the level of organisation and symmetry in coelenterates.
(iv) Give biological name and function of stinging capsules which are found in
coelenterates.
Answer Key
(i) Sycon and Spongilla are pore bearing animals.
(ii) The skeleton of poriferans is made up of spicules and spongin fibres.
(iii) Coelenterates possess tissue level of organisation and radial symmetry.
(iv) The stinging capsule is called nematocyte or defence, capture cnidoblast. It helps in
defence, capture of prey and anchorage of animal.
CASE 4
Phylum: Ctenophora
These are commonly called comb jellies or sea walnuts. These are exclusively marine, free-
swimming animals. Body is diploblastic, radially symmetrical with blind-sac body plan.
Animals have tissue-level organisation. Locomotion is carried out by eight rows of ciliated
comb plates. Characteristic feature of ctenophores is bioluminescence. Like cnidarians,
ctenophores also exhibit extra and intracellular digestion. Reproduction is sexual with
indirect development. Cnidoblasts are absent hence these are called acnidarians. Instead,
they have colloblasts (sticky cells) to capture the prey. Ctenophora is represented by very
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few members, hence it is considered as one of the minor phyla. E.g., Pleurobrachia,
Ctenoplana
Phylum – Platyhelminthes
They have dorso-ventrally flattened body, hence are called flatworms. These are mostly
endoparasites found in animals including human beings. Flatworms are bilaterally
symmetrical, triploblastic and acoelomate animals with organ level of organisation. Hooks
and suckers are present in the parasitic forms. Some of them absorb nutrients from the host
directly through their body surface. Specialised cells called flame cells help in
osmoregulation and excretion. Sexes are not separate. Fertilisation is internal and
development is through many larval stages. Some members like Planaria possess high
regeneration capacity. Examples: Taenia (Tapeworm), Fasciola (Liver fluke).
1.) Identify the correct statement
Statement 1 – Flatworms are triploblastic animals.
Statement 2 – Flame cells is specialised excretory cell.
Statement 3 – Flatworms are acoelomate and shows bilaterally symmetrical.
Statement 4 – Flatworms exhibits organ level of organisation.
a.) Statement 1 and 3 are correct
b) Statement 1, 3 and 4 are correct
c.) Statement 2 is correct
d.) All are correct
2.) In Platyhelminthes, ___________________ plays key role in osmoregulation and
excretion.
a.) colloblasts
b.) Cnidoblasts
c.) Flame cells
d.) Coelom
3.) Give reason – Why ctenophora are known as acnidarians?
4.) Name the specialised sticky cell present in ctenophora.
5.) Give any two-distinguishing feature of Ctenophora.
Answer Key
1.) D
2.) C
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3.) In ctenophora, Cnidoblasts or Cnidocytes cells are absent, hence these are called as
acnidarians.
4.) Ctenophora have specialised cells called colloblasts (sticky cells) which helps to capture
the prey.
5.) Characteristic feature of ctenophores is
Ctenophores exhibits bioluminescence.
Digestion is extra and intracellular.
Ctenophores have colloblasts i.e., sticky cells which helps to capture pray.
Locomotion is carried out by eight rows of ciliated comb plates.
CASE 5
Animals belonging to phylum Chordata are fundamentally characterised by the presence of
a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits. These are bilaterally
symmetrical, triploblastic, and coelomate with organ-system level of organisation. They
possess a post anal tail and a closed circulatory system.
Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla: Urochordata or Tunicata, Cephalochordata
and Vertebrata.
Subphyla Urochordata and Cephalochordata are often referred to as protochordates and
are exclusively marine. In Urochordata, notochord is present only in larval tail, while in
Cephalochordata, it extends from head to tail region and is persistent throughout their life.
Examples: Urochordata – Ascidia, Salpa, Doliolum; Cephalochordata – Branchiostoma
(Amphioxus or Lancelet).
The members of subphylum Vertebrata possess notochord during the embryonic period.
The notochord is replaced by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral column in the adult. Thus, all
vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates. Besides the basic chordate
characters, vertebrates have a ventral muscular heart with two, three or four chambers,
kidneys for excretion and osmoregulation and paired appendages which may be fins or
limbs.
1.) Subphyla Tunicata, is characterised by ___________
a.) Presence of notochord throughout their life
b.) extend notochord from head to tail region
c.) Presence of notochord only in larval tail
d.) Both a & b
2.) Doliolum, is belongs to subphyla ___________
a.) Vertebrata
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b.) Tunicata
c.) Cephalochordata
d.) Protochordates
3.) Give the characteristic feature of Cephalochordata with suitable example.
4.) What are protochordates?
5.) Give the characteristic feature of Phylum – Chordata and Enlist the name of subphyla.
6.) Give reason – why all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates?
Answer Key
1.) C
2.) B
3.) In Cephalochordata notochord extends from head to tail region and is persistent
throughout their life.
Example: Branchiostoma (Amphioxus or Lancelet).
4.) Subphyla Urochordata and Cephalochordata are together often referred to as
protochordates and are exclusively marine.
5.) Phylum Chordata are characterised by the presence of a notochord, a dorsal hollow
nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits. These are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic,
and coelomate with organ-system level of organisation. They possess a post anal tail and a
closed circulatory system.
Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla:
Urochordata or Tunicata
Cephalochordata
6.) The members of subphylum Vertebrata possess notochord during the embryonic period.
In adult stage notochord is replaced by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral column in the adult.
Hence all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.
MCQ
Examine the figures A, B and C. In which one of the four options, all the animals
(poriferans) are correct?
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(a) A–Sycon, B–Euspongia, C–Spongilla
(b) A–Euspongia, B–Spongilla, C–Sycon
(c) A–Spongilla, B–Sycon, C–Euspongia
(d) A–Euspongia, B–Sycon, C–Spongilla
Ans: (a) A–Sycon, B–Euspongia, C–Spongilla
Animals belonging to phylum–Chordata are fundamentally characterised by the presence
of structure noted as A, B, C and D. Identify A, B, C and D.
(a) A–Notochord, B–Nerve cord, C–Gill slits, D–Post-anal part

(b) A–Nerve cord, B–Notochord, C–Gill slits, D–Post-anal part
(c) A–Nerve cord, B–Notochord, C–Post-anal part, D–Gill slits
(d) A–Nerve cord, B–Gill slits, C–Notochord, D–Post-anal part
Ans: (b) A–Nerve cord, B–Notochord, C–Gill slits, D–Post-anal part
Which of these is not a coelenterate?
(a) Sea pen
(b) Sea fur
(c) Sea anemone
(d) Sea lily
Answer:(d) Sea lily
Pick the odd pair out.
(a) Porifera: choanoflagellates
(b) Cnidaria: nematocysts
(c) Nematoda: pseudocoelom
(d) Mollusca: torsion
Answer :(a) Porifera: choanoflagellates
A jawless fish, which lays eggs in fresh water and whose ammocoetes larvae after
metamorphosis return to the ocean is
(a) Eptatretus
(b) Myxine
(c) Neomyxine
(d) Petromyzon
Answer: (d) Petromyzon
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Metameric segmentation is the characteristic of:
(a) Platyhelminthes and Arthropoda
(b) Echinodermata and Annelida
(c) Annelida and Arthropoda
(d) Mollusca and Chordata
Answer: (c) Annelida and Arthropoda
Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?
A. Crocodile - 4 - chambered heart
B. Sea urchin - Parapodia
C. Obelia - Metagenesis
D. Lemur - Thecodont
(a) A, C and D
(b) B, C and D
(c) Only A and D
(d) Only A and B
Answer:
(a) A, C and D
Which one of the following is not a characteristic of phylum - Annelida?
(a) Closed circulatory system
(b) Segmentation
(c) Pseudocoelom
(d) Ventral nerve cord
Answer: (c) Pseudocoelom
Which one of the following statements about certain given animals is correct?
(a) Round worms (Aschelminthes) are pseudocoelomates
(b) Molluscs are acoelomates
(c) Insects are pseudocoelomates
(d) Flat worms (Platyhelminthes) are coelomates
Answer: (a) Round worms (Aschelminthes) are pseudocoelomates
Which one of the following groups of animals is correctly matched with its one
characteristic feature without even a single exception?
(a) Chordata - possess a mouth provided with an upper and a lower jaw
(b) Chondrichthyes - possess cartilaginous endoskeleton
(c) Mammalia - give birth to young ones
(d) Reptilia - possess 3 - chambered heart with one incompletely divided ventricle
Answer: (b) Chondrichthyes - possess cartilaginous endoskeleton
Which of the following features is not present in the phylum - Arthropoda?
(a) Metameric segmentation
(b) Parapodia
(c) Jointed appendages
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(d) Chitinous exoskeleton
Answer: (b) Parapodia
In case of poriferans, the spongocoel is lined with flagellated cells called
(a) ostia
(b) oscula
(c) choanocytes
(d) mesenchymal cells
Answer: (c) choanocytes

1. Assertion: Radial symmetry in animal helps in detecting food and danger.
Reason: It enables the animal to respond to stimuli from any direction.
2. Assertion: Animals that have an exoskeleton, lacks an endoskeleton.
Reason: Skeleton cells in the embryonic stage migrate to either stage and produce
exoskeleton or endoskeleton but never both.
3. Assertion: Cold blooded animals do not have fat layer.
Reason: Cold blooded animals use their fat for metabolic process during hibernation.
4. Assertion: The skeleton of sponges is made up of spicules.
Reason: Composition of spicules help in classification of sponges.
5. Assertion: Sponges belong to Porifera.
Reason: Sponges have canal system.
Question 1 2 3 4 5
Answer A D C B B
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1 Which characters of birds helped it to adapt to aerial mode of life? 2 58
2 What is the role of radula? 2 53
3 What do you understand by hermaphrodites and in which phylum 2 49
such species are seen?
4 Distinguish between coelomates and acoelomates organisms. 2 48
5 List two adaptations that help the birds (Aves) in flying. 2 58
6 Write differences between Chordates and non- chordates on the 55
basis of the following
points:
a) Notochord 5
b) Position of heart
c) CNS
d) Gill slit
e) tail
7 a) What is mesoglea? 47
b) Give technical term to segmentation found in earthworm. 48
c) What are choanocytes? 5 49
d) Name the two forms of Cnidarians 50
e) Write two unique characters of the class Mammalia. 60
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Morphology of Flowering Plants
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Morphology: The study of various external features of the organism is known as
morphology.
Adaptation: Any alteration in the structure or function of an organism or any of its part that
results from natural selection and by which the organism becomes better fitted to survive
and multiply in its environment.
The Root: The root is underground part of the plant and develops from elongation of radicle
of the embryo. Types of root systems.
Tap root system: Originates from radicle.
Fibrous root system: Originates from base of the stem.
Adventitious root system: Originates from parts of the plant other than radicle
Dicotyledonous plants: Banyan tree (Prop roots) e.g., gram, pea, mango
Monocotyledonous plants: wheat, paddy, grasses
Regions of the root:
1. Region of meristematic activity: Cells of this region have the capability to divide.
2. Region of elongation: Cells of this region are elongated and enlarged.
3. Region of Maturation: This region has differentiated and matured cells. Some of the
epidermal cells of this region form thread-like root hairs. Modifications of Root: Roots are
modified for support, storage of food, respiration.
Inflorescence: The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis. Main types of Inflorescence:
1. Racemose: Radish, Mustard, and Amaranthus.
2. Cymose: Cotton, Jasmine, and Calotropis.
Flower:
Calyx: A flower’s outermost whorl is made up of leaf-like structures called sepals
Gamosepalous- sepals united
Polysepalous- sepals free
Corolla: made up of bright coloured petals. Present after sepals
Gamopetalous- petals united
Polypetalous- petals free
Aestivation: It is the mode of arrangement of sepals and petals.
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The main types of aestivations are:
Valvate- sepals or petals just touch each other and don’t overlap in a whorl, e.g. Calotropis
Twisted- sepal or petal overlaps the next sepal or petal and the same continues in a whorl,
e.g. cotton, China rose, lady’s finger
Imbricate- margins of sepal and petals overlap each other randomly and not in one
direction, e.g. Gulmohar, Cassia
Vexillary- the largest petal overlaps two petals (wings) present laterally on both the sides
and that overlaps the two anterior petals (keel) in the same way. It is also called
papilionaceous, e.g. beans, peas
Androecium: It is a male reproductive part. It consists of stamens. Each stamen is made up
of filament and anthers.
Staminode- sterile stamen
Epipetalous- stamens are attached to petals
Polyandrous- stamens are free
Monadelphous- stamens are united and present as one bundle
Diadelphous- stamens are united and present in two bundles
Polyadelphous- stamens are united and present in more than two bundles
Gynoecium: It is a female reproductive part. It consists of carpels. Each carpel has three
parts; stigma, style and ovary.
Apocarpous: more than one carpels present, which are free, e.g. rose, lotus
Syncarpous: more than one carpels present, which are united, e.g. tomato, mustard
Placentation:
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The specific arrangement of ovules in the ovary is called placentation. Types of placentation:
Marginal- e.g. pea
Axile- e.g. lemon, china rose
Parietal- e.g. Argemone, mustard
Free central- e.g. Primrose, Dianthus
Basal- e.g. marigold, sunflower
The Fruit
It is a matured and ripened ovary after fertilisation.
Parthenocarpic fruit: the fruit formed without fertilisation, it makes seedless fruits, e.g.
pineapple
Seed and pericarp make a fruit. The fleshy pericarp is made up of three layers; epicarp,
mesocarp and endocarp
The Seed
After the fertilisation, the ovule develops into a seed.
A seed has a seed coat and an embryo. An embryo is made up of radicle, embryonal axis and
one or two cotyledons in monocotyledons (maize, wheat) and dicotyledons (pea, gram)
respectively.
Dicotyledonous seed Monocotyledonous seed
The seed coat is made up of two The seed coat is fused to the fruit wall and
layers; outer testa and inner tegmen membranous
There is a scar present through which
the seed was attached to the fruit
while developing, it is called the hilum
The micropyle is a pore above the
hilum
The embryo consists of an embryonal The embryo consists of one large cotyledon
axis and two cotyledons known as scutellum
Cotyledons store food The endosperm is bulky and stores food
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Mostly non-endospermic seeds. Mostly endospermic seeds.
In castor, an endospermic seed is Some seeds like orchids are non-
present- endosperm is formed due to endospermic.
double fertilisation and stores food Aleuron (a proteinaceous layer), is the
outermost layer of endosperm, which
separates the embryo
Radicle and plumule are present at the Plumule is enclosed in coleoptile and radicle
two ends of the embryonal axis is enclosed in coleorhiza
Family: Solanaceae
Family: Solanaceae, Vegetative features:
Habit: Erect, herbaceous plant
Leaves: Simple, exstipulate leaves with reticulate venation
Stem: Erect stem with numerous branches.
Floral features:
Inflorescence:
Solitary and axillary Flowers:
Actinomorphic, bisexual flowers
Calyx: Calyx is composed of five sepals that are united and persistent.
Aestivation is valvate.
Corolla: Corolla consists of five united petals with valvate aestivation.
Androecium: It consists of five epipetalous stamens.
Gynoecium: It consists of bicarpellary syncarpous superior ovary with axile placentation.
Fruits: Berry Seeds: Numerous, endospermous
Floral formula: Floral formula: EBr.EBrl K(5) C(5) A5 G(2)

Economic importance: Used for medicinal purposes and used as vegetables
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Question Bank
MCQ
1. The morphological nature of the edible part of a coconut is
1. Cotyledon
2. Perisperm
3. Pericarp
4. Endosperm
2. ———— are the non-essential parts of a flower
Androecium and gynoecium
Sepals and carpels
Sepals and petals
Sepals and gynoecium
3. Testa of seed develops from
Hilum
Funicle
Ovary wall
Outer integument
4. A fruit developed from a condensed inflorescence is
Composite fruit
Simple fruit
Aggregate fruit
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Etaerio
5. Radial symmetry is found in the flowers of
Cassia
Pisum
Trifolium
Brassica
Answers:
1-d 2-c 3-b 4-a 5-d
Q6. How do the roots of the plants growing in swamps and marshes obtain their oxygen?
A. The roots of the plants growing in swamps and marshes grow vertically upwards and
respire. They become negatively geotropic.
Q.7. What are the edible parts of ginger and onion?
A. The modified stem is the edible part of ginger. All the food material is stored here. The
fleshy leaves of onion are the edible parts.
Q.8. Why is the maize grain considered as a fruit and not as a seed?
A.11. The maize grain is a ripened ovary with a ripened ovule. That is why it is considered a
fruit and not as a seed. The fruit is known as a caryopsis. In this, the pericarp is fused with
the seed coat.
Q.9. Ginger grows underground like any other root. Then why is it considered a stem and
not root?
A. Ginger is an underground modification of stem which bears internodes, nodes, buds and
scaly leaves that give rise to aerial shoots. The lower surface of the nodes gives rise to
adventitious roots. Also, it does not play any role in anchorage and absorption. It only serves
as a reservoir to store food. This proves that ginger is a stem, not a root.
Q.10. Why is sunflower not a flower?
A. Sunflower is a kind of inflorescence called capitulum with a flat receptacle. It has sessile
and small florets. The oldest floret lies in the periphery while the youngest lies in the centre.
The cluster of florets is surrounded by bracts. The florets are of two types; ray florets and
disc florets.
Q. 11 Describe characteristics of family Solanaceae
Solanaceae Family
Following are the characteristic features of the Solanaceae family:
Vegetative Characters:
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Root System: Taproot system.
Stem: Erect or climber; Solanaceae includes herbs, shrubs, small trees, and climbers.
Leaves: Alternate, simple or pinnately compound (rarely); exstipulate; reticulate venation.
Floral characters:
Inflorescence: Racemose- terminal or axillary raceme; Cymose- solitary in Solanum.
Flower: Complete, bisexual, actinomorphic, hypogynous.
Calyx: Five sepals, gamosepalous; valvate aestivation.
Corolla: Five petals, gamopetalous, valvate aestivation.
Androecium: Five stamens, epipetalous; anthers basifixed.
Gynoecium: Syncarpous, bicarpellary, bilocular, superior ovary, axile placentation.
Fruit: Berry/ capsule.
Seed: Numerous, endospermous
Economic Importance:
The economic importance of some plants belonging to the Solanaceae family is as follows:
These are important sources of food. E.g. tomato, brinjal and potato
These are important sources of spices. E.g. chilly
The leaves of Nicotiana tabacum are a major source of tobacco.
These are also used as ornamental plants. E.g. petunia
Case Study Question

In majority of the dicotyledonous plants, the direct elongation of the radicle leads to the
formation of primary root which grows inside the soil. It bears lateral roots of several orders
that are referred to as secondary, tertiary, etc. roots. The primary roots and its branches
constitute the tap root system, as seen in the mustard plant. In monocotyledonous plants,
the primary root is short lived and is replaced by a large number of roots. These roots
originate from the base of the stem and constitute the fibrous root system, as seen in the
wheat plant. In some plants, like grass, Monstera and the banyan tree, roots arise from
parts of the plant other than the radicle and are called adventitious roots. The main
functions of the root system are absorption of water and minerals from the soil, providing a
proper anchorage to the plant parts, storing reserve food material and synthesis of plant
growth regulators.
The root is covered at the apex by a thimble-like structure called the root cap. It protects
the tender apex of the root as it makes its way through the soil. A few millimetres above the
root cap is the region of meristematic activity. The cells of this region are very small, thin-
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walled and with dense protoplasm. They divide repeatedly. The cells proximal to this region
undergo rapid elongation and enlargement and are responsible for the growth of the root in
length. This region is called the region of elongation. The cells of the elongation zone
gradually differentiate and mature. Hence, this zone, proximal to region of elongation, is
called the region of maturation. From this region some of the epidermal cells form very fine
and delicate, thread-like structures called root hairs. These root hairs absorb water and
minerals from the soil.
Roots in some plants change their shape and structure and become modified to perform
functions other than absorption and conduction of water and minerals. They are modified
for support, storage of food and respiration. Tap roots of carrot, turnip and adventitious
roots of sweet potato, get swollen and store food. In some plants such as Rhizophora
growing in swampy areas, many roots come out of the ground and grow vertically upwards.
Such roots, called pneumatophores, help to get oxygen for respiration.
1.) Identify incorrect statement
Statement 1 – The root is covered at the apex by a thimble-like structure called the root
cap.
Statement 2 – Elongation of the radicle leads to the formation of primary root.
Statement 3 – Pneumatophores are roots come out of the ground and grow vertically
upwards
Statement 4 – Root hairs absorb water and minerals from the soil.
a.) Only 1
b.) Only 3
c.) Both 2 & 3
d.) None of the above
2.) Which of the following is feature of primary roots
a.) Short lived. b.) Originate from the base of the stem
c.) Constitute the fibrous root system.
d). All of the above.
3.) What is the function of roots?
4.) What are adventitious roots?
5.) Explain root modification and give any two example of root modification?
6.) What is pneumatophores?
Answer key
1.) d
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2.) d
3.) Roots perform the following functions:
• Roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil.

• They anchor the plant firmly.
• They help in storing food and nutrients.
• Roots transport water and minerals to the plant.
5.) Root modification – Roots in some plants change their shape and structure and become
modified to perform functions other than absorption and conduction of water and minerals.
They are modified for support, storage of food and respiration.
Examples,
• Tap roots of carrot.

• Adventitious roots of sweet potato, get swollen and store food.
6.) Pneumatophores – In some plants many roots come out of the ground and grow
vertically upwards. Such roots, called pneumatophores, help for respiration.
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Anatomy of Flowering Plants
Anatomy: Anatomy is the study of internal structure of organisms. Plant anatomy includes
organization and structure of tissues.
Tissue: A group of interdependent identical or non-identical cells along with intercellular
substance having common origin to perform a specific (definite) function in multicellular
organisms is called tissue.
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Meristematic tissues: The meristematic tissue is made up of the cells which have the
capability to divide. Meristems in plants are restricted to a specialized regions and
responsible to the growth of plants.
Apical meristem: Occurs at the tips of roots and shoots, Primary meristem, Increase the
length of plant
Intercalary meristem: Occurs between mature tissue, Primary meristem, short lived,
Capable of forming branch
Lateral meristem: Occurs in the mature shoots, Secondary meristem, help in secondary
growth.
Axillary bud: The buds which are present in the axils of leaves and are responsible for
forming branches or flowers. Permanent tissues: The permanent tissues are derived from
meristematic tissue and are composed of cells, which have lost the ability to divide
Parenchyma: Thin-walled cells, with intercellular spaces, cell wall is made up of cellulose. It
performs the function like photosynthesis, storage, secretion. Collenchyma: It is formed of
living, closely packed isodiametric cells. It’s cells are thickened at the corners due to
deposition of cellulose and pectin. It provides mechanic support to the growing parts of the
plant.
Sclerenchyma: It is formed of dead cells with thick and lignified walls meant for mechanical
support. They have two types of cells: fibres and sclereids.
Xylem: Xylem consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma. It
conducts water and minerals from roots to other parts of plant.
Protoxylem: The first formed primary xylem elements.
Metaxylem: The later formed primary xylem elements.
Endarch xylem: Protoxylem lies towards the centre and metaxylem towards the periphery
of the organ.
Exarch xylem: Protoxylem towards periphery and metaxylem towards the centre.
Phloem: Phloem consists of sieve tube elements, companion cells, phloem fibres and
phloem parenchyma. Phloem transports the food material from leaves to various parts of
the plant.
Protophloem: First formed phloem with narrow sieve tubes.
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Metaphloem: Later formed phloem with broader sieve tubes. The Tissue System: 1.
Epidermal tissue system: It includes cuticle, epidermis, epidermal hairs, root hairs,
trichomes and stomata.
2. The ground tissue system: It is made up of parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma.
In dicot stems and roots the ground tissue is divided into hypodermis, cortex, endodermis,
pericycle, medullary rays and pith.
3. The vascular tissue system: It includes vascular bundles which are made up of xylem and
phloem.
The Tissue System
1. Epidermal tissue system: It includes cuticle, epidermis, epidermal hairs, root hairs,
trichomes and stomata.
2. The ground tissue system: It is made up of parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma.
In dicot stems and roots the ground tissue is divided into hypodermis cortex, endodermis,
pericycle, medullary rays and pith.
3. The vascular tissue system: It includes vascular bundles which are made up of xylem and
phloem.
MERISTEMATIC TISSUE IN PLANTS
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XYLEM TISSUE PHLOEM TISSUE
Stomata:
Stomata are minute apertures in the epidermis. Each aperture is bounded by two kidney
shaped cells, called guard cells. In xerophytes, the stomata are sunken in grooves due to
which rate of transpiration is greatly reduced (e.g. Nerium). Usually there is a large air cavity
below each aperture, it is called sub stomatal cavity. Guard cells are surrounded by
subsidiary cells or accessory cells which differ morphologically from the other epidermal
cells. In monocots, e.g., Doob, Maize; guard cells are dumb bell shape.
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T.S. OF MONOCOT STEM
T.S. OF DICOT STEM
Question Bank
MCQ
1. Root hair develop from the region of
a) Maturation
b) Meristematic activity
c) Root cap
d) Elongation
2. Phloem in gymnosperms lacks
a) Sieve tubes only
b) Companion cells only
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c) Albuminous cells and sieve cells
d) Both sieve tubes and companion cells
3. The main water-conducting elements of xylem in gymnosperms are
a) Tracheids
b) Fibers
c) Transfusion tissue
d) Vessels
4. Which of the following yields fibres?
a) Sisso
b) Teak
c) Oak
d) Coconut
5. Casparian strips occur in
a) Cortex
b) Endodermis
c) Epidermis
d) Pericycle
6. Cut a transverse section of young stem of a plant from your school garden and observe
it under the microscope. How would you ascertain whether it is a monocot stem or a dicot
stem? Give reasons.
Soln. Vascular bundles in dicot stem are arranged in a ring whereas in monocot stem
vascular bundles are scattered throughout the ground tissue. On the basis of arrangement
of vascular bundles it can be ascertained whether the young stem is dicot or monocot.
Besides undifferentiated ground tissue, sclerenchymatous hypodermis, oval or circular
vascular bundles with Y shaped xylem are other differentiating features of monocot stem.
7. Why are xylem and phloem called complex tissues?
Soln. A group of different types of cells which perform common function is called complex
tissue. Xylem and phloem are called complex tissues as all cells that work as a unit for a
common function have different structural organisation. Xylem has four types of cells-
tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibres. Phloem consists of sieve tube
elements, companion cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres. Xylem is associated
with conduction of water and minerals from roots to top of plants and phloem is
responsible for transport of organic food.
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8. What is stomatal apparatus? Explain the structure of stomata with a labelled diagram.
Soln.Stomata are structures present in the epidermis of leaves. Stomata regulate the
process of transpiration and gaseous exchange. Each stoma is composed*of two bean
shaped cells known as guard cells which enclose stomatal pore. The outer walls of guard
cells (away from the stomatal pore) are thin and the inner walls (towards the stomatal pore)
are highly thickened. The guard cells possess chloroplasts and regulate the opening and
closing of stomata. Sometimes, a few epidermal cells, in the vicinity of the guard cells
become specialised in their shape and size and are known as subsidiary cells. The stomatal
aperture, guard cells and the surrounding subsidiary cells are together called stomatal
apparatus.
CASE STUDY QUESTION

The complex tissues are made of more than one type of cells and these work together as a
unit. Xylem and phloem constitute the complex tissues in plants. Xylem functions as a
conducting tissue for water and minerals from roots to the stem and leaves. It also provides
mechanical strength to the plant parts. It is composed of four different kinds of elements,
namely, tracheids, vessels, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma. Tracheids are elongated or
tube like cells with thick and lignified walls and tapering ends. These are dead and are
without protoplasm. In flowering plants, tracheids and vessels are the main water
transporting elements. Vessel is a long cylindrical tube-like structure made up of many cells
called vessel members. Vessel members are interconnected through perforations in their
common walls. Primary xylem is of two types – protoxylem and metaxylem. The first formed
primary xylem elements are called protoxylem and the later formed primary xylem is called
metaxylem. In stems, the protoxylem lies towards the centre (pith) and the metaxylem lies
towards the periphery of the organ. This type of primary xylem is called
Phloem transports food materials, usually from leaves to other parts of the plant. Phloem in
angiosperms is composed of sieve tube elements, companion cells, and phloem parenchyma
and phloem fibres. Sieve tube elements are also long, tube-like structures, arranged
longitudinally and are associated with the companion cells. The functions of sieve tubes are
controlled by the nucleus of companion cells. The companion cells are specialised
parenchymatous cells, which are closely associated with sieve tube elements. The
companion cells help in maintaining the pressure gradient in the sieve tubes. Phloem
parenchyma is made up of elongated, tapering cylindrical cells which have dense cytoplasm
and nucleus. The phloem parenchyma stores food material and other substances like resins,
latex and mucilage. Phloem fibres (bast fibres) are made up of sclerenchymatous cells.
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These are generally absent in the primary phloem but are found in the secondary phloem.
At maturity, these fibres lose their protoplasm and become dead. The first formed primary
phloem consists of narrow sieve tubes and is referred to as protophloem and the later
formed phloem has bigger sieve tubes and is referred to as metaphloem.
1.) Xylem and phloem are examples of
a.) Meristematic tissue
b.) Simple tissue
c.) Protective tissue
d.) Complex tissue
2.) The protoxylem lies towards periphery and metaxylem lies towards the centre. Such
arrangement of primary xylem is known as
a.) Exarch
b.) Endarch
c.) Inarch
3.) What are the functions of xylem and phloem?
4.) Define Protoxylem and Metaxylem?
5.) Define Protophloem and Metaphloem?
6.) Explain the composition of xylem?
Answer key
1.) d
2.) a
3.) Functions of xylem and Phloem are as follows;
• Xylem – Xylem functions as a conducting tissue for water and minerals from roots to
the stem and leaves. It also provides mechanical strength to the plant parts.
• Phloem – Phloem transports food materials, usually from leaves to other parts of the
plant. The phloem parenchyma stores food material and other substances like resins,
latex and mucilage.
4.) The first formed primary xylem elements are called protoxylem and the later formed
primary xylem is called metaxylem.
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Structural Organisation in
Animals
Frogs are amphibians belonging to Phylum Chordata. Most common species in India is Rana
tigrina. They are cold-blooded and exhibit camouflage. In order to protect themselves from
extreme hold and cold, they take shelter through summer sleep and winter sleep.
They have a smooth and slippery skin due to the presence of mucus and absorbs water
through the skin. Their body is divisible into head and trunk where a neck and tail are
absent. A pair of nostrils are found just above the mouth with bulged eyes covered by
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nictitating membrane protecting them in water. The tympanum present on either side of
the eye receives sound signals. The forelimbs (ending in four digits) and hind limbs (ending
in five digits) enable them to swim, walk, burrow and leap. They exhibit sexual dimorphism
Habitat and Habit

Rana tigrina is the most common frog found in India. It is also called bull frog because, of its
large and loud call. It is found in or near freshwater, marshes, ditches, ponds and shallow
water bodies. It has various reasons to lead amphibious (Amphi — two; bios — life) life,
such as-
(i) It can respire both through skin and lungs.
(ii) Feeding-Frog feeds on insects, worms and spiders, etc. It is carnivorous. The prey is
captured with the help of tongue.
( iii). Breeding-Frogs breed in rainy season. The male frog produce a high pitched croaking
sound to attract the female. The male frog lacks copulatory organs. The sexual embrace in
which the eggs and sperms are discharged in water is called amplexus or false copulation.
It is a characteristic of amphibians. The shedding of oocytes (eggs) by the female at the end
of amplexus is called oviposition. The shedded oocytes and sperms remain embedded in a
jelly like sac called as spawn. Fertilisation in frogs is external. The fertilised eggs develop into
fish like tailed larvae, the tadpoles, which respire through gills. It feeds on plant matter
(herbivore) and gradually develops into adult frog.
( iv). Hibernation and Aestivation
Frog is a cold-blooded (poikilothermic) animal. Its body temperature fluctuates according to
its surrounding temperature. To avoid the adverse conditions of environment, frog burrows
inside the soil and lies in a” state of rest or sleep during summers and winters.
The resting condition in winter is called hibernation or winter sleep and the condition of rest
in summer is called aestivation or summer sleep.
Distribution
Frogs are widespread in tropical and temperate regions. There are about 2600 species of
frogs all over – the world. In India, four species of frogs are mainly found.
These are as follows
(i) Rana tigrina most widely distributed found all over the world except in countries like
Australia, New Zealand and Southern South America and largest species of India.
(ii) Rana cyanophlyctis Found in Rajasthan, UP and MP.
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(iii) Rana malabaricus Common in Maharashtra.
Morphology
The frog has an ovoid, streamlined and slightly flattened body. It is about 10-15 cm long and
shows bilateral symmetry, i.e., its right and left halves are mirror images of each other
Eye
A little behind the nostrils, two large eyes are present, > situated along the sides. The eyes
are spherical and protruded laterally.
Each eye has a thick upper and a thin lower eyelid. The upper part of the lower eyelid is
modified into a transparent fold called nictitating membrane.
Digestive System
The alimentary canal of frog is short because frogs are carnivores and hence, the length of
intestine is reduced. It contains, mouth, buccopharyngeal cavity, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine, rectum and cloaca.
Mouth It is present as a wide opening which opens into bucco-pharyngeal cavity. In frog
teeth are not used for chewing but they prevent the escape of live food. Mouth opens into
the buccal cavity that leads to oesophagus through pharynx..
Digestion of Food
The digestion of food takes place by the action of HCI and gastric juices secreted from the
walls of stomach. The partially digested food called chyme is passed from stomach to the
first part of the intestine, the duodenum.
The duodenum receives bile from gall bladder and pancreatic juice from the pancreas
through a common bile duct. Bile emulsifies fat and pancreatic juices digest carbohydrates
and proteins.
Final digestion occurs in the intestine. Digested food is absorbed by the numerous finger-
like folds in the inner wall of intestine called villi and microvilli. The undigested solid waste
moves into rectum and passes out through cloaca.
Respiratory System
Frogs respire by three modes of respiration
(a) Cutaneous respiration occurs through moist skin of the frog.
(b) Buccopharyngeal respiration occurs when the animal is on land or partially immersed in
water. It occurs by thin, vascular, moist lining of buccopharyngeal cavity.
Circulatory system:
It is a muscular structure situated in the upper part of body cavity. It has three chambers,
i.e., two atria (sing, atrium) and one ventricle. The heart is covered by a membrane called
pericardium.
Sinus venosus receives blood through the major veins called vena cava and opens into right
auricle.
The left auricle receives oxygenated blood from the lungs by a common pulmonary vein. The
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auricles send their blood into ventricle where the blood gets mixed up. The ventricle opens
into a sac-like conus arteriosus on the ventral side of the heart.
There are two accessory chambers in the frog’s heart, a tubular truncus arteriosus placed on
the ventral side of the right auricle and a triangular sinus venosus present on the dorsal side
of the heart.
Nervous System
The system for control and coordination is highly evolved in the frog. It includes both
nervous system and endocrine system. The nervous system of frogs consists of a central
nervous system, a peripheral nervous system and an autonomic nervous system.
It includes brain and spinal cord. The brain is enclosed in a bony structure called cranium or
brain box and the spinal cord lies inside the vertebral column. The brain is classified as
forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
Sense Organs
The frogs have different types of sense organs such j as organs of touch (sensory papillae),
taste (taste buds), smell (nasal epithelium), vision (eyes) and hearing (tympanum with
internal ears), Out of these, eyes and ears are well organised structures and the rest are
cellular aggregations around the nerve endings. Eyes in a frog are a pair of spherical
structures situated in the orbit present in the skull. These are simple eyes.
External ear is absent in frogs and only tympanum can be seen externally. The ear is an
organ of hearing as well as balancing (equilibrium).
Portal system
Special venous connection between liver and intestine as well as the kidney and lower parts
of the body are present in frogs. The former is called hepatic portal system and the latter is
called renal portal system. The blood vessels found in frogs are arteries, arterioles, veins,
venules and blood capillaries. Arteries carry blood from the heart to different body parts.
Veins bring blood from different body parts to the heart.
Digestive system of frog
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Question Bank
MCQ
1. Which of these statements is true about frog?
a) It lives both on land and in sea water
b) They cannot survive in freshwater
c) Rana tigrina is a rare species
d) They belong to class Amphibia
2. Frogs are _______
a) homoeothermic
b) warm-blooded
c) poikilothermic
d) heterothermic
3. Which of these methods are utilized by frogs for protection?
a) Speed
b) Spikes
c) Mimicry
d) Playing dead
4. Which of these statements is false about frogs?
a) They do not aestivate
b) They change colour
c) They live in burrows
d) They hibernate
5. Which of these describes the skin of frog?
a) Thick, leathery
b) Smooth, slippery
c) Hard, dry
d) Thin, membranous
7. Which of these structures protects the eyes of the frog in water?
a) Nictitating membrane
b) Tympanum
c) Bidder’s canal
d) Cloaca
8. Which of these structures in frog receive sound signals?
a) Webbed feet
b) Skin
c) Nictitating membrane
d) Tympanum
9. How many digits does the forelimb and hind limb of frog have respectively?
a) 3, 4
b) 5, 4
c) 4, 5
d) 4, 3
10. Frogs show sexual dimorphism. True or false?
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a) True
b) False
Q. 11 Give two identifying features of an adult male frog.
A.11. Following are the features of an adult frog:
The loose skin folds in the throat of a male frog known as vocal sacs. They produce a
croaking sound.
Nuptial pads are copulatory pads present on the forelimb of the male frog. These help in
closing the female during Amplexus.
Q.12. Name the process by which a tadpole develops into an adult frog?
A.12. The process in which a tadpole turns into a frog is called metamorphosis.
Q.13. Mention the function of Ureters in frog?
A.13. Frogs are amphibians with two ureters that emerge from the kidneys.
In males, the ureters function as a urogenital duct that opens into the cloaca. It helps in
passing the urine as well as the sperm to the exterior. In females, the ureters open
separately in the cloaca and excrete only the urine.
Q. 14 Select the correct option:
The figure given here is related with female reproductive system of frog. Identify the parts
labelled as A to D.
(A) A- Ovary; B- Ureter; C- Oviduct; D- Ovisac

(B) A- Ovisac; B- Urinogenital duct; C-Bidder's canal D- Ovary
( C ) A- Ovary; B- Urinogenital duct; C- Ovisac; D- Oviduct
( D ) A- Ovisac; B- Urinogenital duct; C-Bidder's canal D- Oviduct
Read the statement A and B and identify the correct choice from those given below.
Statement (A): The egg of frog is moderately telolecithal.
Statement (B): Sooner (or) later the cleavage pattern becomes irregular.
A-Statement (A) is correct, (B) is wrong
B-Statement (B) is correct, (A) is wrong
C-Both the statements (A) and (B) are correct
D-Statement (A) is the reason for statement (B)
Answer : Option D
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Cell-The Unit of Life
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A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of
life’s processes.”
A cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life. The study of cells from its basic structure
to the functions of every cell organelle is called Cell Biology. Robert Hooke was the first
Biologist who discovered cells.
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under another compound microscope with higher
magnification. This time, he had noted that the cells exhibited some form of movement
(motility). As a result, Leeuwenhoek concluded that these microscopic entities were “alive.”
Eventually, after a host of other observations, these entities were named as animalcules.
In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very first insights into the cell
structure. He was able to describe the nucleus present in the cells of orchids.
Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry
out life’s processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as
follows:
Cell Organelles and their Functions
Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular
activities and cellular reproduction.
Nuclear membrane
The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the
nucleus and other cell organelles.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human
cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Endoplasmic reticulum
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The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout
the cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids,
steroids and proteins.
Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of
materials within the cell.
Ribosome
Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.
Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it

produces ATP – the cell’s energy currency.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in
cell renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment
called chlorophyll.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.
Cell Theory
Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden,
and Rudolf Virchow. The cell theory states that:
• All living species on Earth are composed of cells.

• A cell is the basic unit of life.
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
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BACTERIAL CELL
Different types of cells
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114
Comparison between a prokaryotic, plant and animal cell
Question Bank
Multicellular organisms exhibit division of labour. Comment.
Ans. The cells of a multicellular organism are organised to form tissues such as bones, blood
etc. The tissues collectively form an organ such as kidney, liver, etc. and these organs
organize to form an organ system, for e.g., digestive system, circulatory system etc. Every
single cell has its own function. Different organs and organ systems carry out different
functions which help in the proper functioning of an individual.
What is a satellite chromosome?
Ans. The chromosomes that have an additional or secondary constriction at the distal part
of the arm formed by a chromatin thread are known as satellite chromosomes. These
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appear as an outgrowth or a small fragment. These are also known as marker chromosomes.
The chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 16, 21, and 22 are satellite chromosomes.
What do you mean by plasmids? What role do they play in bacteria?
Ans. A plasmid is an autonomously replicating, extra-chromosomal, circular, double-
stranded DNA found in the cytoplasm of the bacterial cell. These usually remain separate
from the chromosome.
Role- Plasmids act as vectors to transfer important genes and in recombination
experiments. It also helps in bacterial conjugation. For eg., pBR322
What is a mesosome?
Ans. Mesosome is formed by the extension of the plasma membrane into the cell in
prokaryotes. It facilitates cell wall formation, DNA replication, and distribution of DNA to the
daughter cells. It also helps in respiration and secretion and increases the surface area of
the plasma membrane and enzymatic content.
What are histones? What role do they play?
Ans. Histones are alkaline proteins found inside the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. They
package the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes. They are the main proteins in
chromatin.
What does “S” stand for in the 70S and 80S ribosome?
Ans.“S” is the Svedberg’s unit for sedimentation coefficient. It depicts the rate of
sedimentation of a cell during ultracentrifugation. Heavier the cell structure, higher is the
sedimentation coefficient.
Why are mitochondria known as the “powerhouse of the cell”?
Ans. Mitochondria carry out the process of anaerobic respiration and generate ATP for cell
functioning. That is why it is called “powerhouse of the cell”.
What is the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane?
Ans. The fluid mosaic model was proposed by Singer and Nicholson. It explains the
structures and functions of various cell membranes. According to this model, the protein
molecules are embedded in the lipid bilayer. This lipid bilayer gives elasticity and fluidity to
the cell membrane.
Define tonoplast?
Ans.Tonoplast, also called as the vacuolar membrane is the cytoplasmic membrane filled
with cell sap and functions as a membrane boundary of the vacuole of plant cells
What is the significance of vacuole in a plant cell?
Ans.The vacuole is the primary storage organelle of a cell. In the plant cell, this organelle
plays a primary role in storing water, food and other essential minerals required for their
cellular activities.
What is the main function of the chloroplast in a plant cell?
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Ans.The chloroplast is green coloured plastids, which comprises of green-coloured pigments
within the plant cell and are called as the chlorophyll. The most important function of the
chloroplast is the production of food by the process of photosynthesis.
How many types of plastids are there in a plant cell?
A.20.There are three types of plastids- chloroplast, chromoplast and leucoplast.
Case study question 1
Read the following and answer any four questions:
The detailed structure of the membrane was studied only after the advent of the electron
microscope in the 1950s. Meanwhile, chemical studies on the cell membrane, especially in
human red blood cells (RBCs), enabled the scientists to deduce the possible structure of the
plasma membrane. These studies showed that the cell membrane is composed of lipids,
proteins and carbohydrates.
Which component of the plasma membrane is arranged as a bilayer?
Nucleic acid
Lipid
Protein
Carbohydrate
The lipid component of the membrane mainly consists of ________.
Phosphoglycerides
Amino acids
Glycoproteins
Carbohydrate
What percentage of the membrane of human erythrocytes consists of proteins?
40
70
52
66
Depending on the ease of extraction, membrane proteins can be of ________ types.
Three
Two
Four
Five
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Assertion: The plasma membrane is selectively permeable to some molecules present on
either side of it.
Reason: Neutral solutes may move across the membrane by the process of simple diffusion.
Both assertion and reason are true, and reason is the correct explanation of the assertion.
Both assertion and reason are true, and reason is not the correct explanation of the
assertion.
Assertion is true but reason is false.
Both assertion and reason are false.
Answer Key:
(b) The lipids are arranged in a bilayer in the plasma membrane with the polar head towards
the outer sides and the hydrophobic tails towards the inner part.
(a) The lipid component of the membrane mainly consists of phosphoglycerides.
(c) In human beings, the membrane of the erythrocyte has approximately 52 percent
protein and 40 percent lipids.
(b) Depending on the ease of extraction, membrane proteins can be classified into two types
– integral or peripheral.
(b) The plasma membrane is selectively permeable to some molecules present on either
side of it. Neutral solutes may move across the membrane by the process of simple diffusion
along the concentration gradient, i.e., from higher concentration to the lower. Hence, both
assertion and reason are true, but reason is not the correct explanation of the assertion.
Case study questions 2

Read the following and answer any four questions:
Plastids are found in all plant cells and in euglenoids. These are easily observed under the
microscope as they are large. They bear some specific pigments, thus imparting specific
colours to the plants. Plastids consist of numerous membrane layers embedded in a
material called the stroma. They have their own genome and ribosomes.
The ________ are the colourless plastids of varied shapes and sizes with stored nutrients.
Leucoplasts
Chloroplasts
Chromoplasts
Carotenoids
The __________ store proteins in grains.
Amyloplasts
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Aleuroplasts
Elaioplasts
Carotenoid
Which type of plastid stores carbohydrates in potatoes?
Amyloplasts
Aleuroplasts
Elaioplasts
Carotenoid
The space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is called the stroma.
Matrix
Cytoplasm
Stroma
Lumen
Assertion: The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments which are
responsible for trapping light energy essential for photosynthesis.
Reason: They also impart colours to the parts of the plant as yellow, orange or red colour.
Both assertion and reason are true, and reason is the correct explanation of the assertion.
Both assertion and reason are true, and reason is not the correct explanation of the
assertion.
Assertion is true but reason is false.
Both assertion and reason are false.
Answer Key:
(a) The leucoplasts are the colourless plastids of varied shapes and sizes with stored
nutrients.
(b) The aleuroplasts store proteins in grains.
(a) Amyloplasts are leucoplasts store carbohydrates (starch) in potato.
(c) The space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is called the stroma.
(c) The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments which are responsible for
trapping light energy essential for photosynthesis. The chromoplasts impart colours to the
parts of the plant as yellow, orange or red colour. Hence, Assertion is true but reason is
false.
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Biomolecules
What are Biomolecules?

Biomolecules are the most essential organic molecules, which are involved in the
maintenance and metabolic processes of living organisms. These non-living molecules are
the actual foot-soldiers of the battle of sustenance of life. They range from small molecules
such as primary and secondary metabolites and hormones to large macromolecules like
proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids etc.
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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are chemically defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds
which produce them on hydrolysis. They’re the most abundant dietary source of energy;
they are structurally very important for many living organisms as they form a major
structural component, e.g. cellulose is an important structural fibre for plants.
Proteins
Proteins are another class of indispensable biomolecules, which make up around 50per cent
of the cellular dry weight. Proteins are polymers of amino acids arranged in the form of
polypeptide chains.
Proteins is classified as primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary in some cases.
Proteins play both structural and dynamic roles. Myosin is the protein that allows
movement by contraction of muscles. Most enzymes are proteinaceous in nature.
(a) Primary structure: Is found in the form of linear sequence of amino acids. First amino
acid is called N-terminal amino acid and last amino acid is called C-terminal amino acid.
(b) Secondary structure: Polypeptide chain undergoes folding or coiling which is stabilized
by hydrogen bonding. Right handed helices are observed. e.g., fibrous protein in hair, nails.
(c) Tertiary structure: Long protein chain is folded upon itself like a hollow wollen ball. Gives
a 3-dimensional view of protein, e.g., myosin.
(d) Quaternary structure: Two or more polypeptides with their foldings and coilings are
arranged with respect to each other. e.g., Human haemoglobin molecule has 4 peptide
chains - 2a and 2b subunits.
Peptide bond: Formed between the carboxyl (-COOH) group of one amino acid and the
amino (-NH ) group of the next amino acid with the elimination of water molecule..
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids refer to the genetic material found in the cell that carries all the hereditary
information from parents to progeny. There are two types of nucleic acids namely,
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The main function of nucleic acid is
the transfer of genetic information and synthesis of proteins by processes known as
translation and transcription. The monomeric unit of nucleic acids is known as nucleotide
and is composed of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate. The nucleotides are
linked by a 3’ and 5’ phosphodiester bond. The nitrogen base attached to the pentose sugar
makes the nucleotide distinct. There are 4 major nitrogenous bases found in DNA: adenine,
guanine, cytosine, and thymine. In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil. The DNA structure is
described as a double-helix or double-helical structure which is formed by hydrogen
bonding between the bases of two antiparallel polynucleotide chains. Overall, the DNA
structure looks similar to a twisted ladder.
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Lipids
Lipids are organic substances that are insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents, are
related to fatty acids and are utilized by the living cell. They include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-
soluble vitamins, mono-, di- or triglycerides, phospholipids
What Are Enzymes?

“Enzymes can be defined as biological polymers that catalyse biochemical
reactions.”
The majority of enzymes are proteins with catalytic capabilities crucial to perform different
processes. Metabolic processes and other chemical reactions in the cell are carried out by a set of
enzymes that are necessary to sustain life.
The initial stage of metabolic process depends upon the enzymes, which react with a molecule
and is called the substrate. Enzymes convert the substrates into other distinct molecules, which
are known as products.
Enzyme Structure
Enzymes are a linear chain of amino acids, which give rise to a three-dimensional structure.
The sequence of amino acids specifies the structure, which in turn identifies the catalytic
activity of the enzyme. Upon heating, the enzyme’s structure denatures, resulting in a loss
of enzyme activity, which typically is associated with temperature.
Compared to its substrates, enzymes are typically large with varying sizes, ranging from 62
amino acid residues to an average of 2500 residues found in fatty acid synthase. Only a
small section of the structure is involved in catalysis and is situated next to the binding sites.
The catalytic site and binding site together constitute the enzyme’s active site. A small
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number of ribozymes exist which serve as an RNA-based biological catalyst. It reacts in
complex with proteins
Oxidoreductases
These catalyze oxidation and reduction reactions, e.g. pyruvate dehydrogenase, catalysing
the oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A
Transferases
These catalyze transferring of the chemical group from one to another compound. An
example is a transaminase, which transfers an amino group from one molecule to another.
Hydrolases
They catalyze the hydrolysis of a bond. For example, the enzyme pepsin hydrolyses peptide
bonds in proteins.
Lyases
These catalyze the breakage of bonds without catalysis, e.g. aldolase (an enzyme in
glycolysis) catalyzes the splitting of fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate to glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
Isomerases
They catalyze the formation of an isomer of a compound. Example: phosphoglucomutase
catalyses the conversion of glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate.
Ligases
Ligases catalyze the association of two molecules. For example, DNA ligase catalyzes the
joining of two fragments of DNA by forming a phosphodiester bond
Cofactors
Cofactors are non-proteinous substances that associate with enzymes. A cofactor is
essential for the functioning of an enzyme. An enzyme without a cofactor is called an
apoenzyme. An enzyme and its cofactor together constitute the holoenzyme.
There are three kinds of cofactors present in enzymes:
Prosthetic groups: These are cofactors tightly bound to an enzyme at all times. FAD (flavin
adenine dinucleotide) is a prosthetic group present in many enzymes.
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Coenzyme: A coenzyme binds to an enzyme only during catalysis. At all other times, it is
detached from the enzyme. NAD+ is a common coenzyme.
Metal ions: For the catalysis of certain enzymes, a metal ion is required at the active site to
form coordinate bonds. Zn2+ is a metal ion cofactor used by a number of enzymes.
Action of Enzymes
Once substrate (S) binds to this active site, they form a complex (intermediate-ES) which
then produces the product (P) and the enzyme (E).
The enzyme action basically happens in two steps:
Step1: Combining of enzyme and the reactant/substrate.
E+S → [ES]
Step 2: Disintegration of the complex molecule to give the product.
[ES]→E+P
Thus, the whole catalyst action of enzymes is summarized as:
E + S → [ES] → [EP] → E + P
Factors affecting enzyme activity :

(a) Temperature: Show highest activity at optimum temperature. Activity declines above
and below the optimum value.
(b) pH: Enzymes function in a narrow range of pH. Highest activity at optimum pH.
(c) Concentration of substrate: The velocity of enzymatic reaction rises with increase in
substrate concentration till it reaches maximum velocity). Further increase of substrate does
not increase the rate of reaction as no free enzyme molecules are available to find with
additional substrate.
V max Enzyme inhibition: When the binding of a chemical shuts off enzyme activity, the
process is called inhibition and chemical is called inhibitor.
Competitive inhibition: Inhibitor closely resembles the substrate in its molecular structure
and inhibits the enzyme activity. E.g., inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase by malonate.
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QUESTION BANK
MCQ
1. Which biomolecule is distributed more widely in a cell?
Chloroplast
RNA
DNA
Spaherosomes
2. The most common secondary structure of proteins is
β-pleated sheet
β-pleated sheet parallel
β-pleated sheet non-parallel
α-helix
Enzyme coenzyme theory
3. Haemoglobin has
Primary structure
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure
Quaternary structure
4. The fastest enzyme is
DNA gyrase
Pepsin
DNA polymerase
Carbonic anhydrase
5. Which of the following is a phospholipid?
Sterol
Cholesterol
Lecithin
Steroid
Answers: 1: b, 2: d, 3: d, 4 : d, 5: c
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How are co-factors different from prosthetic groups?
Ans. Prosthetic groups are organic compounds whereas cofactors can be organic or
inorganic (metal ions). Prosthetics are distinguished from cofactors as they are tightly bound
to the apoenzyme.
Chitin, Cellulose, Glycogen, Polysaccharides and Starch are present in the following
options. Choose and write appropriately against each.
a) Cotton fibre b) Exoskeleton of Cockroach c) Liver d) Peeled Potato
Ans. a) Cotton fibre – Cellulose
b) The exoskeleton of Cockroach – Chitin
c) Liver – Glycogen
d) Peeled Potato – Starch
Alanine and Glycine are different with regards to one substituent on the a-carbon.
Mention other common substituent groups.
Ans. The common substituent groups are – H and NH2COOH.
Oxidoreductase catalyses the following reaction between substrates A and A’, complete
the reaction
A reduced + A’ oxidized →
Ans. The enzyme oxidoreductase catalyses the transfer of e– from the reductant, known as
the electron donor to the oxidant, known as the electron receptor. The reaction is as
follows:
What are Biomolecules?

Ans.Biomolecules are the essential organic molecules, primarily involved in the maintenance
and metabolic processes of living organisms.
Which is the most abundant element found in living organisms?
Ans.The most abundant element in living organisms is water.
How many types of biomolecules are there?
Ans.There are four major classes of Biomolecules – Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic acids
and Lipids.
The functional groups in amino acids are weak bases and acids chemically, the ionization
is affected by the pH of the solution. The activity for several enzymes is affected by the
ambient pH and is depicted in the curve below, explain in brief.
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Ans. Enzymes usually operate in a narrow range of pH. Most of them indicate their highest
activity at a pH known as the optimum pH and decline above and below this value.
Extremely low or high pH normally leads to complete loss of activity for most of the
enzymes. The graph indicates the maximum activity of the enzymes at the optimum pH.
The living state is a non-equilibrium steady-state to be able to perform work – Comment.
Ans. Living entities exist in a steady state that is characterized by the concentration of every
biomolecule, which is in metabolic flux. Any physical or chemical phenomena move
parallelly to the equilibrium. Living entities work continuously hence they cannot reach
equilibrium. Thus living state is in a non-equilibrium steady-state to be able to perform work
that is attained via energy provided by metabolism.
Case study 1
Almost all enzymes are proteins. There are some nucleic acids that behave like enzymes.
These are called ribozymes. An enzyme like any protein has a primary structure, i.e., amino
acid sequence of the protein. An enzyme like any protein has the secondary and the tertiary
structure. When you look at a tertiary structure you will notice that the backbone of the
protein chain folds upon itself, the chain criss-crosses itself and hence, many crevices or
pockets are made. One such pocket is the ‘active site’. An active site of an enzyme is a
crevice or pocket into which the substrate fits. Thus enzymes, through their active site,
catalyse reactions at a high rate. Enzyme catalysts differ from inorganic catalysts in many
ways, but one major difference needs mention. Inorganic catalysts work efficiently at high
temperatures and high pressures, while enzymes get damaged at high temperatures (say
above 40°C). However, enzymes isolated from organisms who normally live under extremely
high temperatures (e.g., hot vents and sulphur springs), are stable and retain their catalytic
power even at high temperatures (upto 80°-90°C). Thermal stability is thus an important
quality of such enzymes isolated from thermophilic organisms.
1.) _____________ is the pocket like region of an enzyme into which substrate molecules
bind.
a) Protein site
b) Co-factors
c) Coenzyme
d) Active site
2.) Identify incorrect statement
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Statement 1 – Nucleic acids which behave like enzymes are commonly termed as
nucliozymes.
Statement 2 – An enzyme like any protein has a primary, secondary and the tertiary
structure.
Statement 3 – Enzyme catalysts differ from inorganic catalysts in many ways.
Statement 4 – All enzymes are proteins.
a.) Only 1
b) Both 1 & 3
c) Only 3
3.) How active site of enzymes are formed?
4.) Explain how Enzyme catalysts differ from inorganic catalysts?
5.) What is ribozymes?
Answer key
1.) d
2.) a
3.) Enzyme have primary, secondary and tertiary structure like proteins. In tertiary structure,
backbone of the protein chain folds upon itself, the chain criss-crosses itself and leads to the
formation of many crevices or pockets are made. These pockets are referred
as active site of enzyme. An active site of an enzyme is a crevice or pocket into which the
substrate fits.
4.) Enzyme catalysts differ from inorganic catalysts in many ways. Inorganic catalysts work
efficiently at high temperatures and high pressures, while enzymes get damaged at high
temperatures (above 40°C). There are some exceptions such as enzyme isolated from
thermophilic organisms.
5.) There are some nucleic acid behave like an enzymes, these nucleic acid is termed as
ribozymes.
Case study 2
The activity of an enzyme can be affected by a change in the conditions which can alter the
tertiary structure of the protein. These include temperature, pH, and change in substrate
concentration or binding of specific chemicals that regulate its activity. Temperature and pH
Enzymes generally function in a narrow range of temperature and pH. Each enzyme shows
its highest activity at a particular temperature and pH called the optimum temperature and
optimum pH. Activity declines both below and above the optimum value. Low temperature
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preserves the enzyme in a temporarily inactive state whereas high temperature destroys
enzymatic activity because proteins are denatured by heat.
Concentration of Substrate With the increase in substrate concentration, the velocity of the
enzymatic reaction rises at first. The reaction ultimately reaches a maximum velocity (Vmax)
which is not exceeded by any further rise in concentration of the substrate. This is because
the enzyme molecules are fewer than the substrate molecules and after saturation of these
molecules, there are no free enzyme molecules to bind with the additional substrate
molecules.
The activity of an enzyme is also sensitive to the presence of specific chemicals that bind to
the enzyme. When the binding of the chemical shuts off enzyme activity, the process is
called inhibition and the chemical is called an inhibitor.
When the inhibitor closely resembles the substrate in its molecular structure and inhibits
the activity of the enzyme, it is known as competitive inhibitor. Due to its close structural
similarity with the substrate, the inhibitor competes with the substrate for the substrate
binding site of the enzyme. Consequently, the substrate cannot bind and as a result, the
enzyme action declines, e.g., inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase by malonate which
closely resembles the substrate succinate in structure. Such competitive inhibitors are often
used in the control of bacterial pathogens.
1.) _______________ is a chemical compound or molecule which is responsible for
decrease or stop the enzyme activity by binding to an enzyme.
a.) Catalyser
b) Inhibitor
c) Regulator
d) Controller
2.) _______________ preserve the enzyme and keep them in temporarily inactive state.
a.) Optimum pH
b) Low pH
c) Optimum temperature
d) Low temperature
3.) Give reason – why most of the enzymes destroyed in high temperature condition?
4.) Explain the relation between substrate concentration and enzymatic activity?
5.) Explain competitive inhibition and inhibitor.
Answer key
1.) b
2.) d
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3.) Enzymes are composed of one or several polypeptide chains. Almost all enzymes are
protein. High temperature condition destroys enzymatic activity because proteins are
denatured by heat.
4.) Concentration of Substrate With the increase in substrate concentration, the velocity of
the enzymatic reaction rises at first. The reaction ultimately reaches a maximum velocity
(Vmax) which is not exceeded by any further rise in concentration of the substrate. This is
because the enzyme molecules are fewer than the substrate molecules and after saturation
of these molecules, there are no free enzyme molecules to bind with the additional
substrate molecules.
5.) When the inhibitor closely resembles the substrate in its molecular structure and inhibits
enzyme action declines. This phenomenon is called as competitive inhibition
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Cell Cycle and Cell Division
131
132
133
A diagrammatic view of cell cycle indicating formation of two cells from one cell
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A Diagrammatic view of Stages of Mitosis
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Stages of Meiosis I
Stages of Meiosis-II
QUESTION BANK
Consider the following statements.
I. RER plays a major role in glycogenesis.
II. Sarcoplasmic reticulum of striated muscles is a modified form of SER.
III. SER plays a major role in the synthesis of steroid hormones.
IV. ER is one of the organelles of endomembrane system.
Choose the option containing incorrect statements.
(a) I and II (b) II, III and IV
(c) Only I (d) Only III (c)
Which one of the following is the correct labelling of given structures of Golgi apparatus?
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(a) A–Cisternae, B–Vesicle, C–Cis face, D–Trans face
(b) A–Cisternae, B–Vesicle, C–Trans face, D–Cis face
(c) A–Tubules, B–Vesicle, C–Trans face, D–Cis face
(d) A–Vesicle, B–Cisternae, C–Cis face, D–Trans face (b)
Identify A to F in the sectional view of a chloroplast showing the different parts.
(a) A–Inner membrane, B–Granum, C–Outer membrane, D–Stroma lamella, E–Stroma, F–

Thylakoid
(b) A–Outer membrane, B–Inner membrane, C–Granum, D–Thylakoid, E–Stroma lamella, F–
Stroma
(c) A–Thylakoid, B–Outer membrane, C–Stroma, D–Stroma lamella, E–Granum, F–Inner
membrane
(d) A–Outer membrane, B–Stroma, C–Inner membrane, D–Granum, E–Thylakoid F–Stroma
lamella (b)
Identify A to D in the diagrammatic representation of internal structure of cilia
(a) A–Interdoublet bridge, B–Central microtubule, C–Plasma membrane, D–Radial spoke

(b) A–Plasma membrane, B–Central microtubule, C–Interdoublet bridge, D–Radial spoke
(c) A–Plasma membrane, B–Interdoublet bridge, C–Central microtubule, D–Radial spoke
(d) A–Plasma membrane, B–Interdoublet bridge, C–Radial spoke, D–Central microtubule (c)
In the given diagram of types of chromosomes, identify A-D.
(a) A–Telocentric chromosome, B–Acrocentric chromosome, C–Submetacentric

chromosome,
D–Metacentric chromosome
(b) A–Acrocentric chromosome, B–Telocentric chromosome, C–Metacentric chromosome,
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D– Submetacentric chromosome
(c) A–Submetacentric chromosome, B–Metacentric chromosome, C–Telocentric
chromosome, D–Acrocentric chromosome
(d) A–Metacentric chromosome, B–Submetacentric chromosome, C–Acrocentric
chromosome, D–Telocentric chromosome (a)
Each of these questions contains two statements Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Each of
these questions also has four alternative choices, any one of which is the correct answer.
You have to select one of the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) given below-
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true, but R is false
(d) A is false, but R is true
Assertion- Smaller cells are usually metabolically active cells.

Reason - Smaller cells have higher nucleocytoplasmic ratio and higher surface volume ratio.
(a)
Assertion- Cell is an open system.

Reason-Cell receives a number of materials including energy containing nutrients from
outside and also release metabolic wastes into its surroundings. (a)
Assertion - Every cell behaves as a compartment.

Reason - Cells are partially covered over by a membrane. (c)
Assertion - A cell is a closed compartment.

Reason - Plasma membrane of a cell is selectively permeable. (b)
Assertion - The cisternae in Golgi complex have cis face and trans face.
Reason - The cis face is also called forming face and trans face is also called maturing face. (b)
Differentiate between cytokinesis of plant and animal cell.

Animal Cytokinesis: Appearance of furrow in plasma membrane which deepens and joins in
the centre, dividing cell cytoplasm into two.
Plant cytokinesis: Formation of new cell wall begins with the formation of a simple
precursor — cell plate which represents the middle lamella between the walls of two
adjacent cells.
Why does meiosis have a role in evolution and not mitosis?

Meiosis undergoes recombination and crossing over to produce gametes. This gives rise to
new combinations of genetic material and creates diversity.
Mention significance of ‘S’ phase of cell cycle.

In this phase synthesis or replication of DNA takes place. In this way, the genetic material of
a cell is doubled before it enters mitosis or meiosis, allowing there to be enough DNA to be
split into daughter cells.
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What is quiescent phase in cell cycle? During which phase of cell cycle this event occur.
Some dividing cells at the end of mitotic phase exits the cell cycle and enter into a
vegetative inactive stage, also called quiescent phase. This occurs during G1 phase of cell
cycle.
What is importance of a kinetochore?

Ans: It mediates direct attachments between microtubules and centromere of chromosome
Give the terms for the following:

(a) The period between 2 successive mitotic divisions.
(b) Cell division in which chromosome number is halved.
(c) Phase in cell cycle where DNA is synthesised.
(d) Division of nuclear material.
Ans- (a) Interphase
(b) Meiosis
(c) S phase
(d) Karyokinesis
Give two characteristics features of prophase of mitosis.
Ans: Initiation of condensation of chromosome takes place.

The centrosome begins to move towards opposite poles of the cell.
Explain the events that take place throughout the inter-phase.
• The interphase is also known as the preparatory phase of the cell cycle.
• During this period although the cell is said to be in a resting phase, it is metabolically
quite active.
• It is the time during which the cell prepares itself for division by enduring both DNA
replication and cell growth in a sequential and orderly manner and it is completed in
three steps.
(i) G1 (Gap 1) phase- This phase basically involves the synthesis of RNA and protein.
(ii) S (Synthesis) phase – It involves DNA replication. Throughout this time the amount of
DNA doubled per cell. In animal cells, during the S phase DNA replication takes place in
the nucleus, and the centriole replicates in the cytoplasm.
(iii) G2 (Gap 2) phase – It also involves RNA and protein synthesis.
What is the significance of meiosis?

Ans- Formation of gametes,
Genetic information,
Assortment of chromosomes,
Crossing over.
Case Based Question-
Anaphase – At the onset of anaphase, each chromosome arranged at the metaphase plate is
split simultaneously and the two daughter chromatids, now referred to as daughter
chromosomes of the future daughter nuclei, begin their migration towards the two opposite
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poles. As each chromosome moves away from the equatorial plate, the centromere of each
chromosome remains directed towards the pole and hence at the leading edge, with the arms
of the chromosome trailing behind. Thus, anaphase stage is characterised by the following
key events:
Centromeres split and chromatids separate.
Chromatids move to opposite poles.
Telophase –At the beginning of the final stage of karyokinesis, i.e., telophase, the
chromosomes that have reached their respective poles de-condense and lose their
individuality. The individual chromosomes can no longer be seen and each set of chromatin
material tends to collect at each of the two poles. This is the stage which shows the following
key events:
Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles and their identity is lost as discrete elements.
Nuclear envelope develops around the chromosome clusters at each pole forming two
daughter nuclei. Nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER reform.
1.) Anaphase is characterised by ______________________________
a) Separation of chromatids
b) Condensation of chromatin
c) Splitting of Centromeres
d) Both a and c
2.) In anaphase, chromatids migrates to _________________
a) Centromeres
b) Opposite poles
c) Similar poles
d) Both b and c
3.) Name the phase in which de-condensation of chromosomes takes place.
4.) Enlist the characteristic events that takes place during the telophase.
5.) Write the characteristic events that takes place in anaphase?
Answer
1) d
2) b
3) In telophase, the chromosomes reached their respective poles and de-condense. In this
phase chromosomes lose their individuality.
4) Characteristic events that takes place during the telophase.
• Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles and their identity is lost as discrete
elements.
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• Nuclear envelope develops around the chromosome clusters at each pole forming
two daughter nuclei.
• Nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER reform.
5) Anaphase stage is characterised by the following key events:
• Centromeres split and chromatids separate.

• Chromatids move to opposite poles.
Explain various steps of prophase I of meiosis I.

Ans: Leptotene - The compaction of chromosomes continues throughout leptotene.
Zygotene- Chromosomes start pairing (synapsis) in between homologous chromosomes and
formation of synaptonemal complex. The complex formed by a pair of synapsed
homologous chromosomes is called a bivalent or a tetrad.
Pachytene- appearance of recombination nodules (sites at which crossing over occurs
between non-sister chromatids of the homologous chromosomes).
Crossing over leads to recombination of genetic material on the two chromosomes.
Diplotene- Dissolution of the synaptonemal complex. The homologous chromosome of the
bivalent separates from each other except at the sites of crossovers (chiasmata).
Diakinesis- terminalisation of chiasmata occurs. Nucleolus disappears and the nuclear
envelope also breaks down.
SELF- EVALUATION TEST

Identify A to G
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Identify A to H
142
Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
143
Photosynthesis is a Physio – chemical process, uses light energy to synthesis organic
compounds (sugar).
Site of Photosynthesis
• Green leaves, green stems and floral parts (sepal)
• Chloroplast - found in mesophyll cells of leaves
• In chloroplast – the membrane system is responsible for trapping the light energy
and also for the synthesis of ATP and NADPH. Where stroma has enzymes for the
reduction of CO2 in to carbohydrates (sugars)
Pigments Involved in Photosynthesis
Chlorophyll a: (Bright or blue green in chromatograph).
Chlorophyll b: (Yellow green)
Xanthophylls: (Yellow)
Carotenoids: (Yellow to yellow-orange)
Light Harvesting Complexes (LHC): The light harvesting complexes are made up of hundreds
of pigment molecules bound to protein within the photosystem I (PS-I) and photosystem II
(PS-II). Each photosystem has all the pigments (except one molecule of chlorophyll ‘a’)
forming a light harvesting system (antennae).
The reaction centre (chlorophyll a) is different in both the photosystems.
Photosystem I (PS-I): Chlorophyll ‘a’ has an absorption peak at 700 nm (P700).
Photosystem II (PS-II): Chlorophyll ‘a’ has absorption peak at 680 nm (P680),
Process of photosynthesis: It includes two phases-Photochemical phase and biosynthetic
phase. (Formerly known as Light reaction and dark reaction)
(i) Photochemical phase (Light reaction): This phase includes-light absorption, splitting of
water, oxygen release and formation of ATP and NADPH. It occurs in grana region of
chloroplast.
(ii) Biosynthetic phase (Dark reaction): It is light independent phase, synthesis of food
material (sugars). (Calvin cycle). It occurs in stroma region of chloroplast.
The electron transport (Z-Scheme): In PS II, reaction centre (chlorophyll a) absorbs 680 nm
wavelength of red light which make the electrons to become excited. These electrons are
taken up by the electron acceptor that passes them to an electron transport system (ETS)
consisting of cytochromes. The movement of electron is downhill. Then, the electron pass to
PS I and move downhill further.
The splitting of water: It is linked to PS II. Water splits into H+, [O] and
Electrons. 2H2O 4H+ + O2 + 4e–
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Photophosphorylation: The process of formation of high-energy chemicals (ATP and
NADPH) in presence of light.
Non-Cyclic photophosphorylation: Two photosystems work in series–First PSII and then PSI.
These two photosystems are connected through an electron transport chain (Z. Scheme).
Both ATP and NADPH + H+ are synthesised by this process. PSI and PSII are found in lamellae
of grana, hence this process is carried here.
Cyclic Photo-Phosphorylation
• In this scheme, only PSI is functional. Hence, the electrons are circulated within the
photosystem.
• This results in a cyclic flow of electrons.
• This scheme could possibly be occurring in stroma lamellae because it lacks both PSII
and NADP reductase enzyme.
• This cyclic flow results only in the synthesis of ATP, and not of NADPH + H+.
Chemiosmotic Hypothesis
• It is the mechanism of ATP synthesis in thylakoid of chloroplast.
• When electrons are transported through the electron transport system (ETS) and
protons accumulate inside the thylakoid membrane due to photolysis of water.
• Now electrons are passed through PS and protons are transported across the
membrane.
• Chemiosmosis requires;
• A thylakoid membrane
• A protein pump
• A protein gradient
• ATP synthase enzyme
Biosynthetic Phase: Dark Reaction
Next stage is the biosynthetic phase. In this, ATP and NADPH are used for synthesizing the
food / Glucose.
It takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts.
In some plants, the first product of CO2 fixation is a 3-carbon compound called 3-
phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). These plants are said to adopt the C3 pathway.
In other plants, the first CO2 fixation product is a 4-carbon compound called oxaloacetic acid.
These plants are said to adopt the C4 pathway.
Biosynthesis phase in C3 plants:
The path of carbon in the dark reaction was traced by Melvin Calvin using radioactive
carbon (14C). The primary acceptor of CO2 was found to be a 5-carbon ketose sugar called
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Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). RuBP is used in a cyclic manner (regenerated) and a sugar is
synthesised.
3 phases of Calvin cycle: Carboxylation, Reduction and Regeneration of RuBP.
(1) Carboxylation: CO2 combines with ribulose 1, 5 bisphosphate to form 3 PGA in the
presence of RuBisCo enzyme (present in stroma)
(2) Reduction: Carbohydrate is formed at the expense of ATP and NADPH. It involves 2ATP
for phosphorylation and 2NADPH for reduction per CO2 molecule fixed.
(3) Regeneration: The CO2 acceptor ribulose 1, 5-bisphosphate is formed again.
6 turns of Calvin cycles and 18 ATP molecules are required to synthesize one molecule of
glucose.
6CO2 + 6 RuBP + 18ATP + 12NADPH C6H12O6 + 6RuBP +18ADP + 18Pi +
12NADP
C4 Pathway (Hatch and Slack Pathway)
• Occurs in plants like maize, sugarcane − plants adapted to dry tropical regions. The
leaves of C4 plants have Kranz anatomy. These plants show 2 types of
photosynthetic cells, mesophyll cells and bundle sheath cells. Chloroplasts are
dimorphic i.e., those is the mesophyll cells are granal and in bundle sheath Cells are
agranal.
• C4 plants can tolerate high temperature and high light intensity, show greater
productivity of biomass, and lack photorespiration.
• Primary CO2 acceptor: Phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) − a 3-carbon molecule.
• PEP Carboxylase fixes CO2 in the mesophyll cells. It forms the 4-carbon compound
oxaloacetic acid (OAA), and then other 4-carbon compounds malic acid.
• These compounds are transported to the bundle sheath cells. There, C4 acid breaks
down to form C3 acid and CO2, and carbon dioxide enters the C3 cycle).
• C3 acid, so formed, is again transported to the mesophyll cells and regenerated back
into PEP.
• C3 cycle cannot directly occur in the mesophyll cells of C4 plants because of the lack
of the enzyme RuBisCO in these cells.
• RuBisCO is found in abundance in the bundle sheath cells of C4 plants.
Photorespiration
• It is a process in which there is no formation of ATP or NADPH, but there is utilization
of ATP with release of CO2. It is also considered a wasteful process.
• Photorespiration is responsible for the difference between C3 and C4 plants.
• At high temperature and high oxygen concentration, In C3 plants, RuBP carboxylase
function as oxygenase.
• RuBP oxidized into phosphoglycerate (3C) and phosphoglycolate (2C).
Factors affecting rate of Photosynthesis:
Blackmans law of limiting factors.
• When a physiological process is controlled by a number of factors, the rate of
reaction depends on the lowest factor, so the factor which is the least/ limiting will
determine the rate of Photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is influenced by internal
(plant) factors and external factors.
Light.
• Quality and intensity of light
• Wavelength of light between 400 nm 700 nm is called photosynthetically active
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radiation (PAR). High intensity of light destruct chlorophylls.
Temperature.
• High temperature denatures enzymes of biosynthetic phase and low temperature
inactivates.
Availability of water.
• Less water leads to - water stress, stoma closes, less carbon dioxide, reduce leaf
expansion and less photosynthetic area.
Diagrammatic representation of an electron micrograph of a section of chloroplast
The light harvesting complex Z scheme of light reaction
Cyclic photophosphorylation ATP synthesis through

chemiosmosis
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The Calvin cycle proceeds in three stages: (1) carboxylation, during which CO2 combines with
ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate; (2) reduction, during which carbohydrate is formed at the expense
of the photochemically made ATP and NADPH; and (3) regeneration during which the CO2
acceptor ribulose- 1,5-bisphosphate is formed again so that the cycle continues
Diagrammatic representation of the Hatch and Slack Pathway
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Graph of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis
QUESTION BANK
MCQ
The rate of photosynthesis is controlled by
(a) the rate of light reaction
(b) the rate of dark reaction
(c) the rates of both light and dark reactions
(d) none of the above (b)
The primary carbon dioxide acceptor in C4 cycle is

(a) malic acid
(b) phosphoenol pyruvate
(c) rubisco
(d) aspartic acid (b)
The law of limiting factor was given by

(a) Calvin
(b) Blackman
(c) Priestley
(d) None of these (b)
The metabolic pathway which produces carbohydrate is

(a) Calvin cycle
(b) Glycolysis
(c) Cyclic electron pathway
(d) Krebs cycle (a)
Which of these is not an external factor affecting photosynthesis?
a) Sunlight
b) Temperature
c) Leaf orientation
d) CO2 concentration (c)
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Directions: In the following questions, a statement of assertion is followed by a statement
of reason. Mark the correct choice as:
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but Reason is not the correct explanation of
Assertion.
Assertion: The stromal thylakoids are rich in both PS I and PS II.

Reason: The grana membranes are rich in ATP synthetase. (d)
Assertion: C3-plants respond to lower CO2 concentration by showing increased rate of

photosynthesis.
Reason: C4-plantd respond to higher CO2 concentration by showing decreased rate of
photosynthesis. (d)
Assertion: Plants utilizing first RuBP in CO2 fixation are called C3 plants.
Reason: Plants utilizing first PEP in CO2 fixations are called C4 plants. (b)
Assertion: Tropical plants have a higher optimum temperature for photosynthesis than
temperate plants.
Reason: The optimum temperature for photosynthesis of different plants depends on their
habitat (a)
Assertion: Dark reaction occurs only at night in the stroma of chloroplast.

Reason: CO2 fixation occurs only during C3 cycle. (d)
Why is the colour of a leaf kept in the dark frequently becomes yellow, or pale green?
Which pigment do you think is more stable?
Answer. Carotenoid pigments are found in all photosynthetic cells. They are accessory
pigments also found in roots, petals etc. These pigments do not breakdown easily thus
temporarily reveal their colour due to unmasking, following breakdown of chlorophylls.
Thus, the colour of leaf kept in dark is yellow or pale green.
What is Kranz’s anatomy?

Answer: It is a type of leaf structure in which the vascular bundle is surrounded by bundle
sheath and mesophyll cells.
What are the steps that are common to C3 and C4 photosynthesis?

Answer: The following steps are common in both C3 and C4 photosynthesis.
• Photolysis of H2O and photophosphorylation in the light reaction.
• The dark reaction occurs in the stroma in both cases.
• Carboxylation-but in C3 plants CO2 acceptor is RuBP whereas in C4 it is
phosphoenolpyruvic acid.
• The Calvin cycle resulting in the formation of starch occurs in both C3 and
C4 photosynthesis.
State two functions of accessory pigments, found in thylakoids.
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Answer- (a) Absorption of light and transfer of energy to chlorophyll ‘a’.
(b) Protect chlorophyll ‘a’ from photo oxidation.
Why do C4 plants are more expensive (in energy requirement) than C3 plants?
Answer- Because they require more energy (30 ATPs) in synthesizing one glucose
molecule as compared to C3—(18ATPs).
What is the role of NADP in photosynthesis?

Answer- NADP is a co-enzyme useful in photosynthesis when non-cyclic
photophosphorylation occurs, water is split. In such a situation NADP acts as an acceptor of
electrons and protons to form NADPH. This NADPH is used as reducing power for the
fixation of CO2 in the dark reaction. If the dark reaction is slow, then oxidized NADP will not
be available and the non-cyclic cycle will then cease to operate.
Two potted plants were kept in an oxygen free environment in transparent containers,
one in total darkness and the other in sunlight. Which one of the two is likely to survive
more? Justify your answer by giving the reason.
Answer- The plant in sunlight will survive for longer period.
Light is essential for photosynthesis.
Explain the principle of limiting factor with a suitable graph.
Answer: Law of limiting factor: When a chemical reaction is conditioned as to its rapidity by
a number of separate factors then the rate of reaction is as rapid as the slowest factor
permits. As is clear that as the light intensity is increased the rate of photosynthesis
increases proportionately until some other factor like CO, becomes limiting. Ultimately the
plant becomes light-saturated indicating that light is no more the limiting factor. If now the
cone, of CO, is increased the rate of photosynthesis increases until the light becomes a
limiting factor.
Explain photolysis of water.

Answer- Photolysis of water means splitting of water molecules in the presence of light into
proton (H+), electron (e-) and oxygen (O2). This process occurs with the help of PS II, Mn and
Cl.
Water splitting complex is associated with the PS II, which itself is physically located on the
inner side of the membrane of the thylakoid.
Plants that are adapted to dry tropical regions have the C4 pathway mentioned earlier.
Though these plants have the C4 oxaloacetic acid as the first CO2 fixation product they use
the C3 pathway or the Calvin cycle as the main biosynthetic pathway.
C4 plants are special: They have a special type of leaf anatomy, they tolerate higher
temperatures, they show a response to high light intensities, and they lack a process called
photorespiration and have greater productivity of biomass. The leaves shows different
anatomy i.e. ‘Kranz’ anatomy. ‘Kranz’ means ‘wreath’ and is a reflection of the arrangement
of cells. The bundle sheath cells may form several layers around the vascular bundles; they
are characterised by having a large number of chloroplasts, thick walls impervious to
gaseous exchange and no intercellular spaces. Maize or sorghum.
C4 pathway that has been named the Hatch and Slack Pathway, is again a cyclic process. The
primary CO2 acceptor is a 3-carbon molecule phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) and is present in
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the mesophyll cells. The enzyme responsible for this fixation is PEP carboxylase or PEPcase.
It is important to register that the mesophyll cells lack RuBisCO enzyme. The C4 acid OAA is
formed in the mesophyll cells. It then forms other 4-carbon compounds like malic acid or
aspartic acid in the mesophyll cells itself, which are transported to the bundle sheath cells.
In the bundle sheath cells these C4 acids are broken down to release CO2 and a 3-carbon
molecule. The 3-carbon molecule is transported back to the mesophyll where it is converted
to PEP again, thus, completing the cycle. The CO2 released in the bundle sheath cells enters
the C3 or the Calvin pathway, a pathway common to all plants. The bundle sheath cells are
rich in an enzyme Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase (RuBisCO), but lack
PEPcase. Thus, the basic pathway that results in the formation of the sugars, the Calvin
pathway, is common to the C3 and C4 plants. In the C4 plants it does not take place in the
mesophyll cells but does so only in the bundle sheath cells.
1.) In the C4 plants, Calvin pathway take place in the
a) Bundle sheath cells
b) Mesophyll cells
c) Both a and b
2.) In C4 pathway, ________________ is the first carbon dioxide acceptor.
a.) Phosphphenol pyruvate
b) Phosphoenol pyruvate
c) Phosphoethanol pyruvate
d) PEP carboxylase
3.) Give the examples of plant which shows Kranz anatomy.
4.) Give reason – Why Hatch Slack pathway is referred as C-4 pathway?
5.) Explain Kranz anatomy in C-4 plants.
6.) Name the catalyst which is responsible for CO2 fixation in C4 pathway.
Answer
1.) a
2.) b
3.) Maize and sorghum plant shows Kranz anatomy in leaves.
4.) In Hatch Slack pathway, first stable product of CO2 fixation is a 4-carbon compound,
oxaloacetic acid. Hence it is referred as C-4 pathway and such plants are called C4 plants.
5.) C4 plants show Kranz anatomy. In the leaves of such plants, there is a bundle sheath
around the vascular bundles. The chloroplasts in the bundle – sheath cells are large and
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almost without or less developed grana, where as in the mesophyll cells, the chloroplasts
are small but with well-developed grana.
6.) The enzyme responsible for CO2 fixation in C4 pathway is PEP carboxylase or PEP case.
Explain, the process, of biosynthetic phase of photosynthesis occurring in chloroplast.
ATP and NADPH, the products of light reaction are used in synthesis of food. The first CO 2
fixation product in C3 plant is 3-phosphoglyceric acid or PGA. The CO2 acceptor molecule is
RuBP (ribulose bisphosphate). The cyclic path of sugar formation is called Calvin cycle on the
name of Melvin Calvin, the discoverer of this pathway. Calvin cycle proceeds in three stages.
(1) Carboxylation: CO2 combines with ribulose 1, 5 bisphosphate to form 3 PGA in the
presence of RuBisCo enzyme (present in stroma).
(2) Reduction: Carbohydrate is formed at the expense of ATP and NADPH. It involves 2ATP
for phsophorylation and 2NADPH for reduction per CO2 molecule fixed.
(3) Regeneration: The CO2 acceptor ribulose 1, 5-bisphosphate is formed again. 6 turns of
Calvin cycles and 18 ATP molecules are required to synthesize one molecule of glucose.
SELF EVALUATION
Identify the A to H
Identify A to F
153
Identify A to H.
154
Respiration in Plants
155
NAD — Nicotinamide Adenine dinucleotide
NADH — Reduced Nicotinamide Adenine dinucleotide
FMN — Flavin mono nucleotide
TCA — Tricarboxylic acid
PGA — Phosphoglyceric acid
ETS — Electron transport system
OAA — Oxalo acetic acid
PPP — Pentose phosphate pathway
ATP — Adenosine tri phosphate
ADP — Adenosine di phosphate
FAD — Flavin adenine dinucleotide
ETC — Electron transport chain
Aerobic respiration: Complete oxidation of organic food in presence of oxygen thereby

producing CO2, water and energy.
Anaerobic respiration: Incomplete breakdown of organic food to liberate energy in the
absence of oxygen.
Biological oxidation: Oxidation in a series of reaction inside a cell.
Cytochromes: A group of iron containing compounds of electron transport system present
in inner wall of mitochondria.
Dehydrogenase: Enzyme that catalyses removal of H atom from the substrate.
Electron acceptor: Organic compound which receive electrons produced during oxidation-
reduction reactions.
Electron transport: Movement of electron from substrate to oxygen through respiratory
chain during respiration.
Fermentation: Breakdown of organic substance that takes place in certain microbe like
yeast under anaerobic condition with the production of CO2 and ethanol.
Glycolysis: Enzymatic breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid that occurs in the cytoplasm.
Oxidative phosphorylation: Process of formation of ATP from ADP and Pi using the energy
from proton gradient.
Respiratory Quotient: The ratio of the volume of CO2 produced to the volume of oxygen
consumed.
Proton gradient: Difference in proton concentration across the tissue membrane.
Mitochondrial matrix: The ground material of mitochondria in which pyruvic acid
undergoes aerobic oxidation through Kerb’s cycle.
Electron Transport Chains (ETC)—A series of co-enzymes and electron/ carriers where
electrons can pass along increasing redox potential losing a bit of energy at every step of
transfer.
Cellular Respiration—The process of oxidation/breakdown of food materials within the cell
to release energy. In plants, respiratory gaseous exchange occurs through stomata and
Lenticels:
Overall cellular respiration is :
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Aerobic Respiration
Overall mechanism of aerobic respiration can be studied under the following steps:
(A) Glycolysis (EMP pathway) in cytoplasm
(B) Oxidative Decarboxylation—(Gateway Reaction)—in Mitochondrial matrix
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(C) Kreb’s cycle (TCA—cycle)—Matrix of mitochondria
(D) Oxidative phosphorylation
Glycolysis—(EMP Pathway)
• It is also called Embden—Meyerhof—Paranas pathway. (EMP pathway)
• It is common in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
• It takes place outside the mitochondria, in the cytoplasm.
• One molecule of glucose (Hexose sugar) ultimately produces two molecules of
pyruvic acid through glycolysis.’
• During this process 4 molecules of ATP are produced while 2 molecules ATP are
utilised. Thus net gain of ATP is of 2 molecules.
Input and Output of glycolysis
Fermentation:
Incomplete oxidation of pyruvic acid, under anaerobic respiration forms lactic acid/ ethyl
alcohol. It occurs in bacteria, yeast and striated muscles.
In yeast fermentation:
Pyruvic acid → Ethanol + CO2
Enzymes involved − Pyruvic acid decarboxylase, Alcohol dehydrogenase.
• Only 7% of energy of glucose is released during fermentation.
• Yeasts poison themselves to death when alcohol concentration reaches about 13%.
In bacterial fermentation:
Pyruvic acid Lactic Acid
Enzyme involved − Lactate dehydrogenase.
While doing severe exercise similar reaction occurs in animal muscles in anaerobic
conditions.
Citric acid cycle / Tricarboxylic acid cycle / Kreb’s cycle:
TCA cycle – it takes place in the mitochondrial matrix – it is the process of complete
oxidation of pyruvate by stepwise removal of all hydrogen atoms, which leaves three
molecules of CO2.
It is aerobic and takes a place in mitochondrial matrix.
• Each pyruvic acid molecule produces 4 NADH + H+, one FADH2, one ATP.
• One glucose molecule has been broken down to release CO2 and eight molecules of
NADH + H+, two molecules of FADH2 and 2 molecules of ATP.
Electron Transport System and Oxidative Phosphorylation
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Amphibolic Pathway:
During the process of cellular respiration Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are broken down
to release energy and hence respiration is a catabolic process/ catabolic pathway. From this
pathway many compound are withdrawn for synthesis of substrates. Some anabolic
processes are formation of pyruvic acid from amino acids, and formation of Acetyl CoA from
Fatty acid. So Respiratory pathway is involved in both catabolism and anabolism, it is better
to consider the respiratory pathway as an amphibolic pathway.
Respiratory Quotient (RQ)
• It is the ratio of the volume of CO2 evolved to the volume of O2 consumed during
respiration.
RQ = 1 (When carbohydrate is used as substrate)
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
RQ is less than 1 for fats.
2 C51 H98 O6 +145 O2 - -- ----> 102CO2 + 98H2O + Energy
RQ = 102 CO2
-------------- = 0.7
145 O2
• RQ is 0.9 for proteins.
• RQ is more than 1 for organic acids.
• RQ is infinite in case of anaerobic resp. because CO2 is evolved but O2 is not
consumed.
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Steps of glycolysis
Steps of glycolysis
159
Major pathways of anaerobic respiration
The Citric acid cycle
160
Electron Transport System (ETS)
Diagrammatic presentation of ATP synthesis in mitochondria

161
Interrelationship among metabolic pathways showing respiration mediated breakdown of
different organic molecules to CO2 and H20
Question Bank
MCQ
Which of the following is correct about glycolysis (EMP pathway)?
(a) It is a common path for aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
(b) It occurs in cytoplasm.
(c) O2 is not required for this process.
(d) All the above (d)
Which of the following biomolecules is common to respiration mediated breakdown of
fats, carbohydrates and proteins?
(a) Fructose 1, 6 bisphosphate (b) Pyruvic acid
(c) Acetyl Co-A (d) Glucose -6-phosphate (c)
Anaerobic respiration takes place in the
(a) Mitochondria (b) Cytoplasm (c) Lysosomes (d) ER (b)
What is the total gain of energy during anaerobic respiration?

(a) One molecule of ATP (b) Two molecules of ATP
(c) Four molecules of ATP (d) Eight molecules of ATP (b)
In which one of the following processes CO2 is not released?

(a) Aerobic respiration in plants (b) Aerobic respiration in animals
(c) Alcoholic fermentation (d) Lactate fermentation (d)
Read the assertion and reason carefully to mark the correct option out of the options
given below:
(a) If both the assertion and the reason are true and the reason is a correct explanation of
the assertion.
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(b) If both the assertion and reason are true but the reason is not a correct explanation of
the assertion.
(c) If the assertion is true but the reason is false.
(d) If both the assertion and reason are false.
Assertion: Respiration is an amphibolic pathway.

Reason: Respiratory pathway is involved in both catabolism and anabolism. (a)
Assertion: The breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid is called glycolysis.

Reason: For complete oxidation of glucose organism adopt Kreb’s cycle. (a)
Assertion: Substrate level phosphorylation is present in glycolysis.

Reason: Substrate level phosphorylation causes synthesis of ATP. (b)
Assertion: Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate gives rise to lactate in some bacteria.
Reason: Under anaerobic condition, pyruvate gives rise to acetyl-CoA. (c)
Assertion: Glucose is a respiratory substrate.

Reason: Glucose is oxidised during process of cellular respiration. (a)
Why does anaerobic respiration produce less energy than aerobic respiration?
Answer: Because it does not involve the use of molecular oxygen. Food is not completely
oxidized to CO2 and waste. So a lot of energy is still retained with the food. Less energy is
produced on anaerobic respiration. It yields only about 5% of the energy available in
glucose. Then it is a wasteful process or respiration. In anaerobic respiration, yeast
metabolizes glucose to ethanol and CO2 without any use of molecular oxygen.
What is oxidative phosphorylation?

Answer: Glucose is completely oxidized by the end of the citric acid cycle but the energy is
not released unless NADH and FADH are oxidized. Oxygen acts as the final hydrogen
acceptor. The whole process by which oxygen effectively allows the formation of ATP
molecule by phosphorylation of ADP is called oxidative phosphorylation.
Mention two steps of glycolysis in which ATP is utilised.

Answer- (i) Phosphorylation of Glucose into Glucose-6-phosphate.
(ii) Phosphorylation of Fructose-6-phosphate into Fructose-1,6-biphosphate.
Define the term ‘Respiratory substrate’.

The organic substances which is catabolised or broken-down enzymatically in cellular
respiration for releasing energy.
Mention the role of NADH synthesised in EMP pathway during respiration.

Answer: The NADH synthesised in glycolysis is transferred into the mitochondria and
undergoes oxidative phosphorylation.
Define the RQ. What is its value for Fats?
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Answer-The ratio of the volume of CO2 evolved to the volume of O2 consumed in respiration
is called the respiratory quotient (RQ) or respiratory ratio.
RQ of fats less than 1.
What is complex IV in ETS of mitochondria? Mention its components.

Answer- complex IV refers to cytochrome c oxidase complex. It contains cytochromes a and
a3, and two copper centres.
Indicate the two decarboxylation steps in kreb’s cycle.

Answer- i. Citric acid α- ketoglutaric acid
ii. α- ketoglutaric acid succinic acid
Mention the two steps in glycolysis, where ATP is consumed.

Answer- i. Conversion of glucose into glucose-6-phosphate.
ii. Conversion of glucose-6-phosphate into fructose1,6 biphosphate
How do fats enter the respiratory pathway?

Answer- fats are digested into fatty acid and glycerol.
Fatty acid converts into acetyl Co A, which combines with oxaloacetic acid and
enters Kreb’s cycle. Glycerol enters as phosphoglyceraldehyde into glycolysis.

Photosynthesis, of course, takes place within the chloroplasts (in the eukaryotes), whereas
the breakdown of complex molecules to yield energy takes place in the cytoplasm and in the
mitochondria (also only in eukaryotes).In prokaryotic cells Respiration occurs in the cytosol
and around the plasma membrane. The breaking of the C-C bonds of complex compounds
through oxidation within the cells, leading to release of considerable amount of energy is
called respiration. The compounds that are oxidised during this process are known as
respiratory substrates. Usually carbohydrates are oxidised to release energy, but proteins,
fats and even organic acids can be used as respiratory substances in some plants, under
certain conditions. During oxidation within a cell, all the energy contained in respiratory
substrates is not released free into the cell, or in a single step. It is released in a series of
slow step-wise reactions controlled by enzymes, and it is trapped as chemical energy in the
form of ATP. Hence, it is important to understand that the energy released by oxidation in
respiration is not (or rather cannot be) used directly but is used to synthesise ATP, which is
broken down whenever (and wherever) energy needs to be utilised. Hence, ATP acts as the
energy currency of the cell. This energy trapped in ATP is utilised in various energy-requiring
processes of the organisms, and the carbon skeleton produced during respiration is used as
precursors for biosynthesis of other molecules in the cell.
In eukaryotes these steps take place within the mitochondria and this requires O2. Aerobic
respiration is a type of cellular respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen to
produce energy. It is a continuous process that takes place within the cells of animals and
plants. This process can be explained with the help of the chemical equation;
Glucose (C6H12O6) + Oxygen (6O2) → Carbon dioxide (6CO2) + Water (6H2O) + Energy (ATP)
This type of respiration is most common in higher organisms. Respiration is a catabolic
process wherein complex organic substrate is oxidized to simple components to generate
164
biological energy. Cellular respiration occurs in two different ways as aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.
1.) Respiration is _________________
a) Constructive process
b) Energy trapping process
c) Energy releasing process
d) Energy storing process
2.) Respiration is _________________
a) Catabolic process
b) Anabolic process
c) Endergonic process
d) Energy trapping
3.) Name the site of respiration in eukaryotes.
4.) Define aerobic respiration.
5.) Give the balanced chemical equation for Respiration take place in presence of oxygen?
Answer
1.) c
2.) a
3.) Respiration occurs in the cytosol and around the plasma membrane in prokaryotic cells.
In eukaryotic cells, respiration takes place in the mitochondria,
4.) Aerobic respiration is a type of cellular respiration that takes place in the presence of
oxygen to produce energy.
5.) Balanced chemical equation for Cellular Respiration –
Glucose (C6H12O6) + Oxygen (6O2) → Carbon dioxide (6CO2) + Water (6H2O) + Energy (ATP
Describe the process of electron transport system in mitochondria.
Answer: Oxidation of NADH + H+ and FADH2 takes place through a series of Electron and
hydrogen (proton) transport chain. The metabolic pathway, through which the electron
passes from one carrier to another, is called the electron transport system (ETS).
Complex I: NADH dehydrogenase, Complex II: succinate dehydrogenase, Complex III:
cytochromes bc1, Complex IV: cytochromes a-a3, Complex V: ATP synthase
ETS is present in the inner mitochondrial membrane and involves four complexes (I-IV).
NADH2 is oxidized by NADH dehydrogenase and electrons are then transferred to
ubiquinone (on the inner mitochondrial membrane).
FADH2 is oxidized by succinate dehydrogenase and transferred electrons to ubiquinone.
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The reduced ubiquinone (ubiquinol) is then oxidized with transfer of electrons via
cytochromes bc1 complex to cytochrome c.
Cytochrome c is a small protein attached to the outer surface of the inner membrane and
transfer electrons from complex III to complex IV.
When electrons transferred from one carrier to another via complex I to complex IV, they
are coupled to ATP synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi.
Oxygen plays a vital role in removing electrons and hydrogen ion and finally helps in the
production of H2.
ATP synthase- it consists of F1 and F0. The F1 (head) contains the site for synthesis of ATP
from ADP and inorganic phosphate. F0 forms the channel through which protons cross the
inner membrane. The passage of protons through the channel is coupled to the catalytic site
of the F1 component for the production of ATP.

Identify A to F
Identify A to H.
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Plant - Growth and Development
167
FULL FORM
2.4D -2.4 dichlorophenoxy acetic acid
IAA -Indole acetic acid
NAA -Naphthalene acetic acid
ABA- Abscisic acid
IBA -Indole-3 butyric acid
PGR- Plant growth regulator
Apical dominance: Suppression of the growth of lateral buds in presence of apical bud.
Growth: An irreversible permanent increase in size, volume and weight of an organ or its
parts or even of an individual.
Quiescence: Non germination of a viable seed due to non-availability of proper
environmental conditions.
Dormancy: A period of suspended activity and growth usually associated with low metabolic
rate. Some, seeds undergo a period of dormancy and can germinate only after dormancy
period gets over.
Seed Germination: The seed germinates only when favourable conditions for growth exists
in the environment. In absence of favourable conditions, it goes into a period of suspended
growth or rest, called dormancy.
Abscission: Shedding of plant organs like leaves, flowers and fruits etc. from the mature
plant.
Phytochrome: A pigment, found in plants which control the light dependent developmental
process.
Phytohormone: Chemicals’ secreted by plants in minute quantities which influence the
physiological activities.
Senescence: The last phase of growth when metabolic activities decrease.
Vernalisation: A method of promoting flowering by exposing the young plant to low
temperature.
Vivipary: It is the germination of seed while it is still attached to the parent plant and is
nourished by it. e.g., Rhizophora and Sonneratia. As the germinating seed forms a seedling.
It fall down into the mud due to increase in weights. In the mud, lateral roots develops for
anchorage.
Heterophylly: Occurrence of more than one type of leaves in plants e.g., larkspur, Coriander
leaves of Juvenile plant are different in shape from mature plant.
Photoperiodism: Response of Plants to relative periods of day/night to induce flowering.
According to duration of exposure of plants to light, plants are divided in 3 categories:
1. Long Day Plants (LDP)—Plants which need exposure to light for period exceeding critical
duration e.g., wheat, rice, cucumber.
2. Short Day Plants (SDP)—Plants that need exposure to light for period less than the critical
length e.g., Cabbage.
3. Day Neutral Plants (DNP)—There is no correlation between exposure to light duration &
induction of flowering e.g., Tomato.
Growth:
It is a characteristic of living beings in which an irreversible permanent increase in size of an
organ or its parts occur or an increase in the size of a cell.
Types of Growth Rate
Growth rate can be defined as the increase in growth per unit time.
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Plants show two types of growth—Arithmetic and Geometric—according to the increase
shown by the growth rate.
Arithmetic growth - Only one daughter cell continues to divide while others differentiate or
mature. Example constant rate.
Geometric Growth - Initial growth is slow (lag phase), followed by a rapid increase in growth
(log/exponential phase), and followed by a phase where growth slows down stationary
phase). Example – all cells, tissues and organs show this type of growth.
Sigmoid Growth Curve
Measurement of growth: Plant growth can be measured by a variety of parameters like

increase in fresh weight, dry weight, length, area, volume and cell number.
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Phases of growth: The period of growth is generally divided into three phases, namely,
meristematic, elongation and maturation.
(i) Meristematic zone: New cell produced by mitotic division at root-tip and shoot-tip
thereby show increase in size. Cells are rich in protoplasm and nuclei.
(ii) Elongation zone: Zone of elongation lies just behind the meristematic zone and
concerned with enlargement of cells.
(iii) Maturation zone: The portion lies proximal to the phase of elongation. The cells of this
zone attain their maximum size in terms of wall thickening and protoplasmic modification.
Growth rate: The increased growth per unit time is termed as growth rate. The growth rate
shows an increase that may be arithmetic or geometrical.
Sigmoid growth curve
Lag phase: Growth is slow in initial stage.
Exponential phase: Period of maximum growth
Stationary phase: When the nutrients become limiting, growth slows down.
Differentiation: A biochemical or morphological change in meristemic cell (at root apex and
shoot apex) to differentiate into permanent cell is called differentiation. E.g. loss of
protoplasm by tracheary elements.
Dedifferentiation: The phenomenon of regeneration of permanent tissue to become
meristematic is called dedifferentiation. E.g. formation of interfascicular cambium and cork
cambium from parenchymatous cells.
Redifferentiation: Meristems/tissue are able to produces new cells that once again lose the
capacity to divide but nature to perform specific functions.
E.g. secondary cortex, secondary xylem etc.
Development:
• Development – changes in the life cycle.
• Plasticity – different kinds of structure in response to environment or phases of life.
• E.g. Heterophylly in cotton and coriander. In these plants, leaves have different
shapes based on the phase of life cycle as well as the habitat.
• Development can also be termed as
• Development is controlled by intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors.
• Intrinsic- Genetic factors and plant growth regulators.
• Extrinsic − light, temperature, water, oxygen, etc.
Plant Growth Regulators / Phytohormone:
Classification based on their nature of action:
• Plant growth promoters. – Auxins, Gibberellins and Cytokinins.
• Plant growth inhibitors - Abscisic acid (ABA)
• Ethylene may fit in either of the two groups, but is largely an inhibitor.
Types of Phytohormone:
Auxins
Gibberellins
Cytokinins
Ethylene
Abscisic acid
Auxins
Discovery: – auxins were discovered by Charles Darwin and Francis Darwin.
Isolation: – they were isolated from tips of coleoptiles of oat seedlings by F.W.Went as IAA
and IBA.
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Effects: –
• Initiate rooting in stem cuttings, plant propagation. Promote flowering, prevent fruit
and leaf drop.
• Promote abscission of older mature leaves.
Uses:-
• Induce parthenocarpy. Widely used as herbicides (2,4 – D). To kill dicotyledonous
weeds.
• Prepare weed free lawns. Controls xylem differentiation and helps in cell division
Gibberellins
Discovery: E. Kurosawa identified gibberellins present in a fungal pathogen Gibberella
fujikuroi
Isolation: Infected rice seedlings when treated with sterile filtrates of fungus
Effects:
• GA’S are acidic. Increase in length, cause fruits to elongate and improve its shape.
• Delay senescence, extend the market period. GA3 used to speed up malting process
in brewing
Uses:
• Spraying sugarcane crop with this. Increases length of stem
• Fastens maturity period. Promotes bolting
Cytokinin
Discovery: Skoog and Miller
Isolation: Crystallized it promoting active substance named it kinetin from coconut milk,
corn – kernels.
Effects:
• They are synthesized where rapid cell division takes place
• Produce new leaves, chloroplasts in leaves, lateral shoot growth and adventitious
shoot formation.
Uses:
Help overcome apical dominance. Promote nutrient mobilization which helps in the delay of
leaf senescence
Ethylene (gaseous hormone):
Discovery: Cousins confirmed the release of a volatile substance from ripened oranges that
hastened the ripening of stored un ripened bananas
Effects:
• Promotes senescence and abscission. Highly effective in fruit ripening
• Enhances the respiration rate. Breaks seed and bud dormancy
• Initiates germination in peanut seeds. Sprouting potato tubers, promotes root
growth root hair formation
Uses:
• Used to initiate flowering, for synchronizing fruit, induces flowering, regulates
physiological processes.
• Hastens fruit ripening, accelerates abscission and Promotes female flowers.
Abscisic Acid (ABA):
Discovery: Researchers.
Isolation: 3 kinds of inhibitors - Inhibitor – B, abscission ll & dormin.
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Effects:
• Regulates abscission dormancy, ABA stimulates the closure of stomata, Increases
tolerance, seed development
• Maturation, dormancy, withstand desiccation
Uses:
• There are no. of events in a plant
• Where more than one PGR interact to affect that event, example - Dormancy in
seeds / buds abscission, senescence, apical dominance.
Germination and seedling development in bean
Diagrammatic representation of: (a) Arithmetic (b) Geometric growth and (c) Stages during
embryo development showing geometric and arithmetic phases
An idealised sigmoid growth curve typical of cells in culture, and many higher plants and plant
organs
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Sequence of the developmental process in a plant cell
Question Bank
MCQ
The phase of growth which is the first phase and represents lag phase of growth curve is
(a) Formative phase
(b) Cell enlargement phase
(c) Maturation phase
(d) Stationery phase (a)
2,4-D is used as
(a) Florigen
(b) Vernalin
(c) Herbicide
(d) Fungicide (c)
Development consists of
(a) Growth (b) Differentiation (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these (c)
The Avena curvature is used for bioassay of:
(a) ABA (b) GA3
(c) IAA (d) Ethylene (c)
Oxidative phosphorylation is
(a) Oxidation of phosphate group in ATP
(b) Addition of phosphate group to ATP
(c) Formation of ATP by energy released from electrons removed during substrate oxidation
(d) Formation of ATP by transfer of phosphate group from a substrate to ADP (c)
Read the assertion and reason carefully to mark the correct option out of the options given
below:
the assertion.
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the assertion.
Assertion: Auxin induces parthenocarpy in tomatoes.

Reason: 2, 4 –D is used as herbicides. (b)
Assertion: GA increase the yield in sugarcane.

Reason: GA causes increase in length of sugarcane stem. (b)
Assertion: Cytokinin delays the leaf senescence.

Reason: Cytokinin promotes nutrient mobilization. (a)
Assertion: ABA increases the tolerance of plant to various kinds of stresses.

Reason: ABA stimulates the closure of stomata in the epidermis. (a)
Assertion: Ethylene increases the yield in cucumber.

Reason: Ethylene promotes female flower in cucumber. (a)
Which of them shows higher relative growth rate? Justify.
10−5
Answer- Relative growth rate of 𝐴 = x 100= 100%
5
55−50
Relative growth rate of 𝐵 = x 100= 10%
50
So, A shows higher relative growth rate.
Give two examples each of cell in a plant that have undergone: i. dedifferentiation ii.
Redifferentiation.
Answer- i. Cells of phellogen or cell of interfascicular cambium.

ii. Secondary Cortex cells, cells of cork (phellem)
What would be expected to happen if: i. GA3, is applied to rice seedlings.
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ii. A rotten fruit get mixed with unripe fruits.
Answer- i. Rice seedlings would grow tall due to elongation on internodes.
ii. The ripening of fruits will be hastened due to release of ethylene by the rotten fruits.
In an experiment, the callus produced from internodal segments did not proliferate until
coconut water was added. Give reason.
Answer- callus (i.e. undifferentiated mass of cells) proliferates only when nutrient medium
containing auxin was supplemented with coconut milk because it contains Kinetin (a
cytokinin) which stimulates growth of plant tissue.
Explain inhibitory effect of auxins with the help of one example.
Higher concentration of auxins inhibit the growth of the plants. In normal course in nature,
self-produced auxin in plants inhibits the growth and development of lateral buds and as a
result lateral buds remain dormant.
How are gibberellins useful in agriculture to improve productivity? Give any three points
in support of your answer.
Answer-(i) Application of gibberellins increase the length of the stem and increase the yield
of sugar in sugarcane.
(ii) Gibberellins delay senescence and the fruits can be left on the trees for longer duration,
so as to increase the market period.
(iii) It can cause fruits like apple to elongate and improve in shape.
What is apical dominance? Name the hormone which controls it.
Answer-
1. The shoot apex releases a hormone called auxin.

2. Auxin promotes the growth of the shoot apex in the apical region while
suppressing the growth of the lateral buds.
Therefore, apical dominance is controlled by the auxin hormone.

Answer the following-
Name the stress hormone in plants?
What cause ‘bakane’ disease in rice?
Answer- Abscisic Acid
Bakanae disease is also called as foolish seedling disease. It affects the rice plant through the roots or
crowns. It is caused by the fungus Gibberella fujikuroi. Affected seedlings show abnormal elongation
and in severe cases may lead to death.
This is graph depicting growth curve of plant organs.
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1.
1. Name the growth curve.
2. What do ‘A’ and ‘B’ depict?
3. Write the mathematical expression for phase ‘A’ of this type of growth.
Answer- 1. It is sigmoid growth curve.

2. ‘A’ is exponential or Log phase, where the growth is maximum.
‘B’ is stationary phase that is reached due to limited nutrient supply.
W1 = W0ert
W1 = Final Size
W0 = Initial size
r = growth rate
t = time of growth
e = base of natural logarithms
A primary root grows from 5 cm to 19 cm in a week. Calculate the growth rate and relative
growth over the period.
(a) Growth = 19 – 5 = 14 cm, Period = 7 days
14
Growth rate = = 2cm/day
7
7
(b) Initial growth = cm
5
19−5
Growth rate per day = 2 cm
7
2
Relative growth rate = × 100 = 40%
5
Plant growth regulators are the chemical substances which govern all the factors of
development and growth within plants. Some other names used to refer to it are
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Phytohormone and plant growth hormones. Phytohormone are organic compounds which
are either synthesized in laboratories or produced naturally within the plants. They
profoundly control and modify the physiological processes like the growth, development,
and movement of plants. Based on their actions, plant growth regulators are broadly
classified into two major groups: Plant growth promoters Plant growth inhibitors.
Auxins, Gibberellins, and Cytokinins are grouped into Plant growth promoters while Abscisic
acid and Ethylene are grouped into Plant growth inhibitors. Ethylene can be grouped either
into the promoters or into the plant inhibitors.
Auxins was first isolated from human urine. The term ‘auxin’ is applied to the indole-3-acetic
acid (IAA), and to other natural and synthetic compounds having certain growth regulating
properties. They are generally produced by the growing apices of the stems and roots, from
where they migrate to the regions of their action. Auxins like IAA and indole butyric acid
(IBA) have been isolated from plants. NAA (naphthalene acetic acid) and 2, 4-D (2, 4-
dichlorophenoxyacetic) are synthetic auxins. All these auxins have been used extensively in
agricultural and horticultural practices. They help to initiate rooting in stem cuttings, an
application widely used for plant propagation. Auxins promote flowering e.g. in pineapples.
They help to prevent fruit and leaf drop at early stages but promote the abscission of older
mature leaves and fruits. In higher plants, the growing apical bud inhibits the growth of the
lateral (axillary) buds, a phenomenon called apical dominance. Removal of shoot tips
(decapitation) usually results in the growth of lateral buds. It is widely applied in tea
plantations, hedge-making. Auxins also induce parthenocarpy, e.g., in tomatoes. They are
widely used as herbicides. 2, 4-D, widely used to kill dicotyledonous weeds, does not affect
mature monocotyledonous plants. It is used to prepare weed-free lawns by gardeners.
Auxin also controls xylem differentiation and helps in cell division.
1.) Identify the incorrect statement about PGR.
Statement 1 – 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic is natural auxins.
Statement 2 – Auxin controls xylem differentiation and helps in cell division.
Statement 3 – Auxins was first isolated from human urine. Statement
4 – Indole acetic acid are isolated from plants.
2.) ___________________ is synthetic auxins
a) Indole butyric acid
b) 2, 4-dichloroethynoxyacetic
c) Naphthalene acetic acid
d) 4, 2-dichlorophenoxyacetic
3.) Name the plant growth regulator was first isolated from human urine?
4.) Define Phytohormone.
5.) Explain apical dominance. Name the hormone that controls it.
Answer
1) a
2.) c
3.) Auxin was the first plant growth regulator isolated from human urine.
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4.) Phytohormone are organic compounds which are either synthesized in laboratories or
produced naturally within the plants. They profoundly control and modify the physiological
processes like the growth, development, and movement of plants.
5.) Apical dominance is defined as phenomenon in which the apical bud become dominant
and suppresses the growth of lateral buds into branches. Auxin is the plant growth regulator
that controls apical dominance.
(i) Distinguish differentiation, dedifferentiation and redifferentiation.
(ii) Explain Sequence of the developmental process in a plant cell only with the flow chart.
Ans: (i) Differentiation: The cells derived from root apical and shoot-apical meristems and cambium
differentiate and mature to perform specific functions. This act leading to maturation is termed as
differentiation.
Dedifferentiation: The living differentiated cells that lost the capacity to divide can regain the
capacity of division under certain conditions. This phenomenon is termed as dedifferentiation.
Redifferentiation: the dedifferentiated meristematic cells/ tissues which are able to divide and
produce cells, once again lose the capacity to divide but mature to perform specific functions.
Identify A to F.
Identify A to I.
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Breathing and Exchange of
Gases
179
Respiration: The sum total of physical and chemical processes by which oxygen and
carbohydrates (main food nutrient) etc. are assimilated into the system and the oxidation
products like carbon dioxide and water are given off.
Inspiration: Oxygen from fresh air taken by lungs and diffused into the blood.
Expiration: CO2 given up by venous blood in the lungs is sent out to exterior.
Diaphragm: A muscular, membranous partition separating the thoracic cavity from the
abdominal cavity.
Hypoxia—Shortage of oxygen in tissues.
Breathing: (External respiration) The process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with
CO2 produced by the cells.
Carbamino haemoglobin: Compound formed in RBCs when CO2 combine with haemoglobin.
Partial Pressure—The pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases. It is
represented as pO2 for oxygen and pCO2 for carbon dioxide.
Pharynx: The tube or cavity which connects the mouth and nasal passages with oesophagus.
It has three parts (i) Nasopharynx (anterior part) (ii) Oropharynx (middle part) and (iii)
Laryngopharynx (posterior part which continues to larynx)
Adam’s Apple: The projection formed by the thyroid cartilage and surrounds the larynx at
the front of the neck.
Tidal volume (TV): Volume of air taken in/given out during normal respiration (500 mL.)
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Additional volume of air inspired by a forcible
inspiration. 2500mL to 3000mL.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Additional volume of air, a person can expire by a
forcible expiration.1000 to 1100 mL.
Residual volume (RV): Volume of air remaining in the lungs even after a forcible expiration
(1100 mL to 1200 mL)
Pulmonary Capacities: Use in clinical diagnosis.
Inspiratory capacity (IC) = (TV + IRV) Total volume of air a person can inspire after a normal
expiration.
Expiratory Capacity—Total Volume of air a parson can expire after a normal inspiration
E.C. = TV + ERV
Functional Residual Capacity—Volume of air that will remain in lungs after a normal
expiration (FRC) = (ERV + RV)
Vital Capacity (VC) = (ERV + TV + IRV) or the maximum volume of air a person can breath
out after a forced inspiration.
Total Lung Capacity: It includes RV, ERV, TV and IRV or vital capacity + residual volume.
RESPIRATORY ORGANS
(i) Protozoans, annelids Frogs—Body surface
(ii) Fishes, tadpole stage of frog and many other aquatic animals—Gills (Branchial
Respiration)
(iii) Insects and a few other arthropods—Tracheal tubes
(iv) All land vertebrates (amphibians, reptiles, aves and mammal)—Lungs.
(Pulmonary Respiration)
Conditions required for (cutaneous respiration)-
Skin should be moist and thin. It should be highly vascularised.
Human Respiratory System:
All mammals have lungs for the purpose of respiration. This is known as pulmonary
respiration. The mammalian respiratory system consists of the nasal cavity, nasopharynx,
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larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs.
1. Nasal cavity:
2. Nasopharynx: It is a chamber situated behind the nasal cavity. At the level of soft palate,
it becomes continuous with the mouth cavity or oral pharynx. It also receives the openings
of eustachian tubes on its lateral sides and is thus connected to the middle ear.
3. Larynx: It is a chamber situated in the region of neck. Larynx is also known as voice box
since it helps in the production of sound.
4. Trachea: It is a tube starting from larynx running through the neck and the thoracic cavity.
The trachea runs through the neck in front of the oesophagus. The trachea or windpipe is
about 12 cm long and divided into two bronchi in the thoracic region.
5. Bronchi and bronchioles: The two bronchi enter into right and left lungs of either side.
Inside the lungs they further branch into many smaller bronchioles with a diameter of about
1 mm. These bronchioles further divide into terminal and then into respiratory bronchioles.
Each respiratory bronchiole divides into a number of alveolar ducts that further divide into
atria, which swell up into air sacs or alveoli.
6. Lungs: A pair of conical shaped lungs is situated in the double walled sacs called pleural
cavities. They are spongy and richly supplied with blood vessels and capillaries. They have
about 300-400 millions of alveoli through which exchange of gases occur. Lungs have
Mechanism of Breathing
Physiology of Respiration:
(a) Exchange of gases—Diffusion of gases takes place from the region of higher partial
pressure to lower (lesser) partial pressure)
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(i) pO2 in alveolar air = 104 mm Hg.
(ii) pO2 in venous blood = 40 mm Hg. O2 diffuses from alveoli to venous blood.
(iii) pCO2 in venous blood = 45 mm Hg. pCO2 in alveolar air = 40 mm Hg. CO2 diffuses from
venous blood to alveoli
(b) Transport of O2 by the blood — (i) About 3% of O2 in dissolved state through plasma.
(ii) As oxyhaemoglobin: 97% of O2 diffuses from plasma into RBCs. Haemoglobin carry 1-4
molecules of O2.
LUNGS
Hb4 + 4O2 Hb4 O8
TISSUE Oxyhaemoglobin
Oxygen dissociation curve
• A sigmoid curve showing relationship between the % of saturation of haemoglobin in
blood and pO2 of the blood
• Fully saturated each gram of haemoglobin combines with nearly 1.34 ml of oxygen.
• H+ con., CO2 tension, temperature affect the curve. Increase in their concentration
decreases the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen.
(c) Transport of CO2
(i) As solution – 7% of CO2 dissolves and carried by the plasma.
(ii) As Bicarbonate – 70% of CO2 in RBCs combines with water form carbonic acid. Carbonic
acid dissociates into bicarbonate ions and H+, Carbonic anhydrase enzyme help in these
reactions.
(iii) As carbaminohaemoglobin – 23% CO2 combines in RBC with amino group of

haemoglobin, form carbaminohaemoglobin
Regulation of Respiration
• Respiratory rhythm centre in medulla of brain responsible for this regulation.
• Pneumotaxic centre in pons region moderates function of respiratory rhythm centre.
• Chemosensitive area adjacent to rhythm centre is highly sensitive to CO2 and H+ ions.
• Increase in them activates this centre, which in turn signal the rhythm centre to make
necessary adjustments and respiratory process by which these substances can be
eliminated.
Disorders of Respiratory System:
1. Asthma: difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammation of bronchi and
bronchioles.
2. Emphysema: alveolar walls are damaged due to which respiratory surface is decreased,
causes of this is cigarette smoking.
3. Occupational Respiratory Disorders: long exposure to the dust of industries like stone
breaking, etc. cause an inflammation on lung tissues and leads to lung damage.
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Diagrammatic view of human respiratory system (sectional view of the left lung is also
shown)
Partial Pressures (in mm Hg) of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide at Different Parts Involved in
Diffusion in Comparison to those in Atmosphere
Diagrammatic representation of exchange of gases at the alveolus and the body

tissues with blood and transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
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A Diagram of a section of an alveolus with a pulmonary capillary.
Oxygen dissociation curve

During inspiration
(a) Diaphragm and external intercostals muscle relax.
(b) Diaphragm and internal intercostals muscles relax.
(c) Diaphragm and external intercostals muscles contract.
(d) Diaphragm and internal intercostals muscles contract. (c)
Which of the following statements is correct?

(a) Inspiration is an active process
(b) Inspiration is a passive process
(c) Expiration is an active process
(d) Both expiration and inspiration are passive processes (a)
Match the following:

1. Tidal volume – A. Tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume and expiratory reserve volume.
2. Inspiratory reserve volume – B. Additional volume of air a person can inspire by a forcible
inspiration.
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3. Expiratory reserve volume – C. Volume of air remaining in the lungs even after a forcible
expiration.
4. Residual volume – D. Tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume.
5. Inspiratory reserve capacity – E. Volume of air inspirited or expired during a normal respiration.
6. Vital capacity – F. Vital capacity + residual volume
7. Total lung capacity – G. Additional volume of air a person can expire by a forcible expiration.
(a) 1–E, 2–C, 3–B, 4–G, 5–D, 6–A, 7–F
(b) 1–E, 2–G, 3–B, 4–C, 5–A, 6–D, 7–F
(c) 1–E, 2–C, 3–G, 4–B, 5–D, 6–A, 7–F
(d) 1–E, 2–B, 3–G, 4–C, 5–D, 6–A, 7–F (d)
The volume of air involved in breathing movements can be estimated by using a ________ which
helps in clinical assessment of pulmonary functions
(a) Osmometer (b) Potometer
(c) Spirometer (d) Sphygmomanometer (c)
Lung alveoli of mammals have a thin wall composed of
(a) Simple cuboidal epithelium (b) Simple squamous epithelium
(c) Stratified cuboidal epithelium (d) Stratified squamous epithelium (a)
Name the blood vessel A to D.
(a) A–Pulmonary vein, B–Systemic vein, C–Pulmonary artery, D–Systemic artery

(b) A–Systemic vein, B–Systemic artery, C–Pulmonary vein, D–Pulmonary artery
(c) A–Systemic artery, B–Pulmonary artery, C–Systemic vein, D–Systemic artery
(d) A–Pulmonary artery, B–Systemic vein, C–Systemic artery, D–Pulmonary vein (a)
Study the accompanying figure
Identify A to C from the above figure.

(a) A–Basement substance, B–RBC, C–Alveolar wall
(b) A–Alveolar wall, B–Basement substance, C–RBC
(c) A–RBC, B–Basement substance, C–Alveolar wall
(d) A–RBC, B–Alveolar wall, C–Basement substance (d)
below:
(a) If both the assertion and the reason are true and the reason is a correct explanation of the
assertion.
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(b) If both the assertion and reason are true but the reason is not a correct explanation of the
assertion.
Assertion: Larynx is called sound box.
Reason: Larynx helps in production of sound. (a)
Assertion: Alveoli and their duct form respiratory part of respiratory tract.
Reason: This part is actual site of exchange of O2 and CO2 between blood and atmospheric air. (a)
Assertion: External nostril to terminal bronchioles constitutes conducting as well as respiratory part
of respiratory tract.
Reason: It help in conduction of atmospheric air to the alveoli as well as diffusion of O2 and CO2
between blood and atmospheric air. (d)
Assertion: Inspiration during which alveolar air is released out.

Reason: Expiration by which atmospheric air is drawn in. (d)
Assertion: We can increase strength of inspiration and expiration.

Reason: We can use additional muscle of thoracic and abdominal region. (a)
Mention the causes and symptoms of asthma and emphysema.
Answer- Asthma: - It is due inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles.
Difficulty in breathing and wheezing are its symptoms.
Emphysema- It is caused mainly by cigarette smoking.
The alveolar walls are damaged and hence, there is a decrease in the respiratory surface for
exchange of gases.
Mention the main parts involved in the initiating a pressure gradient between the lungs
and the atmosphere during respiration process.
Ans: The diaphragm and external and intercostal muscles between the ribs aid in the
generation of pressure gradient during respiration.
Explain the role of neural system in regulation of respiration is human.
Respiratory rhythm centre in medulla of brain responsible for this regulation.
• Pneumotaxic centre in pons region moderates function of respiratory rhythm centre.
• Chemosensitive area adjacent to rhythm centre is highly sensitive to CO2 and H+ ions.
• Increase in them activates this centre, which in turn signal the rhythm centre to make
necessary adjustments and respiratory process by which these substances can be
eliminated.
Following graph represents oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve. Point E and G represent

venous O2 pressure during exercise and resting state respectively. How much total
percentage of oxygen is unloaded in tissue during exercise?
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Answer- P + Q
In the tissues, where low pO2, high pCO2, high H+ concentration and higher temperature
exist, the conditions are favourable for dissociation of oxygen from the oxyhaemoglobin.
This clearly indicates that O2 gets bound to haemoglobin in the lung surface and gets
dissociated at the tissues.
So, during exercise, muscles have a higher metabolic rate, and consequently need more
oxygen, produce more carbon dioxide and lactic acid, and their temperature rises.
Hence, at point P and Q, curve shifts towards right.
Following is the table showing partial pressure (in mm Hg) of oxygen and carbon dioxide)
at different parts involved in diffusion in comparison to those in atmosphere. Fill in the
blank – a, b, c and d.
Answer-
Describe the role played by diaphragm and intercostal muscles in inspiration.

Answer- Intercostal muscles:
Intercostal muscles are present in between the ribs and are of three types internal, external
and innermost.
Role of intercostal muscles:
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They provide assistance in exhalation and help in the movement of ribs while breathing.
Diaphragm:
The diaphragm is the muscular partition that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavity.
Role of diaphragm:
During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens causing an increase in the volume of
the thoracic cavity and the lungs.
During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and moves upwards which leads to a decrease in
the volume of the lungs
How is expiration carried out under normal physiological conditions?
Expiration takes place when the intra-pulmonary pressure is higher than the atmospheric
pressure. The diaphragm and a specialised set of muscles-external and internal intercostals
between the ribs, help in generation of such gradients. Relaxation of the diaphragm and the
intercostal muscles returns the diaphragm and sternum to their normal positions after
inspiration which reduces the thoracic volume and thereby the pulmonary volume. This
leads to an increase in intra-pulmonary pressure to slightly above the atmospheric pressure
causing the expulsion of air from the lungs,
Write the various modes of transportation of carbon dioxide in the blood.
Answer- It is carried in the blood in three forms:
Dissolved state under normal pressure and temperature, 7% of CO2 is transported by
physical solution
As carbamino compounds, carbon dioxide directly combines with Hb to form an unstable
compound, the carbamino compounds
As bicarbonate ions
List the following steps in a sequential manner for the completion of the respiration
process.
a) Diffusion of oxygen and CO2 across the alveolar membrane
b) Transportation of gases by blood
c) Utilization of oxygen for catabolic reactions by the cells and hence the resultant release
of CO2
d) Pulmonary ventilation through which atmospheric air is drawn in and carbon dioxide-rich
alveolar air is given out
e) Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between tissues and blood
Answer- d) Pulmonary ventilation through which atmospheric air is drawn in and carbon
dioxide-rich alveolar air is given out
a) Diffusion of oxygen and CO2 across the alveolar membrane
b) Transportation of gases by blood
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e) Diffusion of oxygen and CO2 between tissues and blood
c) Utilization of oxygen for catabolic reactions by the cells and hence the resultant release of
CO2
What is Respiratory Quotient?
Answer- The actual ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide eliminated to the volume of
oxygen consumed during the act of cellular respiration is called the respiratory quotient.it is
also referred as the respiratory ratio and is denoted by RQ.
The formulae of Respiratory Quotient is given by:
RQ = volume of Carbon dioxide eliminated / volume of Oxygen consumed
Case based Question-

Human beings have a significant ability to maintain and moderate the respiratory rhythm to
suit the demands of the body tissues. This is done by the neural system. A specialised centre
present in the medulla region of the brain called respiratory rhythm centre is primarily
responsible for this regulation. Another centre present in the pons region of the brain called
pneumotaxic centre can moderate the functions of the respiratory rhythm centre. Neural
signal from this centre can reduce the duration of inspiration and thereby alter the
respiratory rate. A chemosensitive area is situated adjacent to the rhythm centre which is
highly sensitive to CO2 and hydrogen ions. Increase in these substances can activate this
centre, which in turn can signal the rhythm centre to make necessary adjustments in the
respiratory process by which these substances can be eliminated. Receptors associated with
aortic arch and carotid artery also can recognise changes in CO2 and H+ concentration and
send necessary signals to the rhythm centre for remedial actions. The role of oxygen in the
regulation of respiratory rhythm is quite insignificant.
Respiratory disorders or diseases are diseases of lungs and human airways that affect
human respiration.” A disorder is defined as a state of irregular functioning of the body.
Asthma is a difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammation of bronchi and
bronchioles.
Emphysema is a chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are damaged due to which
respiratory surface is decreased. One of the major causes of this is cigarette smoking.
Occupational Respiratory Disorders: In certain industries, especially those involving grinding
or stone-breaking, so much dust is produced that the defence mechanism of the body
cannot fully cope with the situation. Long exposure can give rise to inflammation leading to
fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous tissues) and thus causing serious lung damage. Workers in
such industries should wear protective masks.
1.) ___________________ from this centre neural signal can reduce the duration of
inspiration and alter the respiratory rate.
a) Pneunotaxic centre
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b) Pneumotaxic centre
c) Chemosensitive centre
d) Rhythm centre
2.) Increase in CO2 and hydrogen ions substances activates,
a) Respiratory rhythm
b) Pneumotaxic centre
c) Rhythm centre
d) Chemosensitive centre
3.) What is Pneumotaxic centre? Give its function.
4.) What is emphysema? What is its major cause?
5.) What is fibrosis?
Answer
1.) b
2.) b
3.) Pneumotaxic centre – Is the centre present in the pons region of the brain. It can
moderate the functions of the respiratory rhythm centre. Neural signal from this centre can
reduce the duration of inspiration and thereby alter the respiratory rate.
4.) Emphysema – Emphysema is a chronic condition in which alveolar walls are damaged
due to this damage the surface area for exchange of gases is reduced. It is caused mainly by
cigarette smoking.
5.) Fibrosis is condition in which proliferation of fibrous tissues causes serious lung damage.
It this condition surface area for exchange of gases is reduced.
Describe the role of the neural system in controlling respiration.
Answer- The neural system maintains and moderates the respiratory rhythm as per the
demands of the body tissues. The respiratory rhythm centre present in the brain is
responsible for regulation. The pneumotaxic centre, another region in the pons of the brain,
moderates the functions of the respiratory rhythm centre. The neural signals from this
centre have the ability to reduce the duration of inspiration hence altering the rate of
respiration. A chemosensitive area present adjacent to the rhythm centre is very sensitive to
hydrogen ions and CO2 which activate this centre by an increase of these substances. These
send down a signal to the rhythm centre to cause essential adjustments in the process
which can cause the elimination of these substances. Changes in CO2 and hydrogen ions are
recognized by receptors linked with aortic arch and carotid artery, thereby sending signals
for corrective actions to the rhythm centre.
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Identify A to I
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Body Fluids and Circulation
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BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION
Body fluids are the medium of transport of nutrients, oxygen and other important
substances in the body.
Blood
Blood is a fluid connective tissue composed of a fluid matrix, plasma and the blood
corpuscles. It forms about 30-35% of the extracellular fluid. It is slightly alkaline fluid having
pH7.4.
➢ Plasma is straw colored viscous fluid that constitutes 55% of blood volume. It consists
of 90-92% water, 6-8% protein (fibrinogens for clotting of blood, albumins and
globulins for immunity), glucose, amino acids and small amount of minerals like Na+,
Ca++, Cl- etc.
➢ Erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets are collectively called formed elements.
➢ Erythrocytes (RBC) formed in bone marrow is 5-5.5 million cells in 1 cubic mm of
blood. Nucleus is absent in mammalian RBCs biconcave in shape.
➢ Every 100 ml of blood contain 12-16 gm. of hemoglobin. Their life span is of 120 days.
They are destroyed in spleen( graveyard of RBCs)
Leucocytes or WBCs are colourless due to absence of haemoglobin. 6000-8000 of WBCs are
present in mm-3 of blood.
• Neutrophils are most abundant and basophils are least abundant WBCs. Monocytes
and neutrophils are phagocytic cells which destroy foreign organisms.
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• Basophils secrete histamine, serotonin and heparin that are involved in
inflammatory reactions.
• Eosinophils resist infection and allergic reactions. B and T lymphocytes are
responsible for immune response of the body.
Thrombocytes or platelets are cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes in bone

marrow. 150000-350000 platelets are present in each ml of blood. Platelets are involved in
clotting or coagulation of blood in case of injuries.
Blood Groups – blood of human beings differ in certain aspects although it appear same in
all individuals. Two main types of grouping are ABO and Rh.
ABO grouping is based on presence or absence of two surface antigens RBC, antigen A and
antigen B. The plasma of an individual also contains two antibodies produced in response of
antigens.
• During blood transfusion, blood of donor has to be matched with blood of recipients
to avoid clumping of RBCs.
• Group ‘O’ blood called universal donor while Person with ‘AB’ blood group is
called universal recipient.
Rh grouping – Rh antigen (similar to Rhesus monkey) are observed on surface of RBCs of

majority of individuals (about 80%). Such people are called Rh positive (Rh+) and those in
whom this antigen is absent are called Rh negative (Rh−).
• Erythroblastosis foetalis- if father blood is Rh+, mother blood is Rh- and the foetus
bloodis Rh+. During the delivery of first child there is a possibility of exposure of
mother blood with foetus blood to develop antibodies in mother blood. In
subsequent pregnancy the mother blood can leak into foetus blood that destroys the
foetus RBC and in such condition second child cannot take birth. This case is called
erythroblastosis foetalis. This can be avoided by administrating anti Rh antibodies.
Coagulation of blood (Blood Clotting)
When an injury is caused to a blood vessel bleeding starts which is stopped by a process
called blood clotting. An injury or trauma stimulates the platelets in the blood to release
certain factors that activate the mechanism of coagulation. Calcium play important role in
blood clotting.
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Lymph
During flow of blood through capillaries, some water soluble substances move out in the
space between cells of tissues. This fluid released out is called interstitial fluid or tissue fluid.
It is similar to the blood but has fewer blood proteins, less calcium and phosphorus and high
glucose concentration.
• It is a colourless fluid containing specialized lymphocytes that provide immune

response to body.
• Main function of lymph is to provide immunity, carry proteins and fats molecules
and transport oxygen, food materials, hormones etc.
Circulatory Pathways
All vertebrates have a muscular chambered heart.
Fish – 2 chambered heart
Amphibian and Reptiles (except crocodile) - 3 chambered heart.
Crocodile, Birds and Mammals – 4 chambered heart.
Human Circulatory System – consists of 4 chambered muscular heart, closed branching

blood vessels and circulatory fluid blood.
Heart is the mesodermally derived muscular organ, present in thoracic cavity between the
two lungs protected by double membrane of pericardium.
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• The upper two chamber is called atria and lower two chambers are
called ventricles. Interatrial septum separate the right and left atrium and thick
walled inter ventricle septum separate the ventricles.
• The opening between right atrium and right ventricle is guarded by a three muscular
flaps called tricuspid valve. Bicuspid or mitral valve guards the left atrium and
ventricle.
• The opening of right and left ventricle to pulmonary artery and aorta respectively is
controlled by semilunar valve.
• The nodal tissue present on upper right corner of right atrium is called SAN (sino-
atrial node) and those on lower left corner of right atrium is called AVN ( atrio-
ventricular node).
• The purkinje fibres along with right and left bundles form the bundle of HIS. The
nodal musculature has ability to generate action potential.
• SAN generate maximum number of action potential and is responsible for rhythmic
contraction of heart. Therefore it is called pace maker.
Cardiac Cycle
• To begin with, all four chambers are in relaxed state called joint diastole. As the
bicuspid and tricuspid valves are open, blood from pulmonary vein and vena cava
flows to left and right ventricle respectively. Semilunar valves are closed at this
stage.
• SA node generates action potential that contracts both atria (atrial systole). The
action potential passes to AV node and bundle of HIS transmit it to ventricular
musculature to cause ventricular systole. At the same time atria undergoes
relaxation diastole to close the bicuspid and tricuspid valve.
• Semilunar valves open into circulatory system that relax the ventricle and close the
valves to prevent back flow of blood.
• As the pressure inside ventricle decreases the bicuspid and tricuspid valve open to
repeat the process or cardiac cycle.
• During each cardiac cycle two sounds are produced. The first sound (lub) is due to
closure of bicuspid and tricuspid valve and 2nd heart sound (dub) is due to closure of
semilunar valve.
ECG (Electrocardiograph) is a graphical representation of electrical activity of heart during

cardiac cycle. The electrocardiograph machine is used to obtain electrocardiogram. The
patient is connected to three electrical leads to wrists and left ankle.
• The P-wave represents the electrical excitation of atria (depolarisation) which leads
to contraction of atria.
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• The QRS-wave represents the depolarization of ventricles, which initiates the
ventricular contraction.
• The T-wave represents the return of ventricle from exited to normal state
(repolarization). The end of T-wave marks the end of systole. Counting the number
of QRS complex in given period of time determine the heartbeat rate.
Double Circulation
Flow of same blood twice through the heart once in oxygenated form and other in
deoxygenated form is called double circulation. It includes systematic and pulmonary
circulation.
Systematic circulation includes flow of oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to all parts
of body and deoxygenated blood from various body parts to the right atrium. All systematic
circulation starts form aorta and ends at superior vena cava, inferior vena cava or coronary
sinus to right atrium.
The systematic circulation provides oxygen, nutrients and other substances to the tissues
and take CO2 and other harmful substances away for removal.
Pulmonary Circulation
The flow of deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and the return of
oxygenated blood from the lung to the left atrium is called pulmonary circulation.
Two pulmonary veins from each lung transport the oxygenated blood to the left atrium.
Double circulation prevents the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
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Regulation of Cardiac Activity
• Normal activities of heart are regulated by nodal tissue (SA and AV node), so the
heart is myogenic.
• A special neural centre in medulla oblongata moderates the cardiac function by ANS.
Sympathetic nerve can increase the rate of heart beat and parasympathetic nerve of
ANS decrease the rate of heart beat.
• Adrenal medullary hormone also increases the cardiac output.
Disorder of Circulatory System
1. Hypertension (high blood pressure) – Blood pressure higher than (120/80) . 120 mm
Hg is the systolic that is pumping pressure and 80 mm Hg is the diastole, resting
pressure. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)- commonly called atherosclerosis that
affects the blood vessels that supply blood to heart muscles due to deposition of fat,
calcium, cholesterol that makes the arteries lumen narrower
1. Angina- also called angina pectoris, acute chest pain due to less supply of oxygen to
heart muscles.
2. Heart failure- heart does not pump enough blood to meet the requirement of body.
It is also known as congestive heart failure because congestion of lung is one of its
causes. Heart failure is different from heart attack (heart muscle is damaged by
inadequate blood supply) and cardiac arrest (when heart stops beating).
3. Coronary Thrombosis- formation of clot in the coronary artery, occurs most
frequently in the left anterior descending coronary artery.
Question Bank
Q. The Agranulocytes responsible for immune response of the body are
(A) Basophils (b) Neutrophils (c) Eosinophils (d) Lymphocytes Ans. (a)
Q.The second heart sound (dub) is associated with the closure of
(A)Tricuspid valve (b) Semilunar valves (c) Bicuspid valve (d) Tricuspid and bicuspid
valves Ans. (b)
Q.Which of the following correctly explains a phase/event in cardiac cycle in a
standard electrocardiogram?
(a) The QRS complex indicates atrial contraction.
(b)The QRS complex indicates ventricular contraction.
(C)The time between S and T represents atrial systole
(d) The P–wave indicates the beginning of ventricular contraction. Ans. (b)
Q.Which of the following statements is incorrect?
(a)A person of ‘O’ blood group has anti ‘A’ and anti ‘B’ antibodies in his blood plasma.
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(b)A person of ‘B’ blood group can’t donate blood to a person of ‘A’ blood group.
(c) Blood group is designated on the basis of the presence of antibodies in the blood plasma.
(d)A person of AB blood group is a universal recipient. Ans. (c)
Q. What would be the cardiac output of a person having 72 heart beats per minute and
a stroke volume of 50 mL?
(a) 360 mL (b) 3600 mL
(c) 7200 mL (d) 5000 Ml Ans. (b)
given below:
(a) If both the assertion and the reason are true and the reason is a correct
explanation of the assertion.
(b) If both the assertion and reason are true but the reason is not a correct
1. Assertion: Erythroblastosis feotalis not observed during first pregnancy although

foetus is Rh positive and mother is Rh negative.
Reason: Rh antigens of foetus do not get exposed to Rh negative blood of
mother in first pregnancy as the two bloods are well separated by placenta. (A)
2. Assertion: Closed circulatory system is more effective than open type.
Reason: The closed circulatory system considerably enhances the speed,
precision and efficiency of circulation. (B)
3. Assertion: Cardiac output rises during exercise.
Reason: Cardiac output helps in less oxygen consumption. (A)
4. Assertion: Plasma retains water.
Reason: Plasma contains an osmotic protein called albumin. (A)
5. Assertion: An artificial pacemaker can replace the sinoatrial node of heart.
Reason: This is because, an artificial pacemaker is capable of stimulating the heart
electrically to maintain its beats. (A)
Q.Where is SA-node located?

Ans:It is located at the place of merge of sinus venous at the right wall of the right atrium.
Q. What is the ‘lubb’ sound?

Ans:It is the first sound produced by the heart due to the sharp closure of AV valves at the
start of ventricular systole.
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Q.What is AV-node?
Ans:It is a node of specialised fibres, located at the junction of the right atrium and right
ventricle.
Q. What is the role of AV-node?

Ans:It collects the wave contraction generated by SA-node and passes down to a bundle of
His and Purkinje fibres.
Q.Why does the ventricle contract as a closed chamber in the early phase of its systole?
Ans:In the early phases of systole the ventricle contracts as a closed chamber, so to increase
the pressure in the atrium. Backflow of blood into atria is prevented by closure of AV-valves.
In a closed chamber, the ventricles contract and increased pressure cause the opening of
semi-lunar valves. The blood is passed into arteries with great force.
Q.The blood vascular system is considered efficient than the water circulatory system in
animals, why?
Ans:The dissolved oxygen and nutrient present in water are in fewer amounts. Oxygen is
supplied through oxygen carrier molecule (haemoglobin) present in plasma or cells, in
higher animals. Oxygen and nutrients are supplied quickly and in fairly large amounts in
animals with a blood vascular system, so considered comparatively efficient.
Q. What is the main advancement in avian and mammalian heart over the amphibians
and reptiles heart?
Ans:Avian and mammalian heart show complete double circulation and in them,
oxygenated blood remains completely separate from deoxygenated blood. There are no
accessory chambers in them. There is a single aorta in aves and mammals and double aorta
in reptiles and amphibians which quickens the supply of O2 and food to release the energy
and aids in the removal of wastes from the body.
Q.What is the base efficiency of the heart?

Ans:The efficiency of the heart on beating throughout life without fatigue is based upon the
principle that it rests double the time it works i.e. contraction of the heart is followed
immediately by relaxation but relaxation is not followed by the next contraction. The
beating of the heart is 72 times per minute. It is indicated by pulse rate per minute. The
amount of blood pumped out per minutes is called heart output.
Q. Why do we call our heart myogenic?

Solution: The heart of molluscs and vertebrates including humans is myogenic. It means
heart beat is initiated in heart itself by a patch of modified heart muscle called sino-atrial
node or pacemaker which lies in the wall of the right atrium near the opening of the
superior vena cava.
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CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS
Electro-cardiograph is used to obtain an electrocardiogram (ECG). ECG is a graphical

representation of the electrical activity of the heart during a cardiac cycle. To obtain a
standard ECG, a patient is connected to the machine with three electrical leads (one to each
wrist and to the left ankle) that continuously monitor the heart activity. For a detailed
evaluation of the heart’s function, multiple leads are attached to the chest region.
Each peak in the ECG is identified with a letter from P to T that corresponds to a specific
electrical activity of the heart.
The P-wave represents the electrical excitation (or depolarization) of the atria, which leads
to the contraction of both the atria.
The QRS complex represents the depolarization of the ventricles, which initiates the
ventricular contraction. The contraction starts shortly after Q and marks the beginning of
the systole.
The T-wave represents the return of the ventricles from excited to normal state
(repolarization). The end of the T-wave marks the end of systole. Obviously, by counting the
number of QRS complexes that occur in a given time period, one can determine the heart
beat rate of an individual. Since the ECGs obtained from different individuals have roughly
the same shape for a given lead configuration, any deviation from this shape indicates a
possible abnormality or disease. Hence, it is of a great clinical significance.
1.) Identify the correct statement
Statement 1 – T-wave represents the return of the ventricles from excited to normal state.
Statement 2 – P-wave represents the electrical excitation of the atria.
Statement 3 – QRS complex represents repolarization.
Statement 4 – T-wave represents the return of the ventricles from normal to excited state.
a) Statement 1 and 2 are correct b) Statement 2 and 3 are correct

c) Statement 3 and 4 are correct d) All of the above statements are correct.
2.) _________________ represents the depolarization of the ventricles.
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a) P-wave b) QRS complex c) T-wave d) ST-segment
3.) What represents the repolarization of the ventricles?
4.) What is depolarization of atria?
5) What represents the end of systole?
Answer key: 1) a 2) b
3.) T-wave represents the return of the ventricles from excited to normal state i.e.
repolarization.
4.) Depolarization of atria is electrical excitation of the atria which leads to the contraction
of both the atria. It is represented by P-wave.
5) The end of the T-wave marks the end of systole by counting the number of QRS
complexes that occur in a given time period.

Ques. Double circulation is found in
(a) Birds (b) Crocodile (c) Mammals (d) All of these
Ques. Heart is derived from
(a)Ectoderm (b) Endoderm (c) Mesoderm (d) All of these
Ques. What happens in hemophilia?
Ques. Differentiate between Blood and Lymph.
Ques. What are the important events of the cardiac cycle?
Ques. What is the necessity of thrombocytes for blood coagulation?
Ques. What is an artificial pacemaker? Explain
Ques. What is the main advancement in avian and mammalian heart over the
amphibians and reptiles heart?
Ques. What does ECG stand for? Define it.
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Excretory Products and their
Elimination
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EXCRETION: Removal of nitrogenous wastes from the body is called Excretion. Excretory
system helps in collecting nitrogenous waste and expelling it outside the body.
Ammonotelism: The process of excreting ammonia, a nitrogenous waste, from body is
called Ammonotelism. For e.g. many bony fishes, aquatic amphibians and aquatic insects
Ureotelism: The process of excreting urea as an excretory waste from the body is called
ureotelism. For e.g.: Mammals, many terrestrial amphibians and marine fishes.
Uricotelism: The process of excreting uric acid is ureotelism. Example- Reptiles, birds, land
snails and insects. This prevents loss of water.
Specific excretory organs: Found in :
Protonephridia or flame cells Platyhelminthes, rotifers, some annelids and
cephalochordate
Nephridia Earthworms
Malpighian tubules insects
Antennal glands crustaceans
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

•In humans, the excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary bladder
and a urethra.
•Kidneys: reddish brown, bean shaped structures found dorsally with back bone.
•Size: 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness
•The kidney has an outer cortex, inner medulla and pelvis.
•The medulla is divided into a few conical tissue masses called medullary pyramids / renal pyramids.
•The part of cortex that extends in between the medullary pyramids is the renal columns of Bertini.
•At centre of concave surface of kidney, a notch (hilum) is present.
•Through hilum ureter, blood vessels and nerves enter in kidney.
•Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel shaped space (renal pelvis) is located with projection called
calyces.
Human Urinary System Longitidinal system of Kidney
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The calyces collect the urine and empties into the ureter, which is stored in the
urinary bladder temporarily.
The urinary bladder opens into the urethra through which urine is expelled out.
Each kidney has nearly one million complex tubular structures called nephrons
(functional units of kidney).
The Malpighian corpuscle, PCT and DCT of the nephron are situated in the
cortical region of the kidney while e loops of Henle into the medulla.
The efferent arteriole emerging from the glomerulus

forms a fine network of capillaries around the renal
tubule called the peritubular capillaries.
Parts of nephron:
•Glomerulus: It is a tuft of capillaries formed by the afferent arteriole – a fine branch of renal artery.
Blood from the glomerulus is carried away by an efferent arteriole.
•The renal tubule begins with a double walled cup-like structure called Bowman’s capsule, which
encloses the glomerulus.
•Glomerulus along with Bowman’s capsule is called the Malpighian body or renal corpuscle.
•The tubules may be PCT, DCT and Henle’s loop
•PCT (proximal convoluted tubule)- situated close to Bowman’s capsule.
•DCT (distal convoluted tubule)- situated near to collecting duct
•Henle’s loop: it is hairpin shaped structure. It has descending and an ascending limb.
•Collecting duct: it is a straight tube which receives filtrates form nephrons.
•Vasa recta: A minute vessel of this network runs parallel to the Henle’s loop forming a ‘U’
shaped vasa recta. Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced in cortical nephrons.
Types of nephrons 1.Cortical nephrons: loop of Henle is too short and extends only very little into
the medulla.
2.Medullary nephrons: Loops of Henle are very long and run deep into the medulla.
URINE FORMATION
•The nitrogenous waste formed as a result of breakdown of amino acids is converted to urea in the
liver by the Ornithine cycle or urea cycle
Steps in urine formation: glomerular filtration, reabsorption and secretion.
•Glomerular filtration: Blood enters the kidney from the renal artery, into the glomerulus. The fluid
that leaves the glomerular capillaries and enters the Bowman’s capsule is called the glomerular
filtrate.
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The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes filtration of blood through 3 layers- the endothelium
(glomerular blood vessels), the epithelium/ podocytes (Bowman’s capsule) and a basement
membrane between these two layers. The podocytes leave some minute spaces called filtration slits
or slit pores.
•Blood is filtered so finely through these membranes that almost all the constituents of the plasma
except the proteins pass onto the lumen of the Bowman’s capsule. Therefore, it is considered as a
process of ultra-filtration.
•GFR (glomerular filtration rate): The amount of the filtrate formed by the kidneys per minute (125
ml/minute) is called (GFR).
•Regulation of GFR: The juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA) is formed by cellular modifications in the
DCT and the afferent arteriole at the location of their contact.
•When GFR decreases, the JG cells release renin, which stimulate the glomerular blood flow and
thereby the GFR back to normal.
•Reabsorption: This involves movement of the filtrate back into the circulation. Nearly 99 % of the
filtrate has to be reabsorbed by the renal tubules. This absorption may be active (glucose, amino
acids, Na+) or passive (nitrogenous wastes, water).
•Secretion: During urine formation, the tubular cells secrete substances like H+, K+ and ammonia into
the filtrate. It maintains the ionic and acid base balance of body fluids.
FUNCTION OF THE TUBULES
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT):
•In PCT reabsorption of essential nutrients, 70-80 % of electrolytes and water takes place.
•It also helps to maintain the pH and ionic balance of the body fluids by selective secretion of
hydrogen ions and ammonia into the filtrate and by absorption of HCO3 – from it.
•Henle’s Loop:
•In its ascending limb, reabsorption is at a minimum.
•It maintains the high osmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid. This concentrates the filtrate as it
moves down.
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT):
•It involves the conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water.
•DCT can also reabsorb HCO3– and secrete hydrogen, potassium, and NH3 ions selectively to keep
the blood pH and sodium-potassium balance in check.
Collecting Duct:
•It extends from the cortex of the kidney to the inner parts of the medulla.
•This region could reabsorb a large amount of water, resulting in concentrated urine.
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•To maintain osmolarity, the collecting duct allows less amounts of urea to enter into the medullary
interstitium.
Mechanism of concentration of the filtrate
•The filtrate flows in opposite directions in the two limbs of Henle's loop, forming a counter current.
Blood also flows in a counter-current pattern through the two limbs of the vasa recta.
•The close proximity of the Henle's loop and the vasa recta, as well as the countercurrent in them,
help to maintain a rising osmolarity towards the inner medullary interstitium.
•The ascending limb of Henle's loop transports NaCl, which is exchanged with the descending limb of
vasa recta.
•The ascending section of the vasa recta returns NaCl to the interstitium.
•Small amounts of urea enter the ascending limb of Henle's loop's thin segment, which is then
carried back to the interstitium by the collecting tubule.
Regulation of kidney function

ADH (antidiuretic hormone)/ Vasopressin - released from neurohypophysis. ADH can contract blood
vessels and therefore increase blood pressure resulting increase the GFR. JGA- A fall in glomerular
blood flow/glomerular blood pressure/GFR can activate the JG cells to release renin. Renin converts
angiotensinogen in blood to angiotensin I and then to angiotensin II. Angiotensin II is a powerful
vasoconstrictor and increases the glomerular blood pressure and thereby GFR. Aldosterone- the
angiotensin II also activates the adrenal cortex to release Aldosterone. Aldosterone causes
reabsorption of Na+ and water from the DCT. This also leads to an increase in blood pressure and
GFR. This complex mechanism is generally known as the Renin-Angiotensin mechanism
ANF (Atrial Natriuretic Factor): An increase in blood flow to the atria of the heart can cause the
release of ANF. It can cause vasodilation and thereby decrease the blood pressure. ANF acts
antagonistically to the renin- angiotensin system, aldosterone and vasopressin.
Micturition
•The process of release of urine from the bladder is called micturition.
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•The signal is sent by CNS to relax the urethra sphincter and causes urination.
Disorders of the excretory system
•Uremia: accumulation of urea in blood
•Renal calculi: Stone or insoluble mass of crystallized salts (oxalates, etc.)
Hemodialysis:
•A dialyzing machine (artificial kidney) is connected to the patient’s body.
•The patient’s blood is drawn from a convenient artery and pumped into the dialysing unit after
adding an anticoagulant like heparin.
•The tiny pores in the dialysis tube allows small molecules such as glucose, salts and urea to enter
into the water bath, whereas blood cells and protein molecules do not enter these pores (Similar to
the glomerular filtration).
•The cleared blood is then pumped back to the body through a vein
Kidney Transplantation
•It is the ultimate method for correction of acute renal failures.
•This involves transfer of healthy kidney from one person (donor) to another person with kidney
failure. Immunosuppressive drugs are usually administered to the patient to avoid tissue rejection.
A schematic representation of Hemodialysis
Question Bank
Q. A larger quantity of one of the following is removed from our body by lungs.
(a) CO2 only (b) H2O only (c) CO2 and H2O (d) Ammonia
Q. The pH of human urine is approximately
(a) 6.5 (b) 7 (c) 6 (d) 7.5
Q. Different types of excretory structures and animals are given below. Match
them appropriately and mark the correct answer from among those given
below.
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Excretory structure/organ Animals
(A) Protonephridia (B) Nephridia (C) Malpighian tubules
(B) Green gland or Antennal gland
(a) D – i, C – ii, B – iii and A – iv
(b) B – i, C – ii, A – iii and B – iv
(c) D – i, C – ii, A – iii and B – iv
(d) B – i, C – ii, B – iii and D – iv
Q.Stone and insoluble mass of crystallized salts, formed within the kidney is madeup of
(a)Calcium carbonate (b) Calcium oxalate (c) Silica (d) Any of these
Q. Which is the ultimate method for the correction of acute renal failure?
(a) Haemodialysis (b) Renal transplantation
(c) Blood transfusion (c) Angioplasty
Q. Name the site where the selective reabsorption of filtrate from Glomerular
occurs.
Ans. PCT – Proximal Convoluted Tubules and DCT – Distal Convoluted Tubules.
Q.What is Excretion?
Ans.Excretion is a biological process in which removal of Nitrogenous wastes and
other waste products from the body takes place.
Q. Which gland in the prawns performs excretory functions?
Ans. Their excretory organs are called as green glands or antennary glands. They
secrete ammonia and are opaque-white pea-sized structures, confined in the coxa of
each second antenna.
Q. What is the Renin-Angiotensin System?
Ans. Renin-angiotensin system, also known as the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone
system. It is a physiological hormone system involved in the regulation of blood
plasma, arterial blood pressure and also sodium concentration in our blood cells.
Q. What consequences will follow with the failure of tubular reabsorption in
nephrons?
Ans: Nephrons are the structural and functional units of each kidney. With the failure
of reabsorption in nephrons, much-needed substances like glucose, amino acids,
water, salts, etc. will be excreted along with urine. The biological functioning of
organs and body will be impaired, ultimately death will occur.
Q. State the importance of counter-current systems in renal functioning.

Ans:Vasa recta is responsible for the concentration of urine. The vase rectal is in the
form of loops. Therefore, the blood flows in the opposite directions in two limbs of
each vasa recta; the blood entering its descending limb comes into close contact with
the outgoing blood in the ascending limb. This is called a Counter-Current System.
The two limbs of the loops of Henle form another Counter-Current System.
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Importance: The counter-current system significantly contributes to concentrating
urine in mammals.

Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to accumulation of urea in blood, a condition called
uremia, which is highly harmful and may lead to kidney failure. In such patients, urea can
be removed by a process called hemodialysis. During the process of haemodialysis, the
blood drained from a convenient artery is pumped into a dialysing unit called artificial
kidney. Blood drained from a convenient artery is pumped into a dialysing unit after
adding an anticoagulant like heparin. The unit contains a coiled cellophane tube
surrounded by a fluid (dialysing fluid) having the same composition as that of plasma
except the nitrogenous wastes. The porous cellophane membrane of the tube allows the
passage of molecules based on concentration gradient. As nitrogenous wastes are absent
in the dialysing fluid, these substances freely move out, thereby clearing the blood. The
cleared blood is pumped back to the body through a vein after adding anti-heparin to it.
This method is a boon for thousands of uremic patients all over the world.
Kidney transplantation is the ultimate method in the correction of acute renal failures
(kidney failure). A functioning kidney is used in transplantation from a donor, preferably a
close relative, to minimise its chances of rejection by the immune system of the host.
Modern clinical procedures have increased the success rate of such a complicated
technique.
Renal calculi is Stone or insoluble mass of crystallised salts (oxalates, etc.) formed within
the kidney. Glomerulonephritis is Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.
1.) During the process dialysis, when the cleared blood is pumped back to the body
which of the following factor is added to it
a) Coagulant b) Heparin c) Anti-heparin d) None of the above

2.) Glomerulonephritis is characterized by ______________________
a) Inflammation of kidney b) accumulation of urea in blood

c) kidney stone d) Pyelonephritis
3.) Name a condition in which crystallised salts are present in kidney?
4.) What is mean by uremia?

5.) What is heparin? Explain its use?
Answer key: 1.) c 2.) a

3.) A condition in which crystallised salts or insoluble mass are present in kidney is
referred as renal calculi. It is also known as kidney stone.
4.) When kidneys doesn’t functions properly it can leads to accumulation of urea in
blood. Such condition of accumulation of urea in blood are is called as uremia, which is
highly harmful and may lead to kidney failure.
5.) Heparin is an anticoagulant. It is used in process of hemodialysis. When blood drained
from a convenient artery is pumped into a dialysing unit after adding Heparin.
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Q. What are ammonotelic animals?

Q. What is a green gland and in which animal it is found?
Q. What is an antidiuretic hormone?
Q. Define excretion.
Q. What is the color rendering substance found in urine?
Q. What are diuretics?
Q. What is osmoregulation?
Q. Name the organ of the excretory system, which stores urine before its removal
from the body.
Q.In which part of the nephron does filtration occur?
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Locomotion and Movement
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When movement involves change of place, it is called locomotion. Walking, running,
climbing, flying, swimming. All locomotion are movements but all movements are not
locomotion.
TYPES OF MOVEMENT
AMOEBOID MOVEMENT CILIARY MOVEMENT MUSCULAR MOVEMENTS
Movement of organisms by Movement of organisms by movement is due to

pseudopodia cilia, flagella and tentacles contractile property of
muscles
movement of leucocytes ciliary movement in Movement of jaws, limbs,

and macrophages, amoeba trachea, in fallopian tube eyelids
MUSCLE: Muscle is a specialised tissue of mesodermal origin. About 40-50 percent of the
body weight of a human adult is contributed by muscles.
They have special properties like
1. Excitability 2. Contractility 3. Extensibility 4.Elasticity
Based on their location, three types of muscles are identified:
1. Skeletal 2.Visceral 3.Cardiac muscles
SKELETAL/ STRIATED SMOOTH/ UNSTRIATED CARDIAC MUSCLES
Prominent striations Striations absent Striations are faint.
Voluntary in function Involuntary in function. Involuntary in function.
Multinucleated cells Uninucleated cells Uninucleated cells
Cylindrical & unbranched cells Spindle shaped cells Cylindrical, branched cells
e.g. limb muscles Visceral muscle Heart muscle
SKELETAL/ STRIATED MUSCLE: STRUCTURE:

• The bundle of muscle fibres called fascicles held together by the collagenous
connective tissue, fascia.
• Each muscle fibre /cell has a membrane called sarcolemma and the cytoplasm called
sarcoplasm.
• Sarcoplasm contains sarcosome, sarcoplasmic reticulum and many thin parallelly
arranged filamentous myofibrils.
• Each myofibrils has alternate light and dark bands responsible for striated
appearance.
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• Light bands contain protein actin and are called I bands. They are thin.
• Dark bands contain protein myosin and are called A bands. They are thick.
• The centre of I band has elastic fibre called Z line to which actin filaments are firmly
attached.
• The thick filaments are held together in the middle of A band by a thin fibrous
membrane called M line.
• The portion of myofibril in between Z line is the functional contractile unit called
sarcomere.
• The central part of A band not overlapped by thin filaments is called the H zone.
STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE PROTEIN ACTIN
• Contains 3 proteins namely actin (F & G actins), tropomyosin & troponin.
• Each actin filament consists of two F actins that are helically wounded.
• Actin is a polymer of G-globular actins.
• Two filaments of tropomyosin run close to F-actin.
• Troponin is a complex protein on tropomyosin whose sub unit masks the active site
for myosin.
STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE PROTEIN MYOSIN
• IT is a protein polymer whose monomer is called meromyosin.
• Each meromyosin has two parts- a globular head with a short arm and a tail.
• Head with arm is called heavy meromyosin HMM) and tail is called light meromyosin
(LMM).
• HMM projects outwards at regular distance at an angle from the surface of

meromyosin and known as cross arm.
• The head functions as ATPase enzyme, has binding sites for ATP and actives sites for
actin.
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RED MUSCLE WHITE MUSCLE
Have high amount of myoglobin Very little amount of myoglobin, so they

are not red
Thinner Thicker
More number of mitochondria & blood Less number of mitochondria & blood
capillaries capillaries
Work for longer period without being Work for shorter period & get fatigued
fatigued
More sarcoplasmic reticulum Less sarcoplasmic reticulum
Mechanism of muscle contraction:

(SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY)
• step1 - Impulse reaches to neuromuscular junction

• step2 – neurotransmitter release into synapse
• step3 – neurotransmitter attached to sarcolemma
• step 4– action potential develop over sarcolemma
• step 5– sarcoplasmic reticulum release ca+2 ions
• Step 6 - Ca+2 attached with actin filament and expose the active site
• Step 7 - myosin binds with actin (actomyosin complex)
• Step 8 – ATPase activity over myosin head (ATP ------ ADP + ip +energy )
• Step 9- Tilting of myosin head
• Step 10 – movement of actin filament inwardly by sliding over myosin
• Step 11 – length of sarcomere decrease
• Step 12 – muscle contract
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• Step 13 -Ca++ ions are pumped back to the sarcoplasmic cisternae
• Step 14 -masking of actin filaments
• Step 15- return of ‘Z’ lines back to their original position
• Step 16 –muscle relaxation
Muscular fatigue: Repeated activation of the muscles can lead to the accumulation of lactic
acid due to anaerobic breakdown of glycogen in them, causing fatigue.
Myasthenia gravis: it is a neuromuscular disease that leads to varying degrees of skeletal
muscle weakness.
The Skeletal System
• Parts of the skeletal system
• Bones (skeleton)
• Joints
• Cartilages
• Ligaments (bone to bone)(tendon=bone to muscle)
• Divided into two divisions
• Axial skeleton- skull, spinal column & Appendicular skeleton – limbs and
girdle
• Functions of Bones
• Support of the body
• Protection of soft organs
• Movement due to attached skeletal muscles
• Storage of minerals and fats
• Blood cell formation
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• The Axial Skeleton- Forms the longitudinal part of the body
• Divided into three parts- Skull, Vertebral Column & Rib Cage
• The Skull
▪ 8 sutured bones in cranium encases brain
▪ Facial bones: 13 sutured bones 1 mandible
▪ The Hyoid Bone is only bone that does not articulate with another bone, Serves as a
moveable base for the tongue, and other muscle attachments
• The Vertebral Column
• Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs made of cartilage
• The spine has a normal S curvature
• Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location
• Each vertebra has a central hollow portion (neural canal) through which the spinal
cord passes.
• First vertebra is the atlas and it articulates with the occipital condyles.
• The vertebral column is differentiated into-

cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (1-5fused), coccygeal (1-4fused),
Sternum: It is a flat bone on the ventral midline of thorax.
Ribs: There are 12 pairs of ribs. Each rib is a thin flat bone connected dorsally to the
vertebral column and ventrally to the sternum.
• First seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs. Dorsally, they are attached to the
thoracic vertebrae and ventrally connected to the sternum with the help of hyaline
cartilage.
• The 8th, 9th and 10th pairs of ribs do not articulate directly with the sternum but join
the seventh rib with the help of hyaline cartilage. These are called vertebrochondral
(false) ribs.
• Last 2 pairs (11th and 12th) of ribs are not connected ventrally and are therefore,
called floating ribs.
• Thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum together form the rib cage.
• Appendicular skeleton: i. Limbs ii. Girdles
• Each limb is made of 30 bones
• The bones of the hand (fore limb) are-
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Humerus, radius-ulna, carpals (wrist bones – 8 in number), metacarpals (palm bones
– 5 in number) and phalanges (digits – 14 in number)
• The bones of the legs (hind limb) are –

Femur (thigh bone – the longest bone), tibia-fibula, tarsals (ankle bones – 7 in
number), metatarsals (5 in number), phalanges (digits – 14 in number) and patella –
a cup shaped bone cover the knee ventrally (knee cap)
• The Pectoral Girdle: The pectoral girdle consists of 2 clavicles (collar bones) and 2
scapulae (shoulder blades). Each clavicle is attached to the sternum in the front and
the scapulae at the sides and they help to support they help to support the
shoulders. The clavicle is the most frequently broken bone in the body as it often
takes the full impact of falls on outstretched arms or of blows to the shoulder. Each
scapula has a socket into which the upper arm fits
• Each upper arm has a single bone called the humerus which fits into the Glenoid
cavity on the scapula to form a ball and socket joint. This cavity is very shallow which
allows the arms to move in almost any direction for forms an elbow joint with the
forearm
• Pelvic Girdle
• The pelvic girdle consists of hip bones joined in the front by the pubic symphesis and
attached to the sacrum at the back.
• Each hip bone consists of three fused bones namely the:

▪ Ilium, which forms the upper flared portion ischium, which is the lowest and
strongest part and Pubis, which forms the anterior part.
• Portions of all three bones contribute to the formation of the acetabulum, the deep
socket that holds the head of the femur (thigh bone) to form the hip joint.
• The female pelvic girdle is wider and lighter than the male as an adaptation to
pregnancy and childbirth.
• Functions of skeletal system:-
• Movement – allows body to move because muscles attach to the bones to give them
leverage
• Protection – protects vital organs ( skull=brain, ribcage=heart and lungs and pelvic
bones=digestive tract and reproductive organs)
• Support – provides shape and support to body
• Storage of minerals - bones store minerals such as calcium and phosphate ions
• Hearing - bones in the middle ear, called the hammer, anvil and stirrup, amplify
sound waves and assist in the hearing process
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• Red blood cells production - long bones and flat bones contain red bone marrow to
produce red blood cells
Joints type:-
Bone disorders:
Osteoporosis: low bone mass and deterioration of bone structure as people age
Arthritis: inflammation of a joint. It causes pain, stiffness, and swelling. Over time, the joint
can become severely damaged.
Gout is a form of arthritis caused by excess uric acid in the bloodstream.
Question Bank
Q. Ribs are attached to
(a) Scapula (b) Sternum (c) Clavicle (d) Ilium Ans. (b)
Q. What is the type of movable joint present between the atlas and axis?
(a) Pivot (b) Saddle (c) Hinge (d) Gliding Ans. a
Q. ATPase of the muscle is located in
(a) Actinin (b) Troponin (c) Myosin (d) Actin Ans. C
Q. Intervertebral disc is found in the vertebral column of
(a) Birds (b) Reptiles (c) Mammals (d) Amphibians Ans. C
Q.Which one of the following is showing the correct sequential order of vertebrae in
the vertebral column of human beings?
(a) Cervical-Iumbar-thoracic-sacral-coccygeal
(b) Cervical-thoracic-sacral-Iumbar-coccygeal
(c) Cervical-sacral-thoracic-Iurnbar-coccygeal
(d)Cervical-thoracic-Iumbar-sacral-coccygeal Ans. d
Read the assertion and reason carefully to mark the correct option out of the
options given below:
(A) If both the assertion and the reason are true and the reason is a correct
(B) If both the assertion and reason are true but the reason is not a correct
219
(D) If both the assertion and reason are false.
Q. Assertion: Skeletal muscles are striated muscles
Reason: They have striped appearance under the microscope. A
Q. Assertion: Myosin is structural protein but also act as enzyme.
Reason: Myosin is use to form myofibril and can hydrolyse ATP. A
Q. Assertion: Red fibres are referred as aerobic muscles
Reason: These muscles contain large number of mitochondria which utilize the large
amount of oxygen stored in them for ATP production. A
Q. Assertion: Gout is inflammation of muscles.
Reason: It occur due to deposition of urea in muscles. A
Q. Assertion: Ca2+ ion plays important role in muscle contraction
Reason: Calcium ion binds to subunit of troponin on actin filament and removes
the masking of active sites for myosin. D
Q. What is a tendon?
Ans: The dense connective tissue joins bone and skeletal muscle.
Q. What are antagonistic muscles?
Ans: The pair of muscles which at a joint produce opposite movements.
Q. What is sarcomere?
Ans: The functional unit of myofibril contracts and causes the shortening of muscle fibre.
Q. What are synovial joints?
Ans: These are freely movable joints due to the presence of synovial fluid in the synovial
cavity.
Q. Define sliding filament theory of muscle contraction.
Ans: According to sliding filament theory of muscle contraction, the actin and myosin
filaments slide past each other with the help of cross-bridges to reduce the length of the
sarcomeres.
Q. List some biological function of the skeleton.
Ans. 1. Provides attachment surface to muscles. 2. Serves as storage depot of calcium and
phosphate minerals.3. Act in erythropoiesis. 4. Ear ossicles help in sound wave propagation.
5. Redbone marrow present inside the marrow cavity of long bones help in the formation of
RBCs, WBCs and platelets of the blood.
Q. What are the different molecules present in muscles?
Answer: 1.Contractile proteins viz. actin, myosin and tropomyosin.
2. Enzymes and other proteins like troponin.
3. Carbohydrate as a substrate for energy.
4. Energy carries viz. ATP, ADP, AMP and CP.
5. Ions viz. Na+, K+, Mg++, Ca+, CI+.
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Skeletal system consists of a framework of bones and a few cartilages. This system has a
significant role in movement shown by the body. Bone and cartilage are specialized
connective tissues. The former has a very hard matrix due to calcium salts in it and the latter
has slightly pliable matrix due to chondroitin salts. In human beings, this system is made up
of 206 bones and a few cartilages. It is grouped into two principal divisions – the axial and
the appendicular skeleton.
Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones distributed along the main axis of the body. The skull,
vertebral column, sternum and ribs constitute axial skeleton. The skull is composed of two
sets of bones – cranial and facial, that totals to 22 bones. Cranial bones are 8 in number.
They form the hard protective outer covering, cranium for the brain. The facial region is
made up of 14 skeletal elements which form the front part of the skull. A single U-shaped
bone called hyoid is present at the base of the buccal cavity and it is also included in the
skull. Each middle ear contains three tiny bones – Malleus, Incus and Stapes, collectively
called Ear Ossicles. The skull region articulates with the superior region of the vertebral
column with the help of two occipital condyles (dicondylic skull).
Vertebral column is formed by 26 serially arranged units called vertebrae and is dorsally
placed. It extends from the base of the skull and constitutes the main framework of the
trunk. Each vertebra has a central hollow portion (neural canal) through which the spinal
cord passes. First vertebra is the atlas and it articulates with the occipital condyles. The
vertebral column is differentiated into cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (1-fused)
and coccygeal (1-fused) regions starting from the skull. The number of cervical vertebrae are
seven in almost all mammals including human beings. The vertebral column protects the
spinal cord, supports the head and serves as the point of attachment for the ribs and
musculature of the back. Sternum is a flat bone on the ventral midline of thorax.
1.) Which of the following is the connective tissue has pliable matrix?
a) Bone b) Blood c) Cartilages d) All of the above
2.) Human skull is composed of ______________
a) Cranial bones b) Facial bones c) Pliable matrix d) Both a & b
3.) Give the location where hypoid bone is present?
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4.) Name the bones present in the middle ear?
5) What is neural canal?
6) Give the names of bones are part of the axial skeleton.
Answer key
1.) b 2.) d
3) A single u-shaped bone called hyoid is present at the base of the buccal cavity and it is
also included in the skull.
4) Middle ear consist three tiny bones – Malleus, Incus and Stapes, collectively called Ear
Ossicles.
5). Vertebral column has a central hollow portion through which the spinal cord passes, this
hollow portion is known as neural canal.
6) The bones of the skeletal system are divided into two parts- the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton. The skull, sternum, vertebral column and ribs make up the axial
skeleton of the body

Q. Write true or false. If false change the statement so that it is true.
(a) Actin is present in thin filament.
(b) H-zone of striated muscle fibre represents both thick and thin filaments.
(c) Human skeleton has 206 bones.
(d) There are 11 pairs of ribs in man.
(e) Sternum is present on the ventral side of the body.
Q. Write the differences between:
(a) Actin and Myosin (b) Red and White muscles (c) Pectoral and Pelvic girdle
Q. How do you distinguish between a skeletal muscle and a cardiac muscle?
Q. What are the different types of movements exhibited by the cells of human body?
Q. Name the type of joint between the following:
(a) atlas/axis (b) carpal/metacarpal of thumb (c) between phalanges
(d) femur/acetabulum (e) between cranial bones (f) between pubic bones in the pelvic
girdle
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Neural Control and Coordination
223
➢ Coordination is the process through which two of more organs interact and
complement the function of each other.
➢ Neural system provides an organized network of point to point connection for
quick coordination. The endocrine system provides chemical integration through
hormones.
➢ Neural system of animals is composed of specialized cells called neuron, which
can detect, receive and transmit different kinds of stimuli.
➢ Central nervous system (CNS) includes brain and spinal cord. It is the site for
information processing and control.
➢ Peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all nerves associated with CNS.
➢ Visceral nervous system is the part of peripheral nervous system that comprises
whole complex of nerves, fibres, ganglia and plexuses by which impulses travel
from the CNS to the viscera and from viscera to the CNS.
➢ The nerve fibres of the PNS are of two types :
1. Afferent fibres: transmit impulses from tissue/organ to CNS.
2. Efferent fibres: transmit regulatory impulses from CNS to concerned peripheral
organs.
➢ The PNS is divided into two divisions.
Somatic neural system relay impulses from CNS to skeletal muscles. Autonomic neural
system transmits impulses from CNS to involuntary system and smooth muscles. The
autonomic neural system is further classified into sympathetic neural system and para
sympathetic neural system.
➢ Neuron is structural and functional unit of neural system. It is made up of three
major parts: cell body, dendrite and axon.
➢ Cell body contains cytoplasm, cell organelles and Nissl’s granules.
➢ Short fibres projecting out from cell body is called dendrites. The axon is long fibre
having branched structure at the end that terminates into knob like structure
called synaptic knob.
➢ Myelinated axon : Axon that has myelin sheath is known as myelinated axon
➢ Non-myelinated axon: Axon without myelin sheath is known as non-myelinated
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axon.
➢ Based on number of axon and dendrites, neuron are of three types :
1. Multipolar: One axon and two or more dendrite. For e.g. Neurons found in
cerebral cortex.
2. Bipolar: One axon and one dendrite. For e.g. Neurons found in retina of eyes.
3. Unipolar: Cell body with one axon only. For e.g. Neurons found in embryos.
➢ There are two types of nerve fibres :
1. Myelinated nerve fibres are enveloped with Schwann cells to form myelin
sheath around the axon. The gap between two myelin sheaths is called nodes
of Ranvier. Found in spinal and cranial nerves.
2. Unmyelinated nerve fibre is enclosed by Schwann cells that do not form
myelin sheath around the axon. Found in autonomous and somatic neural
system.
Generation and Conduction of Nerve Impulse
Threshold stimulus: The minimum strength of a stimulus required to stimulate a neuron is
called Threshold stimulus
➢ Ions channels are present in neural membrane which is selectively permeable
to different ions. When neuron is not conducting impulse (resting), axonal
membrane is more permeable to K+ ions and impermeable to Na+ ions.
➢ Ionic gradient across the resting membrane is maintained by active transport of
ions by sodium-potassium pump. This will develop positive charge outside the
axonal membrane and negative charge on inner side.
➢ The electrical potential difference across the resting membrane is called resting
potential.
➢ Resting potential: It is the potential difference across the nerve fibre when there is
no conduction of nerve impulse.
➢ Action potential: It is the potential difference across nerve fibre when there is
conduction of nerve impulse.
➢ When stimulus is applied at site A, the membrane becomes permeable to Na +
ions to make rapid influx of Na+ ions. This creates outer surface negatively
charged and inner membrane positively charged. This electrical potential
difference across membrane is termed as a nerve impulse.
➢ The nerve impulse from A moves to B on inner surface and B to A on outer
surface. This process is repeated several times to transmit the impulse.
➢ Nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another neuron through
synapse. There are two types of synapses :
1. Electrical synapse: Here, the membrane of pre-and-post synaptic neuron is very
close to each other and current flow directly from one neuron to another.
2. Chemical synapse: Pre- and post- synaptic neuron is separated by fluid filled
space called synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters are involved in transmission of
impulses.
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Central Nervous System
➢ Brain the central information processing unit act as command and control centre,
protected by skull and cranial meninges consisting dura mater, middle
arachnoid and inner pia maters layers. Brain has 3 parts: forebrain, midbrain
and hindbrain.
➢ Forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
1. Cerebrum is divided into left and right cerebral hemispheres which are covered
by cerebral cortex (grey matter).
2. Cerebral cortex contains sensory neuron, motor neuron and association
area. Association area controls the memory and communication. Inner part
of cerebral hemisphere forms the white matter that control sensory and motor
signaling.
3. The cerebrum wraps around a structure called thalamus, which is a major
coordinating centre for sensory or motor signaling. The hypothalamus lies at
the base of the thalamus.
➢ Midbrain is located between hypothalamus and pons. Dorsal portion
consists of four round lobes called corpora quadrigemina. They are involved in
relay of impulses back and forth between cerebrum, cerebellum, pons and
medulla.
➢ Hind brain consists of pons, medulla oblongata and cerebellum. Pneumatic
centre is present in hindbrain that control inspiration. They also relay impulses
between the medulla and superior part of brain. Cerebellum controls balance and
posture as in maintaining balance of the body and posture.
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Question Bank
Q. An area in the brain which is associated with strong emotions
is
(A) Cerebral cortex (b) Cerebellum (c) Limbic system (d) Medulla
Ans. C
Q. The potential difference across resting membrane is negatively charged. This is due
to differential distribution of the following ions.
(a) Na+ and K+ ions 3
(b) CO++ and Cl- ions
+ + +
(c) Ca and Mg ions + (d) Ca+ + and Cl- ions
Ans.a
Q. Chemicals which are released at the synaptic junction are called
(a) Hormones (b) Neurotransmitters
(c) Cerebrospinal fluid (d) Lymph
Ans.b
Q. Which of the following regions of the brain is incorrectly paired with its function?
(a) Medulla oblongata – Homeostatic control
(b) Cerebellum – Language comprehension
(c) Corpus callosum – Communication between the left and right cerebral cortices
(d) Cerebrum – Calculation and contemplation
Ans. b
Q. Injury localized to the hypothalamus would most likely disrupt the:
(a) Short-term memory (b)Coordination during locomotion
( c)Executive functions, as decision making (d) Regulation of body
temperature
Ans. d
given below:
Q. Assertion: In a myelinated nerve fibre the impulse jumps from one node of
Ranvier to the other.
Reason: Exchange of ions takes place only at node of Ranvier. A
Q. Assertion: Transmission of the nerve impulse across a synapse is accomplished by
neurotransmitters.
Reason: Transmission across a synapse usually requires neurotransmitters because
there is small space, i.e., synaptic cleft that separates one neuron from another. A
Q. Assertion: All motor neurons are efferent neurons.
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Reason: Motor neurons conduct nerve impulses from the spinal cord to the brain. C
Q. Assertion: The cerebellum has very convoluted surface.
Reason: It provides additional space for many more neurons. A
Q. Assertion: Impulse transmission across an electrical synapse is always faster than
that across a chemical synapse.
Reason: At electrical synapses, the membranes of pre- and post-synaptic neurons are in
Very close proximity. A
Q. Which part of our central neural system acts as a master clock?
Pineal gland present in diencephalon of forebrain acts as a master clock, which maintains
biological rhythm.
Q. Which part of the human brain is the most developed among all other organisms?
Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres).
Q. Which part of a neuron is called the transmitter of electric impulse?
Ans. Axon
Q. What is resting potential?
Ans. The electrical potential difference across the resting plasma membrane is called resting
potential.
Q. What is synapsis?
Ans. The hypothetic chemical connection between two adjacent neurons is called synapsis.
What is the polarized state of the nerve membrane?
Ans: It is the state of the nerve membrane when its inner side is electronegative to its outer
side.
Q.What are receptors?
Ans: Receptors are peripheral nerve endings in the skin or special sense organs. They collect
information from the external or internal environment of the body; transform them into
electrical potential changes, which then pass along the afferent neurons to CNS.
Q. What functions does the hypothalamus serve in coordinating the various activities of
the body?
Ans: 1. It contains nerve centers for temperature regulation, hunger, thirst, and emotional
reactions.
2.It secretes neurohormones, which control the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones.
3. It synthesizes the posterior pituitary hormones and controls their release into the blood.
Q. Compare between Resting potential and action potential.
Resting potential: Outside the plasma membrane of a nerve fibre is the extracellular fluid
which is positively charged with respect to the cell contents inside the plasma membrane. A
resting nerve fibre shows a potential difference between inside and outside of this plasma
membrane. This difference in the electrical charges across the plasma membrane is called
the ‘resting potential’. A membrane with resting potential across it, is said to be electrically
polarized. Action potential: Action potential is another name of nerve impulse. The contents
inside a cell at the excited state becomes positively charged with respect to extracellular
fluid outside it. This change in polarity across the plasma membrane is known as an action
potential. The membrane with reversed polarity across it is said to be depolarized.
Q. Why does the nerve impulse flow more rapidly in myelinated nerve fibers than in the
non-myelinated fibers?
Ans:
Due to the following reasons nerve impulse flows more rapidly in myelinated nerve fibers:
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1. Myelin sheath provides insulation to the nerve fibers from electrical disturbances
between the neighboring fibers.
2. Myelin sheath is impermeable to free ions present in the extracellular fluid. So, it
prevents the exchange of ions between the extracellular fluid and the interior of the
myelinated axon.
3. The myelin sheath is absent at the Nodes of Ranvier, so, action potential jumps from
one Node of Ranvier to the next. Thus, the nerve impulse flows in the form of leaps or
jumps. This is known as the saltatory conduction of impulse.
4. It is more rapid than the smooth flow of impulse.
Explain (a) Polarization of the membrane of a nerve fibre

(b) Depolarisation of the membrane of a nerve fibre
(c) Conduction of a nerve impulse along a nerve fibre
(d) Transmission of a nerve impulse across a chemical synapse
ANS:(a) Polarization of the membrane of a nerve fibre: During resting condition, the
concentration of K+ ions is more inside the axoplasm while the concentration of Na+ ions is
more outside the axoplasm. As a result, the potassium ions move faster from inside to
outside as compared to sodium ions. Therefore, the membrane becomes positively charged
outside and negatively charged inside. This is known as polarization of membrane or
polarized nerve.
(b) Depolarisation of the membrane of a nerve fibre: When an electrical stimulus is given
to a nerve fibre, an action potential is generated. The membrane becomes permeable to
sodium ions than to potassium ions. This results into positive charge inside and negative
charge outside the nerve fibre. Hence, the membrane is said to be depolarized.
(c) Conduction of a nerve impulse along a nerve fibre: There are two types of nerve fibres –
myelinated and non-myelinated. In myelinated nerve fibre, the action potential is conducted
from node to node in jumping manner. This is because the myelinated nerve fibre is coated
with myelin sheath. The myelin sheath is impermeable to ions. As a result, the ionic
exchange and depolarisation of nerve fibre is not possible along the whole length of nerve
fibre. It takes place only at some point, known as nodes of Ranvier, whereas in non-
myelinated nerve fibre, the ionic exchange and depolarization of nerve fibre takes place
along the whole length of the nerve fibre. Because of this ionic exchange, the depolarized
area becomes repolarised and the next polarized area becomes depolarized.
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(d) Transmission of a nerve impulse across a chemical synapse: Synapse is a small gap that
occurs between the last portion of the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of next neuron.
When an impulse reaches at the end plate of axon, vesicles consisting of chemical substance
or neurotransmitter, such as acetylcholine, fuse with the plasma membrane. This chemical
moves across the cleft and attaches to chemo-receptors present on the membrane of the
dendrite of next neuron. This binding of chemical with chemo-receptors leads to the
depolarization of membrane and generates a nerve impulse across nerve fibre.
The chemical, acetylcholine, is inactivated by enzyme acetylcholinestrase. The enzyme is

present in the post synaptic membrane of the dendrite.
It hydrolyses acetylcholine and this allows the membrane to repolarise.

1. Which part of the nervous system participates in the maintenance of balance and
co-ordinate body movements?
2. Which nerve tract connects the right and left hemispheres of the cerebrum? Into
what four lobes in each hemisphere divided?
3. What is a synapse? How does the nerve cell across the synapse?
4. What is the action potential of a neuron? Do all neurons possess the same action
potential?
5. Why is the mode of conduction of electrical impulse along the myelinated neuron
is advantageous to a non-myelinated neuron? What is this type of conduction
called?
6. Give an account of spinal nerves in man.
7. Distinguish between: Afferent neurons and efferent neurons.
8. Draw a well labelled diagram of a neuron.
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Chemical Coordination and
Integration
231
In animals, control and coordination is performed by neural system and endocrine system
jointly. As the nerve fibres do not innervate all cells of the body, the endocrine system is
required to coordinate the functions.
Endocrine Glands
• Ductless glands. They release their secretion (hormones) directly into blood which is
then transported to specific target organs to initiate a particular metabolic change.
• Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular messengers
produced in trace amount.
Human Endocrine System
Hypothalamus contains several groups of neurosecretory cells called nuclei which produce
hormones. Hypothalamus regulate the functions of pituitary hormones.
Hypothalamus produces two types of Hormones:
• The hormones released from hypothalamus reaches the anterior pituitary through
portal circulatory system and regulate its function.
• The posterior pituitary is under direct control of hypothalamus.
Pituitary Gland is located in sella tursica, a bony cavity. It is attached to the hypothalamus
by a stalk.
• Excess secretion of Growth Hormone causes gigantism and low secretion causes
stunted growth called dwarfism.
• Prolactin stimulates growth of mammary gland and production of milk.
• TSH stimulates production and release of thyroid hormone.
• LH and FSH stimulate activity of the gonads. In male, LH stimulates synthesis and
secretion of androgen hormone from testis. In female, LH induces ovulation of fully
mature ovum from ovary.
• Oxytocin helps in contraction of uterus during child birth and milk ejection from
mammary glands.
• Vasopressin stimulates absorption of water and electrolyte in kidney.
• MSH acts on the melanocytes and regulates skin pigmentation.
The pineal Gland- located on dorsal side of forebrain and release melatonin hormone to
regulate diurnal rhythm of body like sleeps wake cycle and body temperature.
Thyroid Gland- composed of two lobes on either side of trachea connected by isthmus.
• Iodine is essential for synthesis of thyroid hormones. Deficiency of iodine leads to
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hypothyroidism (Goitre). During pregnancy, hypothyroidism may cause stunted
growth of baby and mental retardation.
• Thyroid hormones regulate the metabolic rate. They control the metabolism of
carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Thyrocalcitonin regulates blood calcium.
Parathyroid Gland– located on the back side of thyroid gland, secretes parathyroid
hormone (PTH). It regulates the calcium ion concentration in the blood. It also helps in
reabsorption of calcium from renal tubules and digestive tracts.
Thymus– located on the dorsal side of heart and the aorta. This gland releases peptide
hormone thymosins that help in differentiation of T-Lymphocytes, also promotes production
of antibodies to provide humeral immunity.
Adrenal Gland – located on top of each kidney, composed of central adrenal medulla and
outside adrenal cortex. Medulla secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline hormone commonly
called as catecholamines, called as emergency hormone. These hormones increase
alertness, pupilary dilation, sweating, heartbeat, rate of respiration, glycogenolysis.
The cortex secretes glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids. Glucocorticoids stimulate
gluconeogenesis. Mineralocorticoids regulate water and electrolyte.
Pancreas – acts as both endocrine and exocrine gland. Endocrine pancreas consists α-cells
and β-cells. The α-cells secrete glucagon and β-cells secrete insulin. Both maintains blood
sugar levels. Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis resulting in increased blood sugar
(hyperglycemia).Insulin lowers glucose in blood. It triggers rapid movement of glucose from
blood to hepatocytes and adipocytes (hypoglycemia).
Testis – perform dual functions as a primary sex organ as well as endocrine glands. Leydig
cells or interstitial cells produce testosterone which regulate maturation of primary sex
organs and spermatogenesis.
Ovary – produce two groups of steroid hormones called estrogen and progesterone.
Estrogen is synthesized and secreted by growing ovarian follicles. After ovulation, ruptured
ovum called corpus luteum, secretes progesterone. Estrogen produces wide range actions
like growth of female secondary sex organs, development of growing ovarian follicles, and
female sexual behaviour. Progesterone regulates pregnancy.
Hormones of Heart, Kidney and Gastrointestinal Tract
• Atrial wall of heart: atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) which decreases blood pressure.
• The juxtaglomerular cells of kidney: erythropoietin which stimulate erythropoiesis.
• Gastro-intestinal tract secrete four major peptide hormones:
1. Gastrin stimulates the secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen.
2. Secretin acts on the exocrine pancreas and stimulates secretion of water and
bicarbonate ions.
3. Cholecystokinin (CCK) stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile
juice
4.Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) inhibits gastric secretion and motility.
Mechanism of Hormone Action
• Hormone produce their effects on target tissues by binding to specific protein called
hormone receptors located in the target tissue.
• Binding of hormones to receptor leads to the formation of hormone receptor
complex. This binding leads to change in target tissue.
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Peptide, polypeptide and protein hormones- insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormone,
hypothalamic hormones. #Steroids- cortisol, testosterone, progesterone.
#Idothyronines- thyroid hormones. #Amino acid derivatives- epinephrine.
The hormones that bind with membrane bound receptors normally do not enter the target
cells but generate second messenger which in turn regulate cellular metabolism.
The hormones (steroid hormones) which interact with intracellular receptors mostly
regulate gene expression or chromosome function by interaction with hormone-receptor
complex with the genome. These biochemical actions results in physiological and
developmental effects.
Question Bank
1. Hormones are
(a) Non-nutrient chemicals (b) Intercellular messengers
(c) Produced in traces (d) All of these
Ans. (a)
2. Releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones are produced by
(a)Pituitary (b) Thyroid (c) Thymus (d) Hypothalamus
Ans. (a)
3. Posterior pituitary stores and release two hormones
(a) Oxytocin (b) Vasopressin (ADH)
(c) Growth hormone (d) Both (a) and (b)
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Ans. (d)
4. 24 hour diurnal rhythms of our body is maintained by
(a)Melatonin (b) Glucagon (c) Thymosin (d) Oxytocin
Ans. (a)
5. Which of the following is incorrect about thyroid gland?
(a) It is composed of follicles and stromal tissues.
(b) It secretes tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), TCT.
(c) It consists of 4 lobes.
(d) It is stimulated by the hormone TSH.
Ans. (c)
given below:
a) If both the assertion and the reason are true and the reason is a correct
b) If both the assertion and reason are true but the reason is not a correct
c) If the assertion is true but the reason is false.
d) If both the assertion and reason are false.
Assertion: FSH is also known as interstitial cell stimulating hormone.

Reason: It is because of the fact that FSH stimulates the interstitial cells of testis.
Ans. (d)
Assertion: Oxytocin is also known as Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH).
Reason: Oxytocin can cause an increase in the renal reabsorption of water.
Ans. (d)
Assertion: Failure of secretion of thyroid gland hormones from childhood causes
cretinism disease.
Reason: Thyrotropin hormone maintains BMR and promotes the growth of body
tissues. Ans. (c)
Assertion: Hormones are similar to enzymes in their action and chemical nature.
Reason: Hormones and enzymes are proteinaceous and acts as informational
molecules. Ans.(d)
Assertion: Neurohypophysis (Pars nervosa) is also known as posterior pituitary.
Reason: Posterior pituitary stores and releases two hormones called oxytocin and
vasopressin. Ans.(b)
Q. Expand the term BMR.
Ans: Basal Metabolic Rate.
Q. Which hormone is responsible for the metamorphosis of tadpoles into adult frogs?
Ans:The hormone thyroxine secreted by the thyroid gland is responsible for the
metamorphosis of tadpoles into adult frogs.
Q. What is castration?
Ans: The surgical removal of the testis is called castration.
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Q. What is adrenal virilism?
Ans: The hypersecretion of sex corticoids causes the development of external male
characters in females, called adrenal virilism.
Q. Give one example of the effect of pheromones in Insects.

Ans: Pheromones from female moths attract males from 3 – 4 km distance.
Q. How is iodine important to our body?

Ans: Iodine is required for thyroxine secretion. Deficiency of iodine leads to goiter.
Q. Write the full form of ACTH. What is its role?

Ans: Andreno-Cortico-Trophic Hormone. ACTH stimulates the secretion of the adrenal
cortex.
Q.Write names and sources of hormones regulating the plasma Ca+ level.
Ans: Parathormone produced by parathyroids.
Q. How is diabetes Mellitus different from diabetes insipidus?

Ans: Diabetes Mellitus: It is the disorder in which blood sugar is present well beyond the
renal threshold, consequently glucose is present in urine. It is caused due to deficiency of
insulin hormone.
Diabetes insipidus: It is the disorder in which hypotonic urine is excessively excreted. It is

caused by the deficiency of the secretion of the ADH hormone.
Q. Name and state briefly the functions of the hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex.
Ans: Mainly the hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are:
1. Glucocorticoids: These regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

2. Mineralocorticoids: These maintain the sodium, potassium level in the blood.
3. Sex corticoids: These stimulate the development of external sex characters like male
patterns of body hair distribution. Androstenedione and dehydroepiandrosterone are
sex corticoids.
Q. State main characteristics of the hormones.

Ans: 1.The effect produced is marked even in minute concentrations.
2.Directly sent to target organs through blood circulations.
3.Storage is not possible.
4.The target organ is distantly placed from the organ in which these are produced.
5.These are secreted as a response to some sort of stimulus.
6.Chemicals are biological in origin, i.e., biogenic, e.g., amine, peptides, steroids, etc.
Q. Why is the endocrine system considered a chemical extension of the nervous system?
Ans:The human endocrine system and functioning of their hormones, including their role as
chemical messenger and regulators. Also, it is related to the hypothalamic-hyperphysical
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axis and feedback controlling mechanism. These two systems operate in a co-ordinate way
on many occasions. Many important functioning of the endocrine system is under the
control of the nervous system. Hence the endocrine system is considered as a chemical
extension.
CASE-STUDY BASED QUESTION

The thyroid gland is composed of two lobes which are located on either side of the trachea.
Both the lobes are interconnected with a thin flap of connective tissue called isthmus. The
thyroid gland is composed of follicles and stromal tissues. Each thyroid follicle is composed
of follicular cells, enclosing a cavity. These follicular cells synthesise two hormones,
tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Iodine is essential for the
normal rate of hormone synthesis in the thyroid. Deficiency of iodine in our diet results in
hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid gland, commonly called goitre.
Hypothyroidism during pregnancy causes defective development and maturation of the
growing baby leading to stunted growth (cretinism), mental retardation, low intelligence
quotient, abnormal skin, deaf-mutism, etc. In adult women, hypothyroidism may cause
menstrual cycle to become irregular. Due to cancer of the thyroid gland or due to
development of nodules of the thyroid glands, the rate of synthesis and secretion of the
thyroid hormones is increased to abnormal high levels leading to a condition called
hyperthyroidism which adversely affects the body physiology.
Exopthalmic goitre is a form of hyperthyroidism, characterised by enlargement of the
thyroid gland, protrusion of the eyeballs, increased basal metabolic rate, and weight loss,
also called Graves’ disease. Thyroid hormones play an important role in the regulation of the
basal metabolic rate. These hormones also support the process of red blood cell formation.
Thyroid hormones control the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Maintenance
of water and electrolyte balance is also influenced by thyroid hormones. Thyroid gland also
secretes a protein hormone called thyrocalcitonin (TCT) which regulates the blood calcium
levels.
1.) _______________ Protein hormone secreted by thyroid gland regulates the blood
calcium levels along with PTH.
a) thyromelatonin b) thyrocalcitonin c) thyrocalciumtonin d) thyrocarbotonin
2.) cretinism is referred as,
a) stunted growth due to deficiency of iodine
b) stunted growth due to deficiency of thyroid hormones
c) mental retardation due to deficiency of iodine
d) deaf-mutism due to deficiency of iodine
3.) Explain how the both lobes of thyroid gland are interconnected?
4.) Give the composition of thyroid follicle and their function?
5.) What are adverse effect of iodine deficiency on human body?
Answer key: 1) b 2) a
237
3) Thyroid gland is composed of two lobes these lobes are interconnected with a thin flap of
connective tissue called isthmus.
4) Thyroid follicle is made up of follicular cells. Function – Follicular cells synthesise two
hormones named as Tetraiodothyronine/Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3).
5) Iodine is essential for the optimum level of thyroid hormones secretion. Deficiency of
iodine in our diet results in hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid gland,
commonly known as goitre. Deficiency of iodine during pregnancy causes defective
development and maturation of the growing baby leading to stunted growth (cretinism),
mental retardation, low intelligence quotient, abnormal skin, deaf-mutism, etc. In adult
women, deficiency of iodine may cause menstrual cycle to become irregular.
SELF EVALUATION
Q. Why Parathyroid hormone are named as hypercalcemic hormone?
Q. What are the adverse effect of over secretion of GH on human body?
Q. Name the hormones which acts on the smooth muscles of our body and stimulates
their contraction.
Q. What is main difference between hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia?
Q. Enlist the name of hormones secreted by α-cells and β-cells.
Q. Which is the only hormone that is secreted by the pars intermedia of the pituitary
gland?
Q. Which hormone aids in cell-mediated immunity?
Q .Name the endocrine gland, which is present only in females?
238
Sample Papers
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN, JAIPUR REGION
SAMPLE PAPER-1
CLASS: XI MAX. MARKS: 70

SUBJECT: BIOLOGY TIME: 03 Hours
General Instructions: (i) The question paper has five sections and 33 questions.
(ii)All questions are compulsory.
(iii) Section–A has 16 questions of 1 mark each; Section–B has 5 questions of 2 marks each;
Section– C has 7 questions of 3 marks each; Section– D has 2 case-based questions of 4
marks each; and Section–E has 3 questions of 5 marks each.
(iv) There is no overall choice. However, internal choices have been provided in some
questions. A student has to attempt only one of the alternatives in such questions.
(v) Wherever necessary, neat and properly labeled diagrams should be drawn.
SECTION–A
1 Growth, development and functioning of living body is due to 1
(a) Decrease in entropy (b) Increase in Gibbs-free energy
(c) Metabolism (d) Adaptations
2 Phylogeny refers to 1
(a) Morphology (b) Physiology
(c) Reproduction (d) Evolutionary relationship
3 Unicellular organisms are not capable of 1
(a) Independent existence (b) Performing essential functions of life
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
4 Select the incorrect matching for component percentage in living cell: 1
(a) Water – 70 to 90%
(b) Proteins – 10 to 15%
(c) Carbohydrate – 2%
(d) Nucleic Acid – 5 to 7%
5 The complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes is called 1
(a) Equatorial plate (b) Kinetochore
(c) Bivalent (d) Axoneme
6 G1 phase is 1
(a) End of mitosis and the start of S-phase
(b) End of S-phase and the start of mitosis
(c) Start of S-phase and the start of mitosis
(d) End of S-phase and the end of mitosis
7 Enzymes are divided into 1
(a) 6 classes, each with 4–13 subclasses and named accordingly by a four-digit
number.
(b) 7 classes, each with 3–13 subclasses and named accordingly by a four-digit
number.
239
(c) 7 classes, each with 4–13 subclasses and named accordingly by a three-digit
number.
(d) 6 classes, each with 4–20 subclasses and named accordingly by a four-digit
number.
8 Sigmoid curve is typical for which components of plant body? 1
(a) Cells (b) Tissue (c) Organs (d) All of these
9 Read the following statements: 1
A. It is double layered and covers the lungs.
B. Outer layer is in contact with thoracic wall.
C. Fluid is present between these layers.
D. Inner layer is in contact with the lungs.
The above features refer to
(a) Pericardium (b) Peritoneum
(c) Perichondrium (d) Pleura
10 Contraction of a muscle is caused by 1
(a) Myosin (b) Actin (c) ATP (d) Actomyosin
11 The special contractile protein actin is found in 1
(a) Thick filaments of A-bands (b) Thin filaments of I-bands
(c) Both thick and thin bands (d) Whole of myofibril
12 Match the columns: 1
Column I Column II
(A) Inflammation of joints – (1) H-zone
(B) Protein of thick filament – (2) Myosin
(C) Protein of thin filament – (3) Actin
(D) The central part of thick filament is not – (4) Arthritis
overlapped by thin filament
(a) A–1, B–2, C–3, D–4 (b) A–1, B–3, C–2, D–4
(c) A–4, B–1, C–2, D–3 (d) A–4, B–2, C–3, D–1
given
below:
13 Assertion: Pneumotaxiccentre can alter the respiratory rate. 1
Reason: Neural signal from pneumotaxiccentre can reduce the duration of
inspiration
14 Assertion: Ethylene increases the yield in cucumber. 1
Reason: Ethylene promotes female flower in cucumber.
15 Assertion: Mitochondria and chloroplasts are semi-autonomous organelles. 1
Reason: Mitochondria and chloroplast are devoid of ribosomes.
16 Assertion: Virus is obligate parasite 1
Reason: Virus can’t multiply without host cell.
17 Why are bryophytes considered amphibians of the plant kingdom? 2
240
18 How is a pinnately compound leaf different from a palmately compound leaf? 2
19 Which are the most common symptoms observed in people infected with Dengue 2
fever?
20 Is there a difference in the growth pattern of plants and animals? Do all parts of the 2
plant grow endlessly? List the regions of the plant that can grow endlessly, if no. give
the answer.
21 What happens to the DNA of the plastids and mitochondria during nuclear divisions 2
such as mitosis?
22 Describe the role of Renin-Angiotensin in the management of Kidney function. 3
23 (a) What is biodiversity? 3
(b)Write the full form for the following code – ICVN, ICBN, ICZN, ICNB.
24 1. (a) What is the lowest category of classification? 3

(b)What is taxon? Give a few examples.
25 Why is the maize grain considered as a fruit and not as a seed? 3
26 1. The functional groups in amino acids are weak bases and acids chemically, 3
the ionization is affected by the pH of the solution. The activity for several
enzymes is affected by the ambient pH and is depicted in the curve below,
explain in brief.
27 List the location in the cell where the following reactions take place during the 3
process of photosynthesis.
a) Synthesis of NADPH and ATP
b) Photolysis of water
c) CO2 fixation
d) Synthesis of sugar molecule
e) Synthesis of starch
28 The final product of glycolysis is pyruvic acid. Write the three metabolic fates of the 3
pyruvic acid in anaerobic and aerobic conditions as seen in the diagram
below.
241
29 Case based question- (any four) 4
The fungi constitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms. They show a

great diversity in morphology and habitat. Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used
to make bread and beer. Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals; wheat
rust-causing Puccinia is an important example. Some are the source of antibiotics,
e.g., Penicillium. Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals
and plants. With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are filamentous.
Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae. The
network of hyphae is known as mycelium. Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled
with multinucleated cytoplasm – these are called coenocytic hyphae. Others have
septae or cross walls in their hyphae. The cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin
and polysaccharides. Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic
matter from dead substrates and hence are called saprophytes. Those that depend
on living plants and animals are called parasites. They can also live as symbionts – in
association with algae as lichens and with roots of higher plants as mycorrhiza.
Reproduction in fungi can take place by vegetative means – fragmentation, fission
and budding. Asexual reproduction is by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or
zoospores, and sexual reproduction is by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores.
The various spores are produced in distinct structures called fruiting bodies. The
sexual cycle involves the following three steps:
• Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes called
plasmogamy.
• Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
• Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating types
come together and fuse. In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately
results in diploid cells (2n). However, in other fungi (ascomycetes and
basidiomycetes), an intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell)
occurs; such a condition is called a dikaryon and the phase is called dikaryophase of
fungus. Later, the parental nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid. The fungi form
242
fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading to formation of haploid
spores.
(1) ______________ Hyphae are without septa and filled with multinucleated
cytoplasm.
(a) Septate
(b) Nucleated
(c) Coenocytic
(d) Both a and c
(a) Penicillium
(b) Yeast
(c) Mycorrhiza
(d) Both a and b
(3) What is saprophytic fungi?
30 The activity of an enzyme can be affected by a change in the conditions which can 4
alter the tertiary structure of the protein. These include temperature, pH, and
change in substrate concentration or binding of specific chemicals that regulate its
activity. Temperature and pH Enzymes generally function in a narrow range of
temperature and pH. Each enzyme shows its highest activity at a particular
temperature and pH called the optimum temperature and optimum pH. Activity
declines both below and above the optimum value. Low temperature preserves the
enzyme in a temporarily inactive state whereas high temperature destroys enzymatic
activity because proteins are denatured by heat.
Concentration of Substrate With the increase in substrate concentration, the velocity
of the enzymatic reaction rises at first. The reaction ultimately reaches a maximum
velocity (Vmax) which is not exceeded by any further rise in concentration of the
substrate. This is because the enzyme molecules are fewer than the substrate
molecules and after saturation of these molecules, there are no free enzyme
molecules to bind with the additional substrate molecules.
The activity of an enzyme is also sensitive to the presence of specific chemicals that
bind to the enzyme. When the binding of the chemical shuts off enzyme activity, the
process is called inhibition and the chemical is called an inhibitor.
When the inhibitor closely resembles the substrate in its molecular structure and
inhibits the activity of the enzyme, it is known as competitive inhibitor. Due to its
close structural similarity with the substrate, the inhibitor competes with the
substrate for the substrate binding site of the enzyme. Consequently, the substrate
cannot bind and as a result, the enzyme action declines, e.g., inhibition of succinic
dehydrogenase by malonate which closely resembles the substrate succinate in
structure. Such competitive inhibitors are often used in the control of bacterial
pathogens.
243
1) _______________ is a chemical compound or molecule which is responsible for
a.) Catalyser
b) Inhibitor
c) Regulator
d) Controller
2) _______________ preserve the enzyme and keep them in temporarily inactive
state.
a) Optimum pH
b) Low pH
d) Low temperature
3) Give reason – why most of the enzymes destroyed in high temperature condition?
4) Explain the relation between substrate concentration and enzymatic activity?
5) Explain competitive inhibition and inhibitor.
31 Give the schematic representation of an overall view of Krebs’ cycle. 5
32 (a) Define a cardiac cycle and the cardiac output. 5
(b) Draw a standard ECG and explain the different segments in it.
33 Define aestivation. Give its different types. 5
244
ANSWER KEY(Sample Paper-1)
1 c 1
2 d 1
3 d 1
4 b 1
5 c 1
6 a 1
7 a 1
8 d 1
9 d 1
10 d 1
11 b 1
12 d 1
13 a 1
14 a 1
15 c 1
16 a 1
17 Bryophytes are considered amphibians of the plant kingdom because they depend on 2
water for the movement of male gametes called antherozoids to reach archegonium for
fertilization.
18 2
Pinnately compound leaf Palmately compound leaf
Many numbers of leaflets are present on a Several leaflets are attached to a

common axis common point.
Leaflets are attached to common axis Leaflets are attached to a common

called rachis point on the leaf stalk.
Leaflet bearing axis is the continuation of Leaflet bearing axis is very short.
the petiole
Ex: Neem leaves Ex: Cotton leaves
19 The common symptoms observed in people infected with Dengue fever are: 2
1. Fever
2. Headache
3. muscle and joint pains
4. Significant increase in platelets count
20 Yes, they differ. Plant growth is different as plants have the potential to grow indefinitely 2
during their lifetime. They exhibit this property because of the presence of meristems at
certain parts of the plant body. These cells of the meristems have the ability of division and
grow constantly. The plant body is made up by the cells which lose the capacity to divide.
The growth form, where cells are constantly added to the body of the plant through the
action of meristems is referred to as the open form of growth.
245
21 Chloroplasts and mitochondria possess DNA in the form of extrachromosomal DNA and 2
have no role in nuclear division. Only nuclear DNA takes part in mitosis.
22 The Juxta-Glomerular Apparatus (JGA) releases renin on activation by fall in the blood flow 3
in the glomerular. In blood, renin transforms angiotensinogen into angiotensin I and hence
into angiotensin II which is a vasoconstrictor that raises the blood pressure in the
glomerular and hence the Glomerular Filtration Rate(GFR). Also, the angiotensin II
stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone, which in turn causes the
reabsorption of water and Na+ from the distal parts of the tubule which results in an
increase in the GFR and blood pressure, this is termed as RAAS (Renin Angiotensin
Aldosterone System).
23 Biodiversity is the variations among living organisms, from minute microorganisms to the 3
multicellular plants, and animals. It includes genetic diversity, species diversity,
and ecosystem diversity.
ICVN– The International Code of Viral Nomenclature.
ICBN–The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.
ICZN– The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.
ICNB– The Institute for Nature Conservation and Biodiversity.
24 Species is the lowest category of classification. 3
A taxon is a group of organisms of any level in the hierarchical classification based
on some common characteristics. For eg; all the insects are classified under one
phylum-Arthropoda. A taxa includes-kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus.
25 The maize grain is a ripened ovary with a ripened ovule. That is why it is considered 3
a fruit and not as a seed. The fruit is known as a caryopsis. In this, the per carp is
fused with the seed coat.
26 Enzymes usually operate in a narrow range of pH. Most of them indicate their highest 3
activity at a pH known as the optimum pH and decline above and below this value.
Extremely low or high pH normally leads to complete loss of activity for most of
the enzymes. The graph indicates the maximum activity of the enzymes at the
optimum pH.
27 a) Outer side of the thylakoid membrane 3
b) The inner side of the thylakoid membrane
c) Stroma of chloroplast
d) Chloroplast
e) Cytoplasm
28 Lactic acid – Formed by oxidation of pyruvic acid in skeletal muscles under anaerobic 3
conditions. Ethanol – Formed by oxidation of pyruvic acid under anaerobic condition in
yeasts Acetyl Co-A – Formed by the oxidation of pyruvic acid occurring within the
mitochondria under aerobic conditions.
29 (1) c 4
(2) b
(3) Saprophytic is the mode of obtaining food by absorption of dissolved organic material
which is produced by decaying of organic matters. Those fungi obtain their food by this
mode are termed as saprophytic fungi.
246
(4) Fungi shows a great diversity in morphology and habitat. Fungi are widespread. They
can be found in air, water, soil, on the body of other living animal, inside the body. They
can be found almost every, because of this fungi are referred as cosmopolitan organism.
30 1.) b 4
2.) d
3.) Enzymes are composed of one or several polypeptide chains. Almost all enzymes are
denatured by heat.
4.) Concentration of Substrate With the increase in substrate concentration, the velocity of
(Vmax) which is not exceeded by any further rise in concentration of the substrate. This is
because the enzyme molecules are fewer than the substrate molecules and after
saturation of these molecules, there are no free enzyme molecules to bind with the
additional substrate molecules.
5.) When the inhibitor closely resembles the substrate in its molecular structure and
inhibits the activity of the enzyme, it is known as competitive inhibitor. Due to its close
structural similarity with the substrate, the inhibitor competes with the substrate for the
substrate binding site of the enzyme. Consequently, the substrate cannot bind and as a
result, the enzyme action declines. This phenomenon is called as competitive inhibition.
31 5
32 The sequential events in the heart which are repeated cyclically is called cardiac cycle and 5
it consists of systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation) of both the atria and ventricles.
The duration of a cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds. Periods of cardiac cycle are atrial systole (0.1
second), ventricular systole (0.3 second) and complete cardiac diastole (0.4 second).
The amount of blood pumped by heart per minute is called cardiac output. It is calculated
by multiplying stroke volume (volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per minute) with
heart rate (number of beats per minute). The heart of normal person beats 72 times per
minute and pumps out about 70 mL of blood per beat. Therefore, cardiac output averages
5000 mL or 5 litres.
247
ECG is graphic record of the electric current produced by the excitation of the cardiac
muscles. The instrument used to record the changes is an electrocardiograph. A normal
electrogram (ECG) is composed of a P wave, a QRS wave (complex) and a T wave. The P
Wave is a small upward wave that represents electrical excitation or the atrial
depolarisation which leads to contraction of both the atria (atrial contraction). It is caused
by the activation of SA node. The impulses of contraction start from the SAnode and
spread throughout the artia.
The QRS Wave (complex) represents ventricular depolarisation (ventricular contraction). It
is caused by the impulses of the contraction from AV node through the bundle of His and
Purkinje fibres and the contraction of the ventricular muscles. Thus this wave is due to the
spread of electrical impulse through the ventricles.
The T Wave represents ventricular repolarisation (ventricular relaxation). The potential
generated by the recovery of the ventricle from the depolarisation state is called the
repolarisation wave. The end of the T-wave marks the end of systole.
ECG gives accurate information about the heart. Therefore, ECG is of great diagnostic value
in cardiac diseases.
33 Aestivation: The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with respect to the 5
other members of the same whorl is known as aestivation. The main types of aestivation
are valvate, twisted, imbricate and vexillary (Fig. 5.18). When sepals or petals in a whorl
just touch one another at the margin, without overlapping , as in Calotropis, it is said to be
valvate. If one margin of the appendage overlaps that of the next one and so on as in china
rose, lady's finger and cotton, it is called twisted. If the margins of sepals or petals overlap
one another but not in any particular direction as in Cassia and gulmohur, the aestivation
is called imbricate. In pea and bean flowers, there are five petals, the largest (standard)
overlaps the two lateral petals (wings) which in turn overlap the two smallest anterior
petals (keel); this type of aestivation is known as vexillary or papilionaceous.
248
SAMPLE PAPER-2

Section– C has 7 questions of 3 marks each; Section– D has 2 case-based questions of 4 marks
each; and Section–E has 3 questions of 5 marks each.
SECTION–A
1 Modern taxonomy studies require 1
(a) Knowledge of external and internal structure.
(b) Knowledge of structure of cell.
(c) Knowledge development process and ecological information of organisms.
(d) All of these
2 Archaebacteria can live in some of the most harsh habitats because of 1
(a) Presence of mesosome (b) High power of multiplication
(c) Special cell wall structure (d) All of these
3 Identify the A, B, C and D in the given figure. 1
(a) A–WBC, B–Mesophyll cell, C–RBC, D–Columnar Epithelial cells

(b) A–Columnar epithelial cells, B–Mesophyll cell, C–WBC, D–RBC
(c) A–Mesophyll cell, B–WBC, C–Columnar epithelial cells, D–WBC
(d) A–RBC, B–Columnar epithelial cells, C–Mesophyll Cell, D–WBC
4 Monomeric unit of cellulose is 1
(a) Glucose (b) Fructose (c) Mannose (d) Ribose
5 During which phase(s) of cell cycle, the amount of DNA in a cell remains at 4C level if the 1
initial amount is denoted as 2C?
(a) G0 and G1 (b) G1 and S (c) Only G2 (d) G2 and M
249
6 During meiosis, the crossover occurs between 1
(a) Sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes
(b) Non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes
(c) Sister chromatids of non-homologous chromosomes
(d) Non-homologous chromatids of homologous chromosomes
7 Enzymes which catalyse oxidoreduction between two substrate belongs to the class 1
(a) Oxidoreductase (b) Transferase (c) Hydrolase (d) Ligase
8 Exponential growth can be expressed as 1
(a) W1 = W0 ert(b) W0 = W1 ert(c) W1 = W0 eΔrt(d) None of these
9 The part starting with the external nostrils up to the terminal bronchioles constitute the 1
(a) Respiratory part of respiratory system (b) Exchange part of respiratory system
(c) Expiratory part (d) Conducting part of respiratory system
10 The dark bands (A-bands) of a skeletal muscle are known as 1
(a) Isotropic bands (b) Anisotropic bands
(c) Intercalated disc (d) Cross bridges
11 Striped muscles have 1
(a) One nucleus (b) Many nuclei
(c) Two nuclei (d) No nuclei
12 Which of the following statements about the striated muscles is false? 1
1. Thick filaments in the ‘A’ band are also held together in the middle of this band by a thin
fibrous membrane called ‘M’ line.
2. In the centre of each ‘I’ band is an elastic fibre called ‘Z’ line which bisects it.
3. The thin filaments are firmly attached to the ‘Z’ line.
4. This central part of thick filament, not overlapped by thin filaments is called the ‘H’
zone.
(a) All of these (b) Only 2
(c) 1 and 4 only (d) None of these
below:
the assertion.
the assertion.
13 Assertion: Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood can deliver around 5 ml of O2 to the tissues. 1
Reason: Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers approx 4 ml of CO2 to the alveoli.
14 Assertion: Ethylene is a simple liquid PGR. 1
Reason: Etylene inhibits sprouting of potato tuber.
15 Assertion: A cell membrane shows fluid behaviour. 1
Reason: A membrane is a mosaic or composite of diverse lipids and proteins.
16 Assertion: Lichens are very good pollution indicators. 1
Reason: Lichens do not grow in polluted areas.
17 Mycorrhiza and coralloid roots are found in which plants? What do these terms mean? 2
18 Describe the different regions of root with diagram 2
250
19 Give a reason why the walls of ventricles are thicker than atria. 2
20 Why is not any one parameter good enough to demonstrate growth throughout the life of 2
a flowering plant?
21 Which tissue of animals and plants exhibit meiosis? 2
22 Why is the haemodialysis unit called an artificial kidney? Explain. 3
23 (a) What is binomial nomenclature? 3
(b)How will a scientist go about the identification, nomenclature and classification
of a plant which he feels is a new species?
24 (a) What is the nature of the cell wall in diatoms? 3
(b)What is the role of fungi our daily lives?
25 Differentiate between the hypogeal germination and epigeal germination. 3
26 State differences between the events of meiosis and mitosis. 3
27 How are succulents able to meet their photosynthetic CO2 requirements as they are 3
known to keep their stomata closed during the day to check transpiration?
28 State the differences between the following: 3
a) Expiratory and inspiratory reserve volume
b) Total lung capacity and vital capacity
c) Occupational respiratory disorder and Emphysema
29 Case based question- (any Four) 4
Phycomycetes – Members of phycomycetes are found in aquatic habitats and on decaying

wood in moist and damp places or as obligate parasites on plants. The mycelium is
aseptate and coenocytic. Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores (motile) or by
aplanospores (non-motile). These spores are endogenously produced in sporangium. A
zygospore is formed by fusion of two gametes. These gametes are similar in morphology
(isogamous) or dissimilar (anisogamous or oogamous). Some common examples are
Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread mould) and Albugo (the parasitic fungi on mustard).
Ascomycetes – Commonly known as sac-fungi, the ascomycetes are mostly multicellular,
e.g., Penicillium, or rarely unicellular, e.g., yeast (Saccharomyces). They are saprophytic,
decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung). Mycelium is branched and
septate. The asexual spores are conidia produced exogenously on the special mycelium
called conidiophores. Conidia on germination produce mycelium. Sexual spores are called
ascospores which are produced endogenously in sac like asci (singular ascus). These asci
are arranged in different types of fruiting bodies called ascocarps. Some examples are
Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora. Neurospora is used extensively in biochemical and
genetic work. Many members like morels and truffles are edible and are considered
delicacies.
Basidiomycetes –Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket
fungi or puffballs. They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant bodies as
parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts. The mycelium is branched and septate. The asexual spores
are generally not found, but vegetative reproduction by fragmentation is common. The
sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two vegetative or
somatic cells of different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryotic which
ultimately gives rise to basidium. Karyogamy and meiosis take place in the basidium
producing four basidiospores. The basidiospores are exogenously produced on the
251
basidium (pl.: basidia). The basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.
Some common members are Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia (rust
fungus).
(1) The bread mould fungi belongs to _______________
(a) Basidiomycetes
(b) Phycomycetes
(c) Ascomycetes
(d) Deuteromycetes
(2) Ascomycetes fungi are characterised by presence of ____________.
(a) Presence of asci
(b) Presence of Basidium
(c) Mycelium without septa
(d) Both a and c
(3) What is mean by anisogamousgametes?
(4) Name the fungi which is commonly known as smut fungi?
(5) Give reason – why ascomycetes are termed as sac fungi?
30 Almost all enzymes are proteins. There are some nucleic acids that behave like enzymes. 4
These are called ribozymes. An enzyme like any protein has a primary structure, i.e., amino
acid sequence of the protein. An enzyme like any protein has the secondary and the
tertiary structure. When you look at a tertiary structure you will notice that the backbone
of the protein chain folds upon itself, the chain criss-crosses itself and hence, many
crevices or pockets are made. One such pocket is the ‘active site’. An active site of an
enzyme is a crevice or pocket into which the substrate fits. Thus enzymes, through their
active site, catalyse reactions at a high rate. Enzyme catalysts differ from inorganic
catalysts in many ways, but one major difference needs mention. Inorganic catalysts work
efficiently at high temperatures and high pressures, while enzymes get damaged at high
temperatures (say above 40°C). However, enzymes isolated from organisms who normally
live under extremely high temperatures (e.g., hot vents and sulphur springs), are stable
and retain their catalytic power even at high temperatures (upto 80°-90°C). Thermal
stability is thus an important quality of such enzymes isolated from thermophilic
organisms.
1) _____________ is the pocket like region of an enzyme into which substrate molecules
bind.
a) Protein site
b) Co-factors
c) Coenzyme
d) Active site
2) Identify incorrect statement
Statement 1 – Nucleic acids which behave like enzymes are commonly termed as
nucliozymes.
Statement 2 – An enzyme like any protein has a primary, secondary and the tertiary
structure.
252
Statement 3 – Enzyme catalysts differ from inorganic catalysts in many ways.
Statement 4 – All enzymes are proteins.
a) Only 1
b) Both 1 & 3
c) Only 3
3) How active site of enzymes are formed?
4) Explain how Enzyme catalysts differ from inorganic catalysts?
5) What is ribozymes?
31 (a) Draw the labelled diagram of the following: 5
(i) Gram seed (ii) V. S. of maize seed.
(b) Differentiate between
Racemose and cymose inflorescence
32 What would be expected to happen if: 5
(a) GA3 is applied to rice seedlings
(b) dividing cells stop differentiating
(c) a rotten fruit gets mixed with unripe fruits
(d) you forget to add cytokinin to the culture medium.
33 (a) Match the items of column I with those of column II. 5
Column I Column II
(a) Ammonotelism (i)Birds
(b) Bowman’s capsule (ii)Water reabsorption
(c) Micturition (iii)Bony fish
(d) Uricotelism (iv)Urinary bladder
(e) ADH (v)Renal tubule
(b) What is the significance of juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA) in kidney function?
253
1 d 1
2 c 1
3 d 1
4 d 1
5 d 1
6 b 1
7 a 1
8 a 1
9 d 1
10 b 1
11 b 1
12 d 1
13 b 1
14 a 1
15 a 1
16 a 1
17 Mycorrhiza is the symbiotic association between fungus and roots of vascular plants. 2
The mycorrhizal association is present in conifers such as Pinus, Cedrus, etc. Coralloid
roots are present in Cycas. Coralloid roots are present in clusters at the base of the
stem and protrude over the ground. It is greenish in colour and dichotomously
branched.
18 2
19 They have thicker walls as ventricles have to pump blood into various organs. 2
20 At the cellular level, growth is mostly due to a rise in the amount of protoplasm. The 2
weight of the fresh tissue sample, the weight of the dry tissue sample, the variations in
length, area, volume, and cell number determined over the growth phase are all used to
measure protoplasm growth. As a result, no one metric can adequately represent
growth across the life of a blooming plant.
21 Meiosis takes place only in the tissues which produce gametes. In animals, the meiosis 2
occurs within the reproductive cells or germ cells of the body and it includes the cells of
the testes and ovaries. In plants, the meiosis occurs in the Androecium (male
reproductive) and Gynoecium (female reproductive) parts of the plant.
22 It acts as an artificial kidney by eliminating urea from the blood of the patients caused 3
due to failure of the kidney. Blood is drained from the artery and pumped into the
dialyzing unit after addition of heparin. The unit has a looped cellophane tube that is
girdled by a dialyzing fluid which has a similar composition as plasma minus the
254
nitrogenous waste. The cellophane membrane of the tube is permeable through which
molecules pass based upon the concentration gradient. Blood is removed as
nitrogenous wastes are absent in the dialyzing fluid hence they can move freely. The
cleaned blood is pumped back to the body via a vein after supplementing with anti-
heparin.
23 Binomial nomenclature is a formal and biological system of naming all the living 3
organisms. Carolus Linnaeus was the first person to introduce the binomial
nomenclature system for naming organisms in a scientific way.
The taxonomic keys, monographs, herbaria, and preserved plant specimen help in
discovering a new plant species. The morphological and anatomical structures
of the plant are studied and its characteristic features are compared with the
similar information available in the scientific literature. The systematic position
of the plant is then decided and it is named according to the rules of binomial
nomenclature.
24 The cell wall of diatoms forms two thin overlapping cells. It is made up of silica. 3
The role of fungi in our daily life are as follows:
• Few fungi such as Agaricuscompestris are highly rich in nutrients and are used as
food.
• The saprophytic fungi act upon dead and decaying matter and convert the
complex substances into simpler ones that are absorbed by the plants in the
form of nutrients.
• Some fungi possess the soil binding capacity and make the soil good for
cultivation. For eg.,Mucor, Absidia, etc.
• They provide resistance against pests.
• Fungi are used in alcohol and yeast preparation due to their fermentation
property. For eg., Saccharomyces
25 3
Hypogeal Germination Epigeal Germination
Rapid growth and elongation of epicotyl. Rapid growth and elongation of the hypocotyl.
The seed cotyledons are inside the soil. The seed cotyledons are above the soil.
Cotyledons are not green and non-photosynthetic. Cotyledons are green and photosynthetic.
26 3
Attributes Mitosis Meiosis
Place of occurrence Somatic cells Germ cells
Nature of A sexually and sexually Sexually reproducing

Organisms reproducing organisms organisms
Nuclear and cell Two sequential cycles –

One cycle
division Meiosis I & II
Once for each cell

DNA replication Once for two cell divisions
division
255
Duration of
Short Long
prophase
The first meiotic division is in

Nature of prophase Simple comparison to prophase of
mitosis
Cell division and

Two cell divisions, but one
chromosome Both divide once each
chromosome division
division
End product Two cells Four haploid cells

27 During day time, the succulent plants have to shut their stomata as they grow in dry 3
and xeric conditions, for prevention of water loss during transpiration, the gaseous
exchange does not take place. Hence plants have adapted to fix CO2 in the form of malic
acid during night time. Malic acid is a four carbon compounds that stores CO2 which is
liberated during the day within the photosynthetic cells.
28 The differences are as follows: 3
a)
Inspiratory reserve volume Expiratory reserve volume
The additional volume of air that The additional volume of air that can be
can be inspired by a person forcible expired forcibly through a forcible
inspiration which can range expiration, ranges between 1000ml-110ml
between – 2500ml – 3000ml
b)
Vital Capacity Total lung capacity
It is the maximum volume of air that a The total volume of air accommodated
person can breathe in after forced in the lungs at the end of a forced
expiration. inspiration
c)
Emphysema Occupational Respiratory Disorder
Emphysema is a chronic disease Caused due to long exposure of

of the respiratory system dust that is generated by breaking
wherein the alveolar cells are or stone grinding and causes
damaged due to which regulatory inflammation that leads to fibrosis
surface is decreased. and hence lung damage.
256
29 (1) b 4
(2) a
(3) Gametes, which exhibits same morphological feature are termed as anisogamous
gametes.
(4) Ustilago is commonly known as smut fungi.
(5) Fungi belongs to phylum ascomycetes, produces sac like structure called asci, which
are involved in production of ascospores. This the reason Ascomycetes are commonly
called as sac-fungi.
30 1) d 4
2) a
3) Enzyme have primary, secondary and tertiary structure like proteins. In tertiary
structure, backbone of the protein chain folds upon itself, the chain criss-crosses itself
and leads to the formation of many crevices or pockets are made. These pockets are
referred as active site of enzyme. An active site of an enzyme is a crevice or pocket into
which the substrate fits.
4) Enzyme catalysts differ from inorganic catalysts in many ways. Inorganic catalysts
work efficiently at high temperatures and high pressures, while enzymes get damaged
at high temperatures (above 40°C). There are some exceptions such as enzyme isolated
from thermophilic organisms.
5) There are some nucleic acid behave like an enzymes, these nucleic acid is termed as
ribozymes.
31 (a) (i) Gram seed. 5
(ii) V.S. of maize seed.
257
(b) Soln.
(a) Differences between racemose and cymose inflorescence are as follows:
32 1. (a) The coleoptile will elongate rapidly, as GA3 helps in cell growth. 5
(b) The development of callus (mass of undifferentiated cells) will take place.
(c) The unripe fruits will ripe quickly because of the increased rate of respiration
due to emission of ethylene from rotten fruit.
(d) Cell division will retard and shoot will not initiate from the callus.
33 (a) – (iii), (b) – (v), (c) – (iv), (d) – (i), (e) – (ii) 5
Juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA) is a special sensitive region formed by cellular

modifications in the distal convoluted tubule and the afferent arteriole at the location
of their contact. The JGA plays a complex regulatory role. A fall in glomerular blood
flow/ glomerular blood pressure/GFR can activate the JG cells to release renin which
converts angiotensinogen in blood to angiotensin I and further to angiotensin II.
Angiotensin II, being a powerful vasoconstrictor, increases the glomerular blood
pressure and thereby GFR. Angiotensin II also activates the adrenal cortex to release
aldosterone. Aldosterone causes reabsorption of Na+ and water from the distal parts of
the tubule. This also leads to an increase in blood pressure and GFR.
258
SAMPLE PAPER-3

SECTION–A
1 Linnaeus evolved a system of nomenclature called 1
(a) Trinomial (b) Vernacular (c) Binomial (d) Polynomial
2 Specialized cell of nostoc and anabaena fix nitrogen are known as 1
(a) Cyst (b) Heterocyst
(c) Oocytes (d) Cholecyst
3 How many of the following organelles are found in prokaryotic cells? 1
ER, Golgi complex, Lysosome, Mitochondria, Microbodies, Vacuoles
4 Monomeric unit of inulin is 1
(a) Glucose (b) Fructose (c) Mannose (d) Ribose
5 In ‘S’ phase of the cell cycle 1
(a) The amount of DNA doubles in each cell.
(b) The amount of DNA remains same in each cell.
(c) The chromosome number is increased.
(d) The amount of DNA is reduced to half in each cell.
6 Which of the following is not true for anaphase? 1
(a) Golgi body and ER are reformed
(b) Spindle poles move further apart
(c) Chromosomes move to opposite poles
(d) Centromeres split and chromatids separate
7 Enzymes which catalyse transfer of group other than hydrogen belongs to the class 1
8 In the expression of exponential growth ‘e’ stands for (Question number 50-52 with 1
respect to equation in question number 49)
(a) Exponential growth rate (b) Base of natural log
(c) Relative growth rate (d) Change in size
9 Respiratory or exchange part of the respiratory system consists of 1
(a) All bronchi
(b) All bronchioles
(c) All bronchi and terminal bronchioles
259
(d) Alveoli and their ducts
10 The light bands (I-bands) of a skeletal muscles are known as 1
(a) Isotropic bands (b) Anisotropic bands
(c) Intercalated disc (d) Cross bridges
11 Contractile fibrils of muscles are called 1
(a) Neurofibrils (b) Collagen fibres
(c) Myofibrils (d) Elastin
12 Which of the following statements about the molecular arrangement of actin in myofibrils 1
is incorrect?
1. Each actin (thin) filament is made of two ‘F’ (filamentous) actins helically wound to each
other.
2. Each ‘F’ actin is a polymer of monomeric ‘G’ (Globular) actins.
3. Two filaments of another protein, tropomyosin also runs close to the ‘F’ actins
throughout
its length.
4. A complex protein troponin is distributed at regular intervals on the tropomyosin.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) Only 4 (d) None of these
below:
the assertion.
the assertion.
13 Assertion: Oxygen is transported mainly as oxyhaemoglobin in human. 1
Reason: CO2 is transported mainly as carbamino - haemoglobin in human.
14 Assertion: The pigment which causes photoperiodic stimulus is called phytochrome. 1
Reason: Chemically phytochrome is a starch and lipid.
15 Assertion: The number of cells in a multicellular organism is inversely proportional to the 1
size of body.
Reason: All the cells in the biological world are of same size.
16 Assertion: Neurospora is used extensively in genetic work. 1
Reason: Neurospora belongs to Ascomycetes.
17 Differentiate between the female gametophytes of pteridophytes and gymnosperms. (any 2
two)
18 Describe phyllotaxy with examples. 2
19 State the differences between the following:(Any Two) 2
Lymph and blood
Eosinophils and Basophils
Bicuspid valve and tricuspid valve
20 Both growth and differentiation in higher plants are open. Comment 2
21 State differences between the events of meiosis and mitosis. 2
22 How is the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting tubule 3
controlled for regulating the water content inside the body?
260
23 (a) What do you understand by ‘phycobiont’ and ‘mycobiont’? 3
(b)What are the characteristic features of euglenoids?
24 What are the advantages of five kingdom classification? 3
25 What are the differences between lenticels and stomata? 3
26 State the characteristics of prokaryotic cells. 3
27 What is the relationship between photosynthesis and respiration? 3
28 Answer the questions below: 3
a) Which is the site where RBCs are formed?
b) Name the part of the heart that initiates and maintains the rhythmic activity
c) What is the heart of crocodiles is specific amongst reptilians?

wood in moist and damp places or as obligate parasites on plants. The mycelium is
aseptate and coenocytic. Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores (motile) or by
aplanospores (non-motile). These spores are endogenously produced in sporangium. A
zygospore is formed by fusion of two gametes. These gametes are similar in morphology
(isogamous) or dissimilar (anisogamous or oogamous). Some common examples are
Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread mould) and Albugo (the parasitic fungi on mustard).
ascospores which are produced endogenously in sac like asci (singular ascus). These asci
are arranged in different types of fruiting bodies called ascocarps. Some examples are
delicacies.
Basidiomycetes –Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket
fungi or puffballs. They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant bodies as
are generally not found, but vegetative reproduction by fragmentation is common. The
sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two vegetative or
somatic cells of different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryotic which
ultimately gives rise to basidium. Karyogamy and meiosis take place in the basidium
producing four basidiospores. The basidiospores are exogenously produced on the
basidium (pl.: basidia). The basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.
Some common members are Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia (rust
fungus).
(a) Basidiomycetes
(b) Phycomycetes
261
(c) Ascomycetes
(d) Deuteromycetes
(d) Both a and c
(3) What is mean by anisogamous gametes?
30 Metabolic pathways can lead to a more complex structure from a simpler structure (for 4
example, acetic acid becomes cholesterol) or lead to a simpler structure from a complex
structure (for example, glucose becomes lactic acid in our skeletal muscle). The former
cases are called biosynthetic pathways or anabolic pathways. The latter constitute
degradation and hence are called catabolic pathways. Anabolic pathways, as expected,
consume energy. Assembly of a protein from amino acids requires energy input. On the
other hand, catabolic pathways lead to the release of energy. For example, when glucose
is degraded to lactic acid in our skeletal muscle, energy is liberated. This metabolic
pathway from glucose to lactic acid which occurs in 10 metabolic steps is called glycolysis.
Living organisms have learnt to trap this energy liberated during degradation and store it
in the form of chemical bonds. As and when needed, this bond energy is utilised for
biosynthetic, osmotic and mechanical work that we perform. The most important form of
energy currency in living systems is the bond energy in a chemical called adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
There are thousands of chemical compounds in a living organism, otherwise called as
metabolites or biomolecules, are present at concentrations characteristic of each of them.
For example, the blood concentration of glucose in a normal healthy individual is 4.2
mmol/L– 6.1 mmol/L, while that of hormones would be nanograms/mL. The most
important fact of biological systems is that all living organisms exist in a steady-state
characterised by concentrations of each of these biomolecules. These biomolecules are in
a metabolic flux. Any chemical or physical process moves spontaneously to equilibrium.
The steady state is a non-equilibrium state. Systems at equilibrium cannot perform work.
As living organisms work continuously, they cannot afford to reach equilibrium. Hence the
living state is a non-equilibrium steady state to be able to perform work; living process is a
constant effort to prevent falling into equilibrium. This is achieved by energy input.
Metabolism provides a mechanism for the production of energy. Hence the living state
and metabolism are synonymous. Without metabolism there cannot be a living state.
1) ________________ is the destructive process, which involves complex structure
breakdown into simple form.
a) Amphibolic pathway
b) Anabolic pathway
c) Catabolic pathway
262
2) ______________ is the normal glucose concentration in normal healthy individual.
a) 9 mmol/L– 6.8 mmol/L
b) 5 mmol/L– 6.5 mmol/L
c) 0 mmol/L– 7.1 mmol/L
d) 2 mmol/L– 6.1 mmol/L
3) Give any one example of catabolic reaction that take place in human body.
4) Give the name of chemical bond in which energy liberated during degradation of
metabolites, is stored.
5) Define anabolic pathways and catabolic pathways.
31 Take one flower of the family Solanaceae and write its semi-technical description. Also 5
draw its floral diagram after studying them.
32 Which one of the plant growth regulators would you use if you are asked to 5
(a) induce rooting in a twig
(b) quickly ripen a fruit
(c) delay leaf senescence
(d) induce growth in axillary buds
(e) ‘bolt’ a rosette plant
(f) induce immediate stomatal closure in leaves.
33 Fill in the blanks: 5
Hormones Target gland
(a) Hypothalamic hormones ………………..
(b) Thyrotrophin (TSH) ………………..
(c) Corticotrophin (ACH) ………………..
(d) Gonadotrophins (LH, FSH) ………………..
(e) Melanotrophin (MSH) ………………..
263
1 c 1
2 b 1
3 d 1
4 d 1
5 a 1
6 a 1
7 b 1
8 b 1
9 d 1
10 a 1
11 c 1
12 d 1
13 c 1
14 d 1
15 d 1
16 d 1
17 2
Gymnosperms Pteridophyte
A distinct gametophyte may or may not be

A distinct gametophyte is always present.
present.
Female gametophyte does not leave the parent

It is independent of the parent plant.
plant.
Enclosed inside an ovule. Not enclosed inside the ovule.

18 Phyllotaxy is the pattern of arrangement of leaves on the stem or branch. This is usually 2
of three types : alternate, opposite and whorled. (Fig. 5.12). In alternate type of
phyllotaxy, a single leaf arises at each node in alternate manner, as in china rose,
mustard and sunflower plants. In opposite type, a pair of leaves arise at each node and
lie opposite to each other as in Calotropis and guava plants. If more than two leaves arise
at a node and form a whorl, it is called whorled. as in Alstonia.
19 Blood and Lymph 2
Blood Lymph
It is a connective tissue having leucocytes, It is a connective tissue having WBC but not
erythrocytes, and platelets in plasma, a fluid, Flows RBC in the plasma. Flows in the lymphatic
in the blood vessels system.
Basophils and Eosinophils
Basophils Eosinophils
264
It has 3 lobes nucleus with little quantity of It has a bilobed nucleus with granules in the
coarse granules, which take basic stain. They are cytoplasm, which take acidic stains. They are
present in the blood in the range of 0-1% present in the blood in the range of 1-6%
Tricuspid and bicuspid valve
Tricuspid valve Bicuspid valve
It separates right atria from the right ventricle. It has 3 It separates left atria from the left
flaps and is also known as the right atrioventricular ventricle. It has 2 flaps and is also known
valve. as mitral valve
20 The higher plants can develop indefinitely throughout their lives. The presence of 2
meristems at specific sites throughout the plant's body gives it this power. These meriste
cells can divide and self-perpetuate. As a result, increased plant growth is possible. In
addition, after a few rounds of cell division, some of these cells inevitably undergo
differentiation. As a result, the distinction is also open.
21 2
Attributes Mitosis Meiosis
Place of occurrence Somatic cells Germ cells
A sexually and sexually

Nature of Organisms Sexually reproducing organisms
reproducing organisms
Two sequential cycles – Meiosis I &

Nuclear and cell division One cycle
II
DNA replication Once for each cell division Once for two cell divisions
Duration of prophase Short Long
The first meiotic division is in

Nature of prophase Simple
comparison to prophase of mitosis
Cell division and Two cell divisions, but one

Both divide once each
chromosome division chromosome division
End product Two cells Four haploid cells

22 1. When the body's water content is low, the osmoreceptors activate the 3
adenohypophysis to release vasopressin / ADH.
2. Vasopressin and ADH make the DCT and collecting tubule water permeable. As a
result, water is reabsorbed.
3. There is no release of ADH when the body's water content is normal.
4. Water cannot pass through the tubule, thus it is removed in the urine.
23 The algal component of the lichens is known as phycobiont, while the fungal 3
component is known as mycobiont. Both the algae and the fungi live in
symbiotic association with each other. The algae prepare food for the fungi and
265
the fungi, in turn, provides shelter and absorbs nutrients from the soil.
The characteristic features of euglenoids are:
• They are unicellular protists, commonly found in freshwater.
• The cell membrane is rich in proteins and is known as a pellicle.
• Two flagella are present on the anterior end of the body.
• They possess a small light-sensitive eyespot.
• They are autotrophic because of the presence of photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll. However, in the absence of light, they behave as heterotrophs.
• They are known as the connecting-link between plants and animals because they
possess features common to both plants and animals.
24 The advantages of the five-kingdom classification are: 3
1. This system of classification is more scientific, accurate and natural.

2. In five-kingdom classification, all living organisms are classified into different
groups based on their similarities.
3. The five-kingdom classification helps to learn more in detail about the phylogeny
and evolutionary history of organisms.
25 3
Stomata Lenticels
Minute pores found on the epidermis of Pores present on the tree trunk or
the leaves. the stem of the plant.
The opening and closing of stomata can

The lenticels are always open.
be regulated.
These possess guard cells. These do not possess guard cells.
They facilitate transpiration and These are only responsible for the
exchange of gases. exchange of gases.
Active during the day. Active during the night.
The stomatal guard cells contain

Lenticels cannot photosynthesize
chlorophyll that helps in photosynthesis.
A large amount of water vapour is A small amount of water vapour is

emitted through the stomata. released through the lenticels.
Not found in roots and fruits. Found in roots and fruits.

26 The characteristics of a prokaryotic cell are as follows: 3
• A prokaryotic cell is surrounded by a cell membrane.

• Mitochondria, chloroplast and nucleus are not present.
• The DNA is circular and not associated with basic proteins.
• The cytoplasm is filled with dense granules most of which are ribosomes.
266
•The thylakoids are scattered in the chloroplast, and not placed in the form of
stacks.
27 They are related. In both mechanisms, plants gain energy in photosynthesis from solar 3
radiations while in respiration, the breakdown of glucose molecule takes place to get
energy in the form of ATP molecules. Both processes are dependant on each other.
Respiration uses the end product of the photosynthesis(glucose in the form of food). To
produce ATP for energy. In the process, carbon dioxide and water are released which
photosynthesis uses to produce more sugars.
28 a) Bone marrow b) Sinoatrial node c) Reptiles are characterized by having a 3 chambered 3
heart except for the crocodile which has a 4 chambered heart, because of the partial
division of ventricle through a septum.
29 (1)b 4
(2) a
gametes.
(5) Fungi belongs to phylum ascomycetes, produces sac like structure called asci, which
are involved in production of ascospores. This the reason Ascomycetes are commonly
called as sac-fungi.
30 1) c 4
2) d
3) Glucose becomes lactic acid in our skeletal muscle is the catabolic pathway reaction,
which constitute degradation of biomolecule and release energy.
4) In Living organism energy liberated during degradation of metabolites stored in the
form of chemical bonds i.e. ATP. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the most important
form of energy currency in living systems.
5) Anabolic pathway – Metabolic pathways which leads to a more complex structure
from a simpler structure are termed as anabolic pathways or biosynthetic pathways.
Catabolic pathway – Metabolic pathways which leads to a simpler structure from a
complex structure are termed as catabolic pathways.
31 Family Solanaceae (e.g., Solanumnigrum) 5
Systematic position:
Class Subclass Series Order Family
Vegetative characters:
Habit: herbs Stem : herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched.
Leaves: alternate, simple, exstipulate, venation reticulate.
Floral characters:
Inflorescence: cymose.
Flower :ebracteate, ebracteolate, bisexual, actinomorphic, white, hypogynous.
Calyx : sepals five, gamosepalous, persistent, valvate aestivation.
267
Corolla : petals five, gamopetalous, valvate. aestivation.
Androecium : stamens five, epipetalous, polyandrous, anthers large, bithecous
and basifixed.
Gynoecium :bicarpellary, syncarpous,
ovary, obliquely placed carpels in the flower, bilocular, axile placentation,
placenta swollen with many ovules.
Fruits : berry with persistent calyx.
Floral formula :
32 (a) Auxins like IBA, NAA. 5

(b) Ethylene
(c) Cytokinins
(d) Cytokinins
33 (a) Pituitary 5
(b) Thyroid
(c) Adrenal cortex
(d) Gonads -Testes in male and ovaries in female
(e) Skin.
268
SAMPLE PAPER-4

SECTION–A
1 Binomial nomenclature seems to be difficult because a scientific name is derived from 1
(a) Hindi (b) Sanskrit (c) Latin (d) Arabic
2 Heterotrophic bacteria helps in 1
(a) Curding of milk (b) Production of antibiotic
(c) Nitrogen fixation in leguminous plant (d) All of these
3 What is a genomic DNA of bacteria? 1
(a) Circular DNA (b) Single stranded DNA
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) ds DNA, linear
4 Which of the following is homopolysaccharide? 1
(a) Cellulose (b) Inulin (c) Starch (d) All of these
5 A somatic cell that has just completed the S phase of its cell cycle when compared to the 1
gamete
of the same species has
(a) Twice the number of chromosomes and twice the amount of DNA.
(b) Same number of chromosomes but twice the amount of DNA.
(c) Twice the number of chromosomes and four times the amount of DNA.
(d) Four times the number of chromosomes and twice the amount of DNA.
6 The longest phase of meiosis I is 1
(a) Metaphase I (b) Prophase I (c) Anaphase I (d) Telophase I
7 Enzymes which catalyse hydrolysis of ester, ether, peptide, glycosidic bond belongs to the 1
class
8 In expression of exponential growth ‘r’ is referred to as 1
(a) Growth rate (b) Efficiency index
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Time of growth
9 Sites of gaseous exchange in lungs are 1
(a) Alveoli (b) Bronchi (c) Bronchioles (d) Pleura
10 Ciliary muscles are found in 1
(a) Diaphragm of a mammal (b) Eyes of vertebrates
269
(c) Heart of vertebrates (d) Stomach of frog
11 Myofibrils show alternate dark and light bands in 1
(a) Cardiac muscles (b) Smooth muscles
(c) Skeletal muscles (d) Both (a) and (c)
12 Identify A to D in the below figure 1
(a) A–Actin binding sites, B–Head, C–Cross arm, D–ATP binding sites
(b) A–Cross arm, B–Actin binding sites, C–ATP binding sites, D–Head
(c) A–ATP binding sites, B–Head, C–Actin binding sites, D–Cross arm
(d) A–Head, B–Cross arm, C–ATP binding sites, D–Actin binding sites
below:
the assertion.
the assertion.
13 Assertion: CO2 produced by cells have to be released out of animal body. 1
Reason: CO2 is harmful gas.
14 Assertion: Floral initiation is done by hormonal substance. 1
Reason: Hormonal substance is translocated from flowers to leaves.
15 Assertion: It is important that the organisms should have cell. 1
Reason: A cell keeps its chemical composition steady within its boundary.
16 Assertion: Bladderwort and Venus fly trap are parasite 1
Reason: Cuscuta is insectivorous plant.
17 Differentiate between the male gametophytes of pteridophytes and gymnosperms.(any 2
two)
18 Describe the different regions of root with diagram 2
19 List out the functions of (Any Two) 2
Lymphatic System.
Pulmonary vein.
Lymphocytes.
20 2
Which plant hormone is used to manipulate and stimulate the maturation of sugarcane
crop?
21 A cell having 32 chromosomes undergoes mitotic division. During metaphase, what will the 2
chromosome number (N) of the cell? During anaphase, what will the DNA content of the
cell be?
270
22 Give reason why aquatic animals ate mostly ammonotelic in nature whereas terrestrial 3
forms are not.
23 (a) Which group of algae has mannitol as the reserve food material? 3
(b)Match the following:
Column I Column II
Chlamydomonas Moss
Cycas Pteridophyte
Selaginella Algae
Sphagnum Gymnosperm
24 Differentiate between the male and female gametophytes of pteridophytes and 3
gymnosperms.
25 Difference between Dicot Root and Monocot Root? 3
26 What do you mean by plasmids? What role do they play in bacteria? 3
27 List the location in the cell where the following reactions take place during the process of 3
photosynthesis.
a) Synthesis of NADPH and ATP
b) Photolysis of water
c) CO2 fixation
d) Synthesis of sugar molecule
e) Synthesis of starch
28 Describe the role of Renin-Angiotensin in the management of Kidney function. 3

wood in moist and damp places or as obligate parasites on plants. The mycelium is aseptate
and coenocytic. Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores (motile) or by aplanospores
(non-motile). These spores are endogenously produced in sporangium. A zygospore is
formed by fusion of two gametes. These gametes are similar in morphology (isogamous) or
dissimilar (anisogamous or oogamous). Some common examples are Mucor, Rhizopus (the
bread mould) and Albugo (the parasitic fungi on mustard).
ascospores which are produced endogenously in sac like asci (singular ascus). These asci are
arranged in different types of fruiting bodies called ascocarps. Some examples are
271
delicacies.
Basidiomycetes –Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi
or puffballs. They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant bodies as
are generally not found, but vegetative reproduction by fragmentation is common. The sex
organs are absent, but plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two vegetative or somatic
cells of different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryotic which ultimately
gives rise to basidium. Karyogamy and meiosis take place in the basidium producing four
basidiospores. The basidiospores are exogenously produced on the basidium (pl.: basidia).
The basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps. Some common members are
Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia (rust fungus).
(a) Basidiomycetes
(b) Phycomycetes
(c) Ascomycetes
(d) Deuteromycetes
(d) Both a and c
(3) What is mean by anisogamousgametes?
30 Proteins are heteropolymers containing strings of amino acids. Structure of molecules 4

means different things in different contexts. In inorganic chemistry, the structure invariably
refers to the molecular formulae (e.g., NaCl, MgCl2, etc.). Organic chemists always write a
two dimensional view of the molecules while representing the structure of the molecules
(e.g., benzene, naphthalene, etc.). Physicists conjure up the three dimensional views of
molecular structures while biologists describe the protein structure at four levels. The
sequence of amino acids i.e., the positional information in a protein – which is the first
amino acid, which is second, and so on – is called the primary structure of a protein. A
protein is imagined as a line, the left end represented by the first amino acid and the right
end represented by the last amino acid. The first amino acid is also called as N-terminal
amino acid. The last amino acid is called the C-terminal amino acid. A protein thread does
not exist throughout as an extended rigid rod. The thread is folded in the form of a helix,
only some portions of the protein thread are arranged in the form of a helix. In proteins,
272
only right handed helices are observed. Other regions of the protein thread are folded into
other forms in what is called the secondary structure. In addition, the long protein chain is
also folded upon itself like a hollow woollen ball, giving rise to the tertiary structure. This
gives us a 3-dimensional view of a protein. Tertiary structure is absolutely necessary for the
many biological activities of proteins.
Some proteins are an assembly of more than one polypeptide or subunits. The manner in
which these individual folded polypeptides or subunits are arranged with respect to each
other (e.g. linear string of spheres, spheres arranged one upon each other in the form of a
cube or plate etc.) is the architecture of a protein otherwise called the quaternary structure
of a protein (Fig. 9.4 d). Adult human haemoglobin consists of 4 subunits. Two of these are
identical to each other. Hence, two subunits of α type and two subunits of β type together
constitute the human haemoglobin (Hb).
In a polypeptide or a protein, amino acids are linked by a peptide bond which is formed
when the carboxyl (-COOH) group of one amino acid reacts with the amino (-NH2 ) group of
the next amino acid with the elimination of a water moiety (the process is called
dehydration). In a polysaccharide the individual monosaccharides are linked by a Glycosidic
bond. This bond is also formed by dehydration. This bond is formed between two carbon
atoms of two adjacent monosaccharides. In a nucleic acid a phosphate moiety links the 3’-
carbon of one sugar of one nucleotide to the 5’-carbon of the sugar of the succeeding
nucleotide. The bond between the phosphate and hydroxyl group of sugar is an ester bond.
As there is one such ester bond on either side, it is called phosphodiester bond. Nucleic
acids exhibit a wide variety of secondary structures. For example, one of the secondary
structures exhibited by DNA is the famous Watson – Crick Model. This model says that DNA
exists as a double helix. The two strands of polynucleotides are antiparallel i.e., run in the
opposite direction. The backbone is formed by the sugar-phosphate-sugar chain. The
nitrogen bases are projected more or less perpendicular to this backbone but face inside. A
and G of one strand compulsorily base pairs with T and C, respectively, on the other
strand.There are two hydrogen bonds between A and T and three hydrogen bonds between
G and C. Each strand appears like a helical staircase.
1) To form polypeptide molecules, number of amino acids joined together by
_______________ bond.
a) Covalent bond
b) Glycosidic bond
c) Peptide bond
d) Phosphodiester bond
2) Number of monosaccharides are joined together by _____________ to form
polysaccharide.
a) Phosphodiester bond
b) Glycosidic bond
c) Hydrogen bond
d) Ester bond
3) Define N-terminal amino acid and c-terminal amino acid.
4) Explain how amino acid chain formed in the formation of polypeptide molecule.
273
5) Name the bond present between nitrogen bases ( A and G / T and C ) of nucleic acid.
31 Draw illustrations to bring out the anatomical difference between 5

(a) Monocot root and dicot root
(b) Monocot stem and dicot stem
32 (a) List the location in the cell where the following reactions take place during the process 5
of photosynthesis.
(i) Synthesis of NADPH and ATP
(ii) Photolysis of water
(iii) CO2 fixation
(iv) Synthesis of sugar molecule
(b) Why photorespiration does not take place in C4 plants?
33 (a)Name the type of joint between the following: 5
(i) atlas/axis
(ii) carpal/metacarpal of thumb
(iii) between phalanges
(iv) femur/acetabulum
(v) between cranial bones
(vi) between pubic bones in the pelvic girdle
(b)Fill in the blank spaces:
(i) All mammals (except a few) have……. cervical vertebra.
(ii) The number of phalanges in each limb of human is…….
(iii) Thin filament of myofibril contains two ‘F’ actins and two other proteins
namely…….and…….
(iv) In a muscle fibre Ca++ is stored in …….
274
1 c 1
2 d 1
3 a 1
4 c 1
5 c 1
6 b 1
7 c 1
8 c 1
9 a 1
10 b 1
11 d 1
12 c 1
13 a 1
14 a 1
15 d 1
16 b 1
17 2
A distinct male gametophyte is always A distinct male gametophyte is

present. absent.
Antheridium is not present. Antheridium is present.
Male gametes may or may not be

Male gametes are flagellated.
flagellated.
Male gametes reach the female gamete Male gametes reach the female
through pollen tube. gamete by flowing in water.
18 2
19 1. Lymphatic System– It transports white blood cells to and from the lymph 2
nodes into the bones.
2. Pulmonary vein– It transfer oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.
3. Lymphocytes-They acts as a defence system of the body by defending against
the invading foreign substances.
275
20 Ethylene, the ripening hormone in plants helps in maturation of sugarcane crops by 2
increasing the storage of sucrose in plants.
21 Mitosis occurs in somatic cells of entities. The number of chromosomes is the same 2
in both parent and daughter cell and remains unchanged even at anaphase or
metaphors. The content of DNA, however, is doubled at the interphase or synthetic
phase. The division takes place at the anaphase but the number of chromosomes
remains unchanged.
22 Ammonia needs a large amount of water for its removal as its the most toxic. To 3
conserve water, terrestrials adapted to produce less toxic nitrogenous wastes like
uric acid and urea. In ureotelic animals, ammonia released as a result of metabolic
activities is converted into urea in their liver and released into the blood that is
filtered and excreted by the kidneys.
23 The Phaeophyceae group or the brown algae has mannitol as the reserve food 3
material.Chlamydomonas-Algae Cycas-Gymnosperm Selaginella-Pteridophyte
Sphagnum-Moss
24 1. Male Gametophytes: 3
A distinct male gametophyte is always

A distinct male gametophyte is absent.
present.
Antheridium is not present. Antheridium is present.
Male gametes may or may not be flagellated. Male gametes are flagellated.
Male gametes reach the female gamete Male gametes reach the female gamete by
through pollen tube. flowing in water.
Female Gametophytes:
A distinct gametophyte is always A distinct gametophyte may or may

present. not be present.
Female gametophyte does not leave the

It is independent of the parent plant.
parent plant.
Enclosed inside an ovule. Not enclosed inside the ovule.
276
25 3
Dicot Root Monocot Root
Secondary growth is present Secondary growth is absent
Cortex is very narrow Cortex is very wide
Older root has a covering of cork. Older root has a covering of exodermis
Xylem vessels are generally angular. Xylem vessels are oval or rounded.
Examples– Beans, Peanuts, Pea, etc. Examples– Banana, Palm, Maize, etc.
26 A plasmid is an autonomously replicating, extra-chromosomal, circular, 3
double-stranded DNA found in the cytoplasm of the bacterial cell. These
usually remain separate from the chromosome.
Role- Plasmids act as vectors to transfer important genes and in
recombination experiments. It also helps in bacterial conjugation. For eg.,
pBR322
27 a) Outer side of the thylakoid membrane 3
b) The inner side of the thylakoid membrane
c) Stroma of chloroplast
d) Chloroplast
e) Cytoplasm
28 The Juxta-Glomerular Apparatus (JGA) releases renin on activation by fall in the blood 3
flow in the glomerular. In blood, renin transforms angiotensinogen into angiotensin I
and hence into angiotensin II which is a vasoconstrictor that raises the blood
pressure in the glomerular and hence the Glomerular Filtration Rate(GFR). Also, the
angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone, which in turn
causes the reabsorption of water and Na+ from the distal parts of the tubule which
results in an increase in the GFR and blood pressure, this is termed as RAAS (Renin
Angiotensin Aldosterone System).
29 (1)b 4
(2) a
gametes.
(5) Fungi belongs to phylum ascomycetes, produces sac like structure called asci,
which are involved in production of ascospores. This the reason Ascomycetes are
commonly called as sac-fungi.
30 1) c 4
2) b
277
3) The first amino acid present in amino acid chain is also called as N-terminal amino
acid. The last amino acid is called the C-terminal amino acid.
4) When the carboxyl (-COOH) group of one amino acid reacts with the amino (-NH2)
group of the next amino acid, they form peptide bond between them. This way
formation of amino acid chain continuous which leads to the polypeptide.
5) The nitrogen bases A and G of one strand compulsorily base pairs with T and C,
respectively, there are two hydrogen bonds between A and T and three hydrogen
bonds between G and C.
31 .(a) Differences between monocot root and dicot root are illustrated in the following 5
figure and table.
(b) Differences between monocot and dicot stems are illustrated in the following
figure and table.
32 (i) Outer side of the thylakoid membrane 5

(ii) The inner side of the thylakoid membrane
(iii) Stroma of chloroplast
278
(iv) Chloroplast
Photorespiration is related to C3 cycle, where plants lose carbon dioxide fixation
because of the increase in the concentration ion of oxygen and modification in the
nature of the activity of RuBP carboxylase oxygenase. C4 plants have developed a
mechanism to avoid the loss of carbon dioxide. There is not a direct contact of RuBP
carboxylase oxygenase as C3 cycle functions in bundle sheath cells. The enzyme PEP
carboxylase in mesophyll cells carries out carbon dioxide fixation, wherein
oxaloacetate is formed which is converted to malic acid which is passed to bundle
sheath cells where carbon dioxide is utilized in the Calvin cycle that functions in
bundle sheath cells of C3 plants.
33 (i) Pivot joint 5
(ii) Saddle joint
(iii) Hinge joint
(iv) Ball and socket joint
(v) Fibrous joint
(vi) Cartilaginous joint
(i) 7
(ii) 14
(iii) tropomyosin, troponin
(iv) sarcoplasmic reticulum
279
SAMPLE PAPER-5

SECTION–A
1 A group of plants or animals with similar traits of any rank is 1
(a) Species (b) Order (c) Genus (d) Taxon
2 Diatomaceous earth is used in 1
(a) Polishing (b) Filteration of oils
(c) Filteration of syrups (d) All of these
3 Movement of water across the plasma membrane occurs by 1
(a) Passive transport (b) Osmosis (c) Active transport (d) All of these
4 Select the incorrect statement from the following: 1
(a) Cellulose does not contain complex helices.
(b) Cellulose does not give colour with I2.
(c) Cotton fibre, plant cell wall are made up of cellulose.
(d) Cellulose is heteropolysaccharide
5 Meiosis results in 1
(a) Production of gametes (b) Reduction in the number of chromosomes
(c) Introduction of variation (d) All the above
6 Cyclin protein is required for cell cycle. Which other molecule is essential for the 1
completion
of cell cycle?
(a) CCK (b) CKC (c) CDK (d) CKD
7 Enzymes that catalyse removal of groups from substrates by mechanisms other than 1
hydrolysis leaving double bonds is known as
(a) Oxidoreductase (b) Transferase (c) Hydrolase (d) Lyase
8 The final size, i.e., W1 depends principally on 1
(a) W0 (b) r (c) t (d) e
9 Pleura is a double membrane sac which envelops 1
(a) Kidneys (b) Brain (c) Lungs (d) Nasal passage
10 Intercostal muscles are found in 1
(a) Fingers (b) Thoracic ribs (c) Femur (d) Radius-ulna
11 Select the correct statement: 1
280
(a) A-band is made up of thick myosin filament.
(b) H-zone is present in the middle of A-band.
(c) Actin and myosin are polymerized protein with contractility.
(d) All the above
12 Following is the figure of actin (thin) filaments. Identify A, B and C 1
(a) A−Tropomyosin, B−Troponin, C−F actin

(b) A−Tropomyosin, B−Myosin, C−F Tropomyosin
(c) A−Troponin, B−Tropomyosin, C−Myosin
(d) A−Troponin, B−Tropomyosin, C−F actin
given
below:
(a) If both the assertion and the reason are true and the reason is a correct explanation
of the assertion.
(b) If both the assertion and reason are true but the reason is not a correct explanation
of the assertion.
13 Assertion: Cell walls of diatoms are indestructible. 1
Reason: Cell walls of diatoms embedded with silica.
14 Assertion: Golgi apparatus remain in close association with the endoplasmic reticulum. 1
Reason: Material to be packaged in form of vesicle from the ER fuse with the cis face of
the
Golgi apparatus and move towards maturing face.
15 Assertion: Ripened banana inhibit the ripening of stored unripe banana. 1
Reason: Ripened banana release ethylene which inhibit ripening process
16 Assertion: Blood of insects is colourless. 1
Reason: The blood of insect does not play any role in transport of oxygen.
17 Why are seed plants considered the most successful land plants? (any Two) 2
18 What is the difference between epipetalous and epiphyllous stamen? 2
19 What are the symptoms of Hypertension? 2
20 Why is Abscisic acid also known as a stress hormone? 2
21 Telophase is the reverse of prophase. Elucidate the statement. 2
22 What are the two intrinsic mechanisms that provide auto regulation of glomerular 3
filtrate? Explain any one of these
23 What do you mean by double fertilization and triple fusion? 3
24 (a) Mention the role of the radula in Molluscs. 3
(b) Provide a technical term for the following:
1. Blood filled cavity in arthropods
2. A stinging organ of jellyfish
3. Free-floating form of Cnidaria
4. Lateral appendages in aquatic annelids
281
25 Give the differences between Dicot stem and monocot stem. 3
26 Differentiate between Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum and Smooth Endoplasmic 3
Reticulum.
27 List out the differences in anatomy of leaf in C3 and C4 plants? 3
28 State the differences between the pectoral and pelvic girdle. 3
29 Case based question- (any four) 4
The fungi constitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms. They show a great
diversity in morphology and habitat. Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used to make
bread and beer. Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals; wheat rust-causing
Puccinia is an important example. Some are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium.
Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and plants. With the
exception of yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are filamentous. Their bodies consist of
long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae. The network of hyphae is known as
mycelium. Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm –
these are called coenocytic hyphae. Others have septae or cross walls in their hyphae.
The cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin and polysaccharides. Most fungi are
heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from dead substrates and hence are
called saprophytes. Those that depend on living plants and animals are called parasites.
They can also live as symbionts – in association with algae as lichens and with roots of
higher plants as mycorrhiza.
Reproduction in fungi can take place by vegetative means – fragmentation, fission and
budding. Asexual reproduction is by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or
zoospores, and sexual reproduction is by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores. The
various spores are produced in distinct structures called fruiting bodies. The sexual cycle
involves the following three steps:
• Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes called
plasmogamy.
• Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
• Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating types
come together and fuse. In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately
results in diploid cells (2n). However, in other fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes),
an intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell) occurs; such a condition is
called a dikaryon and the phase is called dikaryophase of fungus. Later, the parental
nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid. The fungi form fruiting bodies in which
reduction division occurs, leading to formation of haploid spores.
(1) ______________ Hyphae are without septa and filled with multinucleated cytoplasm.
(a) Septate
(b) Nucleated
(c) Coenocytic
(d) Both a and c
(a) Penicillium
(b) Yeast
282
(c) Mycorrhiza
(d) Both a and b
(3) What is saprophytic fungi?
30 The activity of an enzyme can be affected by a change in the conditions which can alter 4
the tertiary structure of the protein. These include temperature, pH, and change in
substrate concentration or binding of specific chemicals that regulate its activity.
Temperature and pH Enzymes generally function in a narrow range of temperature and
pH. Each enzyme shows its highest activity at a particular temperature and pH called the
optimum temperature and optimum pH. Activity declines both below and above the
optimum value. Low temperature preserves the enzyme in a temporarily inactive state
whereas high temperature destroys enzymatic activity because proteins are denatured
by heat.
Concentration of Substrate With the increase in substrate concentration, the velocity of
(Vmax) which is not exceeded by any further rise in concentration of the substrate. This
is because the enzyme molecules are fewer than the substrate molecules and after
saturation of these molecules, there are no free enzyme molecules to bind with the
additional substrate molecules.
The activity of an enzyme is also sensitive to the presence of specific chemicals that bind
to the enzyme. When the binding of the chemical shuts off enzyme activity, the process
is called inhibition and the chemical is called an inhibitor.
When the inhibitor closely resembles the substrate in its molecular structure and inhibits
enzyme action declines, e.g., inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase by malonate which
closely resembles the substrate succinate in structure. Such competitive inhibitors are
often used in the control of bacterial pathogens.
1) _______________ is a chemical compound or molecule which is responsible for
a) Catalyser
b) Inhibitor
c) Regulator
d) Controller
2) _______________ preserve the enzyme and keep them in temporarily inactive state.
a) Optimum pH
b) Low pH
d) Low temperature
283
3) Give reason – why most of the enzymes destroyed in high temperature condition?
4) Explain the relation between substrate concentration and enzymatic activity?
5) Explain competitive inhibition and inhibitor.
31 (a) Draw a neat diagram of digestive system of frog. 5
(b) Mention the function of the following:
(i) Ureters in frog(ii) Malpighian tubules
32 (a) Name the pigment that is responsible for its ability to initiate the process of 5
photosynthesis. The rate of photosynthesis is higher in the red and blue regions of the
spectrum of light, why?
(b) What are the important events and end products of light reaction?
33 (a) Fill in the gaps. 5
(i) Ascending limb of Henle’s loop is________to water whereas the descending limb
is________to it.
(ii) Reabsorption of water from distal parts of the tubules is facilitated by
hormone________
(iii) Dialysis fluid contains all the constituents as in plasma except________
(iv) A healthy adult human excretes (on an average)________gm of urea/day.
(b) Name the following.
(i) A chordate animal having flame cells as excretory structures.
(ii) Cortical portions projecting between the medullary pyramids in the human kidney.
284
1 A 1
2 d 1
3 b 1
4 c 1
5 d 1
6 c 1
7 d 1
8 a 1
9 c 1
10 b 1
11 d 1
12 d 1
13 a 1
14 a 1
15 d 1
16 c 1
17 Seed plant is considered as the most successful land plants because: 2
1. Fertilization is not water-dependent.

2. Seed enclosing the future embryo is well protected within the ovary.
3. The extensive root system for anchoring and absorption of water.
4. Well developed mechanical tissue
18 1) Flower stamens can be joined to other components of the flower, such as petals, or 2
to each other.
2) When stamens are attached to the petals, as in brinjal, they are called epipetalous
stamen.
3) When the stamens attached to the perianth, as in lily flowers, they are known as
epiphyllous stamen.
19 The common symptoms of hypertension are: 2
• Dizziness.
• Heart attack.
• Visual Changes.
• Shortness of Breath.
• Narrowing of blood vessels and the formation of plaques in the blood vessels.
20 Abscisic acid promotes plant tolerance to diverse stressors by stimulating the closing of 2
stomata in the epidermis. As a result, it's also known as the stress hormone. It
encourages seed dormancy and assures seed germination when conditions are
favorable. It aids desiccation resistance in seeds. It also aids in the induction of
dormancy in plants at the conclusion of the growing season and promotes leaf, fruit,
and flower abscission.
21 The condensation of chromosomal material initiates prophase. During the process of 2
chromatin condensation, the chromosomal material untangles. During the start of the
final stage of mitosis, i.e., the telophase, upon arrival at the respective poles, the
chromosomes de-condense and lose their individuality. When observed under a
285
microscope, the cells at the end of prophase do not show Golgi complexes, nucleolus,
endoplasmic reticulum, and the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope at the
telephone stage gathers around the cluster of the chromosomes. The Golgi complex,
ER, nucleolus reform.
22 Myogenic mechanism and Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) are two intrinsic 3
mechanisms that enable auto regulation in the kidney. JGA - A specific cellular
apparatus located in the kidney where DCT travels near Bowman's capsule between
afferent and efferent arterioles. Rennin is secreted by JGA cells, which regulates renal
flow and GFR and so modulates blood pressure.
23 In this process, one male gamete fertilizes the egg and forms a diploid zygote. The 3
other male gametes fuse with the two polar nuclei forming a triploid zygote that
develops into the endosperm. This is known as double fertilization. The three haploid
nuclei fuse to form endosperm. It is known as triple fusion.
24 The radula helps in scraping and scratching the food and creates depressions in the 3
rocks. Molluscs use rocks as their habitat.
1. Haemocoel
2. Nematocytes
3. Medusa
4. Parapodia
25 3
Dicot Stem Monocot Stem
Vascular bundles are arranged in rings. Vascular bundles are scattered.
Pith is present. Pith is absent.
Medullary rays are present. Medullary rays are absent.
The hypodermis is chlorenchymatous. The hypodermis is sclerenchymatous.
Undergo silica deposition. Do not undergo silica deposition.
26 3
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
Ribosomes are attached to their Ribosomes are not attached to their

surface. surface.
Formed of cisternae and a few

Formed of vesicles and tubules.
tubules.
It participates in the protein and Takes part in the synthesis of glycogen,

enzyme synthesis. lipids, and steroids.
286
May develop from the nuclear
May develop from RER.
envelope.
It is internal. It is peripheral.
It is connected to the nuclear

It is connected to the plasmalemma.
envelope.
Lacks detoxification enzymes. Contains detoxification enzymes.
Gives rise to lysosomes. Gives rise to sphaerosomes.
27 3
C3 plants. C4 plants.
In C3 plants, chloroplasts are In C4 plants, chloroplasts are present both in

present only in mesophyll cells. mesophyll and bundle sheath cells.
Only one type of chloroplasts is

Di-morphic types of chloroplasts are present.
present.
Intercellular spaces are larger. Intercellular spaces are smaller.
Kranz anatomy is absent in the Kranz anatomy is present in the leaves of C4

leaves of C3 plants. plants.
28 Both structures are known to provide support to the lower and upper parts of the body. 3
Following are the differences:
Pectoral Girdle Pelvic Girdle
It is called a shoulder girdle as it It is called the hip girdle as it occurs in the hip
occurs in the shoulder region. region.
One pelvic girdle is formed by two innominate

It is divided into two parts – One
bones where each bone has 3 parts – ilium,
scapula and one clavicle.
pubis, and ischium.
Not articulated with the vertebral

Articulated with the vertebral column.
column.
The innominate at its mid-lateral surface has a

Articulation of the axial skeleton deep cup-shaped acetabulum where the head
and upper limb is brought about of the femur connects the two parts of the
by the clavicle and scapula. pelvic girdle for the formation of the pubic
symphysis.
287
Associated bones are light and not Associated bones are hard and subjected to
subjected to much stress. much stress.
Functions – lifting, holding, etc. Functions – standing, running, jumping, etc.
29 (1) c 4
(2) b
(3) Saprophytic is the mode of obtaining food by absorption of dissolved organic
material which is produced by decaying of organic matters. Those fungi obtain their
food by this mode are termed as saprophytic fungi.
(4) Fungi shows a great diversity in morphology and habitat. Fungi are widespread.
They can be found in air, water, soil, on the body of other living animal, inside the body.
They can be found almost every, because of this fungi are referred as cosmopolitan
organism.
30 1) b 4
2) d
3) Enzymes are composed of one or several polypeptide chains. Almost all enzymes are
denatured by heat.
4) Concentration of Substrate With the increase in substrate concentration, the velocity
of the enzymatic reaction rises at first. The reaction ultimately reaches a maximum
velocity (Vmax) which is not exceeded by any further rise in concentration of the
substrate. This is because the enzyme molecules are fewer than the substrate
molecules and after saturation of these molecules, there are no free enzyme molecules
to bind with the additional substrate molecules.
5) When the inhibitor closely resembles the substrate in its molecular structure and
inhibits the activity of the enzyme, it is known as competitive inhibitor. Due to its close
structural similarity with the substrate, the inhibitor competes with the substrate for
the substrate binding site of the enzyme. Consequently, the substrate cannot bind and
as a result, the enzyme action declines. This phenomenon is called as competitive
inhibition.
31 5
288
Malpighian tubules: Malpighian tubules are excretory organs present in cockroach.
These are present at junction of mid gut and hindgut. These are fine, long, unbranched,
yellowish and blind tubules and are 100-150 in number. They help in the removal of
excretory products from haemolymph.
32 The thylakoid membranes contain the chlorophyll pigments which have the property of 5
excitability and emits e– in the excited stage, though it is replaced and transferred by
the e– produced from splitting of water molecules. Chlorophyll pigments absorb the
maximum energy possessed by the red and blue light, thereby getting excited and
initiating photosynthesis. Its wavelength lies between the PAR (Photosynthetic Active
Radiation). Hence the rate is higher in the red and blue regions.
The following are the events: Emission of a pair of electrons due to excitation of
chlorophyll molecules, using this energy to form ATP from ADP + Pi, the process is
referred to as photophosphorylation, a water molecule is split
• 2H2O→4H++4e−+O2↑
• NADP+2H+→NADPH2
End products are ATP and NADPH. The light reaction produces the reducing power i.e.,
the ATP and NADPH2 molecules which are utilized in the dark reaction. A by-product of
splitting water is O2.
33 (a) Ascending limb of Henle’s loop is impermeable to water whereas the descending 5
limb is permeable to it.
(b) Reabsorption of water from distal parts of the tubules is facilitated by
hormone ADH.
(c) Dialysis fluid contains all the constituents as in plasma except nitrogenous wastes.
(d) A healthy adult human excretes (on an average) 25 – 30 gm of urea/day.
(a) Cephalochordate – Amphioxus
(b) Columns of Bertini
289

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केंद्रीय विद्यालय संगठन जयपरु संभाग

KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN JAIPUR REGION

शैक्षिक सत्र / Session – 2022-23

SHRI. DIGGRAJ MEENA

PREPARED & VETTED BY SUBJECT TEACHERS

1. K. TEJPAL SINGH 2. MR.M.A. SHEIKH 3. MR. SANJAY TANWAR

4. MR. SUNIL KUMAR DADHICH 5. MR. VISHAL KUMAR TAK

MR. DILBAHADUR SINGH

Chapter-1: The Living World

Chapter-5: Morphology of Flowering Plants

MR. VISHAL KUMAR TAK Sample Papers

19 Chapter-20: Locomotion and Movement 212-222

Unit Title Marks

I Diversity of Living Organisms 15

II Structural Organization in Plants and Animals 10

III Cell: Structure and Function 15

Chapter-19: Excretory Products and their Elimination

on earth from the genetic level to the ecosystems.

International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN).

first given by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753.

must be underlined separately.

specific epithet. This is not italicised.

Short Answer Type

What are the three fields of Systematics?

“Consciousness is a defining property of living organisms.” Explain.

touch. Photoperiodic affects flowering in plants. Thus, unicellular microscopic to

multicellular huge organisms show the property of consciousness.

Reproduction can’t be an all-inclusive defining characteristic of living organisms? Illustrate

bees are some examples of such organisms.

But the non-living object is strictly unable to reproduce.

replicate when enter inside living organisms.

Answer: The brinjal and potato belong to different species because-

• Brinjal and potato are unable to interbreed.

• Their morphological features are not the same.

What are the two components of scientific name in binomial nomenclature?

method for giving scientific names to organisms.

hence it is called the Binomial nomenclature.

c) For example, the scientific name of mango is written as Mangifera indica. In

this Mangifera is the genus and indica is species, or specific epithet.

Explain two defining characteristics of living organisms.

through cell-division. Non-livings increase their size by the accumulation of matter.

through replication of genetic matter. It is absent in non-livings.

Explain the utility of systematics for classification.

Write the universal rules of nomenclature.

CASE BASED QUESTIONS

Directions: In the following questions, a statement of assertion is followed by

S.NO QUESTION MARKS NCERT PAGE NO

• Planktons diatoms and golden algae (desmids)

• Marine photosynthetic, yellow, green, blue or red pigments.

• Fresh water – stagnant water.

• Saprophytic – body moves on decaying twigs and leaves

• Multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic, cosmopolitan, grow in warm and humid

ascospore and basidiospores.

(a) A–Gelidium, B–Vegetative cell, C–Heterocyst

(a) A-RNA, B-Capsid, C-Tobacco mosaic virus

(a) A–Head, B–Collar, C–Sheath, D–Tail fibres

Directions: In the following questions, a statement of assertion is followed by

SELF EVALUATION TEST

Sexual spore E Ascospore F