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Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and

Adaptation

This module is concerned with the natural phenomena that you

observe around you. Storms, earthquakes, landslides, and maybe even

volcanic eruptions, are part of this. The earth is a complex system and

it is dynamic. There are movements on the earth’s surface that cause

these hazards to occur. These hazards are dangerous for human life, as

well as structures on the surface of the earth. In this module, we will

learn about the various hazards that occur as a result of forces on the

earth’s surface.

Geologic Processes and Hazards

As was mentioned, the earth is a dynamic planet. The very forces that

created the earth still act at or beneath its surface. The movements of

plates on the earth’s surface, coupled with local concentrations of heat,

provide a continuing source of hazards for the people and the

structures that they build. Even with the present state of technology

today, geologic hazards often cannot be predicted or prevented with

precision. The exeception to this are landslides, which are preventable.

Areas prone to such hazards can be identified through earthquake fault

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lines, coastal areas susceptible to tsunamis, and areas near active

volcanoes.

Estimates of whether a certain hazard will occur are probabilistic,

because it is based on both the magnitude of the event as well as its

occurrence in time and space. Other measures, such as duration, speed

of onset, geographical dispersion, and frequency can be identified with

even less precision. Nevertheless, appropriate measures for mitigating

these hazards can be taken.

Earthquakes and Landslides

Earthquakes are caused by strain energy underneath a fault line within

the earth’s crust. When this strain energy is released, the result is an

earthquake. There are three effects of earthquakes: ground shaking,

surface faulting, and earthquake-induced ground failure, which is

composed of landslides and liquefaction.

Ground shaking, or ground motion, is the primary cause of the partial

or total collapse of structures on the earth’s surface. It is the vibration

of the ground caused by seismic waves. Four types of seismic waves

are propagated on the earth’s surface during an earthquake, each with

different effects on structures. The sound wave, or P wave, is the first

wave to reach structures, and it causes buildings to vibrate. The second

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wave is the S wave, which causes the earth to move at right angles

towards the direction of the wave. It also causes structures to move

from side to side. Two low frequency waves also cause minor

vibrations. Buildings must be constructed to withstand these vibrations

in order to prevent them from being destroyed.

Surface faulting, on the other hand, is the tearing or offset of the

ground surface caused by the differential movement that occurs along

a fault line. The effect of surface faulting is generally caused by

earthquakes that register as 5.5 or more on the Richter Scale. The

displacement ranges from a few millimeters to several meters. The

damage caused by surface faulting increases with increasing

displacement. Buildings are susceptible to surface faulting, in addition

to roads, bridges, railroads, tunnels, and pipelines. The most effective

way to prevent damage from surface faulting is to restrain from

construction along fault lines.

Earthquake-induced ground failure occurs in a variety of forms.

Earthquake-induced landslides occur through a broad range of

mechanisms. They occur in land that is sloped steeply, and land that is

flat. The principal criteria for classifying landslides are the types of

materials and the types of movement. The types of landslides that

occur can be in the form of slides, falls, flows, spreads, or a

combination of these. On the other hand, liquefaction due to ground

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failure can be classified into two types: rapid earth flow and earth

lateral spreads. Rapid earth flows are the most dangerous types of

liquefaction. During this phenomenon, large masses of soil can move

from a few meters to a few kilometers. Earth lateral spreads are the

movement of surface blocks brough about by the liquefaction of

subsurface layers. Liquefaction can be mitigated through appropriate

engineering design and ground-stabilization techniques.

Human activities that trigger landslides include deforestation and

mining. The lack of trees allows water to flow freely down from the

mountains in cases of rains and storms. Water carries with it soil,

which can engulf homes and other structures. The best way to lessen

the chances of a landslide in the community is to prevent the

deforestation of forests.

Coping with Earthquakes

There are practical ways of coping with hazards brought about by

earthquakes. One of these is to build structures with construction

standards that are compatible with the degree of ground shaking. The

second is toe adopt ordinances that require investigating seismic sites

and geologic sites for hazards. Easements can also be established that

are set apart from active fault lines. Whenever an earthquake occurs, it

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is pertinent to stay away from electric lines, tall buildings, and

structues that may collapse. Trees should also be avoided.

Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanic eruptions are the spewing forth of lava from active

volcanoes. They also consist of tephra falls, ballistic projectiles, lahars,

lava flows, and pyroclastic phenomena. Tephra falls include rocks and

blobs of lava that are ejected from within a volcano into the

atmosphere. These also form deposits as the debris falls back onto the

surface of the earth. Tephra falls can cause damage to structures and

property due to the falling fragments. These fragments cause a layer

which covers the ground, and this produces a fine film of fine-grained

particles in the air. The accumulation of tephra causes buildings to

collapse due to their weight. They can also kill vegetation.

Pyroclastic phenomena, on the other hand, are masses of hot, dry

pyroclastic material built into masses. They are also hot gases that

move quickly along the ground surface.

Lahars and floods are a flowing slurry of volcanic debris and water

that comes from within a volcano. The eruption of a volcano that is

covered in snow can melt enough snow that it will cause a lahar. Due

to their high density and velocity, lahars can destroy structures in their

path. These include roads, bridges, crops, and even whole towns. This

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can then result to flooding when the water overflows from damaged

dams and because of their capacity to carry water.

Volcanic eruptions can be mapped. These zones, which are typically

located within a certain radius of a volcano, will show areas which are

susceptible to damage due to a volcanic eruption. Called zonation

maps, these maps can show the anticipated scales of future damage.

The mitigation of volcanic hazards primary involves hazard

assessment and land-use planning. There are other mitigation

practices, such as establishing monitoring and warning systems,

protective measures, evacuation measures, relief and rehabilitation

programs, and insurance programs.

Hydrometeorological Phenomena and Hazards

Floods

One of the most common hydrometeorological hazards is flooding.

They are common and very costly for the community. Conditions that

may cause flooding include rains that last for several days and water

that seeps into the ground. Flash floods, on the other hand, occur due

to the sudden overflowing of rivers along a stream or a low-lying area.

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There are several types of floods: flash floods, river floods, coastal

floods, urban floods, ice jams, and glacial lake outbursts flood. The

characteristics of floods vary. First, the depth of water brought about

the flood will have different effects on buildings and vegetation.

Secondly, the duration of floods will determine the damage to

structures. The velocity of the flood may create erosive forces,

especially if the velocity is high. Hydrodynamic pressures caused by

the velocity of the water, and these destroy foundations of construction

or agricultural activities. The frequency of occurrence is measured

over a period of time. Sesonality, on the other hand, is when the floods

are most likely to strike, and can have devastating effects on crops and

structures.

Flood preparedness and mitigation have been around for centuries. The

first way to mitigate the effects of floods is to properly regulate and

enforce rules related to developmental activities. These activities are

primarily located near flood plains of rivers. Encroachments to water

flows in rivers are also causes of floods, and should be regulated as

well. Effective steps are needed to regulated unplanned growth in the

flood plains.

Capacity development is composed of flood education. These

activities target groups for development. They also include developing

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the capacity of individuals, such as professional training, research, and

development with respect to the management of flood.

Flood response is an effective measue to preven the large loss of lives

associated with rising water levels. There should be evacuation

measures, as well as warning signs that will mitigate floods. There are

also structural measures, such as the construction of embankments that

are designed to minimize the effects of floods. Dams, reservoirs, and

other mechanisms for storage of water are also effective means to

contain floods. De-silting and dredging of rivers is another approach to

minimize the effects of flooding.

Cyclones

The tropical cyclone is another phenomenon that occurs within the

earth’s atmosphere. Cyclones are termed as such when their winds

equal or exceed “gale force,” which is a minimum of 62kmph. These

are intense areas of the earth’s atmosphere that coincide with system

and extreme weather events. A cyclone is characterized by a center

that is large and of low pressure. It also has numerous thunderstorms

that produce flooding rain and strong winds. When moist air rises,

cyclones feed on the air, which results in the condensation of water

vapor in the air moist air. The term “tropical” refers to the geographic

origin of these systems, since they form almost exclusively in certain

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parts of the globe. The term “cyclone” on the other hand, refers to their

counter-clockwise movement from the Northern Hemisphere, and the

clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere. Depending on its

strength, a cyclone may be termed as a hurricane, tropical storm,

tropical depression, cyclonic storm, or simply cyclone.

Cyclones, aside from producing heavy rains and winds, can also

produce high waves and storm surges which are damaging. These

phenomena develop over large bodies of water, subsequently losing

their strength as they move over land. Thus, coastal regions receive

much of the damage from cyclones, while regions inland are safe from

their effects. Although they have devastating effects on people and

structures, cyclones are also helpful in maintaining the earth’s

troposphere, maintaining a relatively stable and warm temperature

worldwide.

Cyclones are known to cause severe damage due to strong winds.

These winds damage installations, buildings, houses, and

communication systems. This results in the loss of property and life.

On the other hand, torrential flooding and inland flooding, also cause

major damages. Torrential rains are those that fall more than

30cm/hour. Rain is a serious hazard that is caused by cyclones, as

people lose shelter due to it. A storm surge is an abnormal rise of sea

water near coastal areas and is caused by a severe cyclone.

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In order to avoid damages due to cyclones, individuals must listen to

weather reports regularly. Safe shelters in an area must be identified.

These are shelters where people can evacuate to in cases of extreme

destruction. Remaining indoors while the cyclone is active is another

safety measure. Emergency kits must also be acquired, which contain

first aid for wounds, and enough supplies to last until the cyclone is

over.

Tornadoes

Tornadoes are rotary storms that appear as a whirling and advancing

funnel of wind extending downward from a cloud. Tornadoes can

occur in any part of the world. They are, however, uncommon in the

Arctic region, since no cumulo-nimbus clouds are formed there. They

are also not likely to occur in the equatorial zone because the cumulo-

nimbus clouds in these areas do not have all the characteristics that are

needed to form tornadoes. The region that is most frequently hit by

tornadoes is the Midwestern United States, from Texas to Iowa. These

areas are sometimes termed as “Tornado Alley.”

Tornadoes are also very small as compared to cyclones. They are

rarely more than a few hundred meters in diameter. However, they

sometimes reach 3km in diameter. The lifespan of a tornado is usually

not more than a few hours. The velocity of the wind during a tornado

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can be very high, and the strongest wind ever recorded is observed in

Texas in 1958, where the velocity reached 125m/s.

Additionally, the high destructive force of a tornado is conditioned by

a sharp difference in pressure between the center of the vortex and the

circumference of the tornado. While a tornado is passing, the air

pressure can suddenly drop by 100-200 hPa in a span of a few minutes.

This may cause buildings to explode because of the difference in air

pressure inside the enclosed space and outside it. Hail, or the ice, is

another consequence produced by a tornado. The total impact of a

tornado surpasses all other natural disasters in terms of the destruction

caused.

Due to the unpredictable nature of tornadoes, only a general forecast

can be created. Tornado warnings on a particular day when a tornado

is imminent are usually very inaccurate. Safety measures during

tornadoes include creating an emergency supply kit, with food, water,

and first aid materials. Taking shelter indoors should be done when a

tornado is approaching. Avoid windows, and protection should be

sought by getting underneath furniture that is large and solid. Mobile

homes and automobiles should also be avoided. Those that are caught

outside should lie flat on the the ground and wait for the tornado to

pass.

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Marine and Coastal Processes and Their Effects

Coastal areas, which are boundaries between water and land, are

characterized both by the dynamic power of the sea and the wind, and

by the geologic nature of land, which is fragile and often unstable. As

a result of this dual nature, coastal areas are constantly changing as

they are struggling to maintain an equilibrium between many naturally

opposing forces. The risks of living in coastal areas are primarly for

those who are living near an earthquake fault, river flood plane, or near

a volcano. Since coastal areas are attractive places to live in, the

natural equilibrium of these areas are further disturbed, which has led

to a coastal crisis.

Coastal erosion affects about 90% of the world’s coasts and occurs at

varying rates. Coastal erosion gives rise to increased storm activity and

rising sea levels. There are five main processes by which coastal

erosion occurs: corrasion, abrasion, hydraulic action, attrition, and

corrosion/solution. Corrasion is when the waves acquire materials

from the beach and then hurl them at the base of a cliff. On the other

hand, abrasion occurs when waves, which contain sand and other

fragments erode the headland or the shoreline. This is also known as

the “sandpaper effect.” Hydraulic action is when the waves hit the base

of a cliff, subsequently compressing them into cracks. Attrition is

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when the waves cause rocks and pebbles to collide with each other and

break up. Corrosion is when the cliff eroes as a result of the acids in

the sea.

Submersion, on the other hand, is the portion of coastal erosion which

is sustainable. This occurs when rocks and other sediments move from

the beach’s visible portion to the nearshore region which is

submerged. The reverse of this process, which is the recovery process,

is known as accretion.

Saltwater intrusion is the movement of salt water, or saline water, into

freshwater aquifiers. This can lead to the contamination of drinking

water and other consequences. Saltwater intrusion can occur naturally,

to some degree, in the majority of coastal aquifiers. This is due to the

hydraulic connection between seawater and groundwater. Human

activities, such as groundwater pumping from freshwater wells in

coastal areas, can increase the saltware intrusion.

Tides

The moon and the sun have gravitational pulls on the ocean, which

created oscillations called tides. As the earth spins, the position of the

moon overhead sweeps across all the latitudes. The gravity from the

moon, when it is overhead, produces a high tide. This may also happen

on the opposite side of the earth at the same time as water is “pulled

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away” from the sides of the planet, and this is where low tides occur.

In every 24-hour period, there are two low tides and two high tides.

When the sun and moon are lined up together, and the moon is closest

to the earth, the high tides are maximum (spring tides). When the

moon and the sun are at 90 degrees from each other with regards to the

position of the earth, then the low tides are at their minimum (neap

tides).

Waves

Waves are considered to be disturbances in the water caused by the

water energy that is passing through the water. In open ocean basins,

the source of this energy is wind. The energy from the wind is

transferred to the water as wind blows across it. The waves’

characteristics are geometrically described. These are: 1) the amplitude

or the wave height; 2) the wave length; and 3) the wave period. The

wave height is the vertical distance between the top of the wave and its

trough. The wave length refers to the horizontal distance between

successive troughs or crests of the wave. The wave period refers to the

number of waves that occur in a given period of time.

Overall, these characteristics are determined by the duration of the

time that the wind is blowing, the wind speed, and the “fetch,” or the

distance across the open sea that the wind has travelled. The wave’s

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height and its steepness vary according the amount of energy that the

wind transfers to it.

Sea-Level Changes

Sea-level changes typically occur as a result of increases in water

temperature, which increases its volume. The effect of sea-level

changes can be local or global. They are local when the water mass is

relatively contained, and they are global if a large portion of the

ocean’s water mass is impacted by warming. Conversely, as the

temperature of the seas go down, this results in reductions of sea water

volume, giving rise to lower sea levels. Mathematicians and

geoscientists have tried to theorize models that cause sea level

changes, but so far no one theory is able to explain the whole

phenomenon. However, what is certain is that a rise in temperature

causes the sea level to rise owing to changes in the volume of the sea

water. The effect of a small rise in temeperature can extrapolate to

changes in sea levels over the entire globe. This extrapolation, when

considered over time, can produce large increases in sea levels. As

such, scientists believe that the recent rise in sea level is caused by

global warming.

Crustal Movements

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The real cause of crustal activity can be ascertained from the

movement of the crust and the crustal structure. However, there are

very few studies that refer to the relationship between crustal

movement and crustal structure. Real-time observations of the crustal

movement have been generated by observations by geologists. The

evidence for crustal movement, which is the most obvious, are

earthquakes. During an earthquake, the movement of the crust occurs

along the faults. Volcanic eruptions also involve movements of the

crust, as do displaced structures. Bench marks are metal plaques set in

the soil that give the exact locations of the elevation points. These

marks are used as reference points in geological surveys and

measurements of elevations of bench marks reveal that large areas of

land are moving upward or downward.

The causes of crustal movement include the action of unbalanced

forces acting on the earth’s surface. These forces include gravity, the

expansion and contraction of rocks, the forces produced by the rotation

of the earth, and by the density currents found in the mantle of the

earth. These many forces are called stress. On the other hand, tension

pulls the rock into two different directions, causing it to break apart or

stretching it. Compression consists of forces acting towards each other,

which pushes or squeezes rocks together. Finally, shear stresses may

act away or toward each other, causing the rock to twist and tear.

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References

Devoy, R.J.N. (2012). Sea Surface Studies: A Global View. Springer

Science & Business Media.

Kotlyakov, V.M. (2010). Natural Disasters-Volume 1. EOLSS

Publishers.

OAS.org. (n.d.). Chapter 11-Geologic Hazards. Retrieved from

http://www.oas.org/dsd/publications/unit/oea66e/ch11.htm

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