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Earth Materials and Processes

In the earlier module, we learned about the physical structure of the

earth. In this module, we will examine the processes that the various

components of the earth undergo. The materials that comprise the

earth are inherent to the earth’s structure and as elements that facilitate

these processes. Geology, the study of the landscape, includes

variables such as rocks and minerals. Rocks are being formed all

around us, all the time. However, geological timescales are very

different from the timescales of the earth, and can span thousands of

years.

Rocks and Minerals

Rocks are formed from distinct grains that come together. These

distinct grains are called mineral grains, and most rocks are commonly

aggregates of these grains. Igneous rocks form by crystallization and

are usually composed of several kinds of minerals. Sedimentary rocks,

on the other hand, are composed usually of one kind of mineral. This

reflects processes in the rock cycle that favor the mineral’s inclusion.

Thus, the assembly of minerals in rock is not at all random, but the

result of the original rock-forming processes.

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Minerals are defined as “a naturally occurring chemical element or

compound, possessing a definite crystalline structure based on an

ordered internal arrangement of constituent atoms, and with a chemical

composition that may be expressed in terms of a unique chemical

formula.”

More than 2000 types of minerals are now known, and new ones are

being discovered on a daily basis. These minerals are classified

according to chemical composition and atomic structure. However, the

majority of rocks are formed from one or more of a small group of

minerals, just comprising over a dozen.

Silicate minerals has a structure based on the silicate unit, which can

be represented as part of a tetrahedral building block. Six major groups

of silicate minerals have been identified, based on the way that the

silicate units are joined together. Minerals make up rocks, and silicates

crystallize in order to form rocks. When tabulating the composition of

minerals and rocks, it is common to denote the elements as oxides,

although these elements should not be taken to mean as oxides in the

chemical sense.

Each rock is made up of one or more silicate minerals. Each rock, in

addition to this, is made up of a distinctive mineral composition. For

instance, peridotites contain olivine and pyroxene. In contrast to this,

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olivine is never found in granites. The main factor that determines

whether a mineral is present after the cooling process is the

crystallization temperature. Each mineral is characterized by a

different crystallization temperature. It is now prudent to discuss the

different types of rocks that are found on the earth.

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are the starting points in the rock cycle. That is, the

materials that make up the other two types of rocks, the sedimentary

and metamorphic rocks, are derived from a source that is igneous.

Igneous rocks are found on the earth’s mantle. It can be said that 70%

of the earth’s mass and 80% of the earth’s volume consists of mantle

rocks. Igneous rocks are derived from the convection in the earth’s

mantle, and the source of heat energy for this convection is found in

the radioactive isotopes of potassium, uranium, and thorium. The types

of rocks that contribute to the amount of energy in terms of heat

energy per unit mass are granites. Peridotites do not contribute much

heat. Therefore, the former makes up much of the crustal rocks. The

internal heat of the earth may have come from the radioactive decay of

potassium.

One obvious consequence of the heat in the earth’s interior is the

presence of volcanoes on the earth’s surface. Volcanic rocks are

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products of volcanoes and they have three important characteristics: 1)

they crystallize in the surface of the earth; 2) they are commonly fine-

grained; and 3) they rest on top of older rocks rather than cut across

them. Volcanic rocks are an example of igneous rocks, which are

formed from an exothermic process. These rocks start out in the liquid

state and then become solid.

Sedimentary Rocks

While igneous rocks are created from the cooling of magma,

sedimentary rocks are classified as secondary rocks because they come

from igneous rocks. They are also secondary because they come from

the aggregation of pebbles and sand that have been compacted over

time to form rocks. In sedimentary rock, there are three types of

grains: coarse, medium, and fine. These grains are classified

depending on the size of the grains.

Sedimentary rocks are also classified into three types: clastic,

chemical, and organic (or biogenic). Clastic rocks are basic

sedimentary rocks and they have been created from “clasts” which are

little pieces of rocks that have been compacted and cemented to

become larger pieces. On the other hand, chemical rocks form when

water evaporates. In other words, these rocks were created from

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chemical precipitation. Lastly, organic rocks are rocks that contain

shell fragments or fossils.

Examples of sedimentary rocks are: sandstone, shale, limestone, and

conglomerate.

In response to environmental differences, the silicate minerals in

igneous rocks undergo changes. These changes lead to their total or

partial breakdown. The process of breaking down is called weathering,

and it is this process that eventually results in the formation of

sedimentary rocks. This is one part of the rock cycle. There are two

types of weathering: physical and chemical. Physical weathering is

also called mechanical disaggregation and chemical weathering is also

known as chemical decomposition. While physical weathering

produces sedimentary rocks like sand, chemical weathering produces

residual minerals. In addition to this, sediments may be transported by

wind, ice, and water.

Metamorphic Rocks

When rocks are subjected to mechanical forces as well as to extreme

physical conditions, such as temperature, they become metamorphic

rocks. This group of rocks include all other types of rocks, namely,

igneous and sedimentary. Metamorphism occurs when the rocks are in

the solid state. The transition between metamorphic rocks and igneous

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rocks are marked by the melting point of the rock. Below this melting

temperature, the rock will become metamorphic.

The mechanical deformation of rocks concerns tectonic processes. The

word tectonic means the mechanical processes by which rocks are

build up into complexities. There are two types of metamorphism:

contact metamorphism and regional metamorphism. The latter applies

to large sections of rock while the former applies to small sections of

contact.

Examples of metamorphic rocks are: slate, diamonds

Exogenic and Endogenic Processes

Rocks that have broken or are weak undergo exogenic processes-

erosion, transportation, and deposition. A fragment of rock broken

(weathered) from a larger mass will be removed from that mass

(eroded), moved (transported), and set down (deposited) in a new

location. The weathering of rocks usually occurs with the aid of

geomorphic agents, such as ice, wind, and snow. Sometimes, however,

the only factor that causes weathering is gravity itself. For instance,

rocks may slide down a slope due to gravity, and this process is known

as mass wasting. The rate of exogenic processes depend on factors

such as the resistance of rocks to erosion and weathering and the

amount of relief and climate.

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On the other hand, the endogenic processes also occur, which uses

heat from within the earth. Endogenic processes are also called

hypogene processes. In other words, when a process originates from

within the earth’s crust, it is an endogenous process. These processes

are governed by the forces within the earth and are not very much

affected by external sources. These processes also cause phenomena

such as earthquakes, volcanic activity, metamorphism, and the

formation of ocean troughs and continents. These processes are mostly

caused by the thermal energy of the crust and the mantle. The thermal

energy in the mantle and the crust is derived from the decay of

radioactive material and the gravitational differentiation in the mantle.

Earthquakes are a form of energy of wave motion that is transmitted

through the surface layers of the earth. It ranges from a faint tremor to

a wild motion. Earthquakes are due mostly to the dislocation of rocks

underneath the surface.

Tectonic movements are movements of the tectonic plates. They may

be folded, thrust over one another, or broken up. Tectonic movements

give rise to mountains, oceans, ridges, troughs, and other land forms.

When the process results in building up a surface, it is termed as

distrophism.

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Volcanism, on the other hand, is the process by which matter is

transported to the surface of the earth and then erupted. Volcanism is

the process wherein the magmatic materials are effused towards the

surface of the earth through volcanic structures. When the magma does

not reach the surface, they are called intrusives or plutons.

Deformation of the Crust

Plate tectonics is concerned with the movement of the continents.

Proposed by Wegener, continental drift is the theory that continents

are moving. Continents are moving due to the movement of tectonic

plates on the earth’s surface, or across the ocean bed.

The evidence supporting continental drift is now extensive. Along the

shores of different continents, similar plant and animal fossils have

been found, suggesting that these continents were once joined

together. One example is the fossil of the Mesosaurus, which was

found in both Brazil and Africa. Another form of evidence is that of

paleomagnetism, which is the process by which the earth’s magnetic

fields move. Based on basaltic rocks, scientists at the time did not

know how to account for paleomagnetism. The magnetic field

orientation of rocks of the same age did not point to the same pole.

The common magnetic north pole could only be established if the

continents were once in different positions than they are today. Using

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rocks with different ages, they reconstructed the location of the

continents during the past periods in geologic history.

The deformation of the earth’s crust is the result of forces that are

strong enough to move ocean sediments to an elevation that is many

thousands of meters above sea level. The deformation of rock involves

changes in the volume and/or shape of these substances. Changes in

volume and shape occur when strain and stress causes rocks to fold,

buckle, or fracture. A fold is a bend in the rock that is the response to

compressive forces. On the other hand, a fault forms when the internal

stresses in the rock cause fractures. The fault can be defined as

displacement of a rock that was once connected along a fault plane.

History of the Earth

The magnetic field polarity of the earth changes. As a result, the

magnetic field of the earth shows normal and reversed polarity. The

normal polarity is from the south pole to the north pole, while reverse

polarity is from the north pole to the south pole. The polarity changes

are key indicators of seafloor spreading. Seafloor spreading thus

occurs in the ranges of the ocean where volcanic activity gradually

moves away from the ridge. This phenomenon helps explain the

continental drift in the the plate tectonics theory. The divergence of the

ocean plates causes tensional stress, which in turn causes fractures to

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occur in the lithosphere. Then, basaltic magma rises up from these

fractures, and then this cools on the floor of the ocean and causes the

formation of new seafloor. New rocks will be found nearer the

spreading zone, while older rocks will be found farther away.

The oldest rocks in the earth include both the sediments, which are

water-lain, and the ancient oceanic crust. Thus, oceans have been

forming ever since the beginning of the geologic period. From the

present oceans, no oceanic crust is known to be older than 180 Ma.

The evolution of the ocean basin starts from a rift, which then reaches

a maximum size. It then shrinks and then closes completely.

Stages of Ocean Basin Evolution

1. Embryonic

2. Young

3. Mature

4. Declining

5. Terminal

6. Relict scar

Formation of Stratified Rocks and the Geologic Time Scale

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The stratification of sedimentary and igneous rocks occur on the

Earth’s surface. The layers may be from several millimeters to several

meters in thickness. These layers also vary much in shape.

Stratification planes are the names given to the separation between

individual layers of rocks. The stratification of rocks may occur due to

the changes in composition or texture of the rocks during deposition,

or may also result from changes in deposition. Thus, a certain strata of

rocks may appear to be made of both fine and coarse particles. In the

layers that have been deformed, it is possible to make inferences about

the geologic events that permitted these events.

Thus, the history of the earth has been recorded in stratified rocks. The

geologic time scale is the temporal framework that is composed of the

arrangement of stratified rocks. In order to find out the age of the

rocks, and thus the geologic time scale, geologists rely on two

methods: relative and absolute dating. The latter establishes how many

years ago a certain event took place. The most important aspect of

absolute dating is based on the decay of radioactive elements in the

rocks. On the other hand, relative dating is able to place the events in

their proper order, but cannot ascertain the exact number of years ago

when the event took place.

In order to date the rocks, marker fossils are used. Marker fossils, or

index fossils, are able to indicate the types of organisms that existed in

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a certain time period. They serve as guides to the age of the rocks in

which they are preserved. Since the geologic time scale is an important

consideration when dating the earth, it is also important for

understanding the history of the earth. Organisms that only existed for

a certain period and found in rocks can determine the history of the

evolution of organisms on earth. Moreover, the earth’s history in terms

of animal and plant life can be deduced from the history found within

rocks by showing the time period in which they occurred.

Write a short reflection paper on the following question: How do you

think people 500 years from now would find out how we are living

today?

Glossary

Basaltic rock: fine-grained, dark-colored igneous rock

Basaltic magma: molten rocks that are rich in magnesium and iron,

and lack silica

Exogenic: coming from outside a system

Endogenic: coming from inside a system

References

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Bryson, Bill. (2004). A Short History of Nearly Everything. New York:

Broadway Books.

Tarbuck, E.J. & Lutgens, F.K. (2002). Earth: An Introduction to

Physical Geology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

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