CLARENDON COLLEGE, INC.

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HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT

Subject EARTH SCIENCE
Grade level – Section/Class/Strand 11 – GREGORIO Y. ZARA/STEM
11 – FE DEL MUNDO/STEM
Teacher GILBERT E. GONZALES
Duration WEEK 18: JANUARY 3 – 7, 2022
Chapter No. & Title CHAPTER 1: ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
Reference Materials EARTH SCIENCE, REFRAN.TOLENTINO, VIBAL INC.
Lecture Materials Format PRINTED, AND PDF

Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
 describe the historical development of theories that explain the origin of the Universe[S11/12ES-Ia-1]
 compare the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the Solar System[S11/12ES-Ia-2]
 describe the characteristics of Earth that are necessary to support life[S11/12ES-Ia-b-3]
 explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose boundaries matter and energy flow[S11/12ES-
Ib-4]
ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
THE UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Have you looked at how many stars are out there in the sky? Or perhaps, ever wondered how these stars were
made? In this chapter, you will understand how some theories explain the origin of the universe and everything else in
it (including us).
We have always been fascinated with how things are made; like how automobiles are manufactured in shops or
how textiles are made from thread But far more than explaining the processes and the materials involved in each
question that we have, we would eventually end up to this question: "What brought about all matter that we have
now?" Theories are what we call tried-and-tested hypotheses. Although, not as concrete and standalone as laws,
theories have provided the scientific world with a good start with explaining natural phenomena. And with regards to
the formation of the universe, science already has an existing theory for that.
The Big Bang Theory
According to the theory, the universe formed approximately 13.7 billion years ago from a cataclysmic
expansion which hurled all matter and created space. This cosmic expansion, however, is different from a typical
explosion (or "Bang") because both matter and space were created simultaneously. As a consequence of this event, the
first subatomic particles (e.g. protons, neutrons, and electrons) were formed. Cooling of these debris allowed the
formation of simplest atoms (the first elements, Hydrogen and Helium) which dominate the universe we have now.
 Although the Big Bang Theory now presents the most popular rationale of thinking how the universe came to
be, several other theories came before it which were also deemed as scientific discoveries. One particular theory is the
steady-state universe which explains that there is a continuous creation of matter which is observable as the expansion
of the universe. The universe that would be created from this theory would mean that infinity is possible and that there
is no beginning or ending of the universe. This has already been disproven in the mid-1960s.
The Eternal Inflation of the Universe simply states that after the Big Bang, the formation of the universe never
stopped and is continuously making other different universes (multiverses) which could be different or similar to our
own in terms of physical laws.
The Model of an Oscillating Universe explain an alternative solution to the question of beginnings and endings
for our universe. With the Big bang theory explaining the origin of matter, space and time from a singularity, the model
of an oscillating universe states that a similar contraction and return to that singularity should be possible (called the
Big Crunch).

The Solar Nebula Hypothesis: The Birth of A Star

The formation of the universe (the Big Bang theory) explains the origin of the first elements that appeared
which comprises majority of the matter that we know in the present. But as we know from our chemistry class, we have
more than a hundred elements present which includes more than just Hydrogen and Helium. So where did these other
elements came from?
Remember that during the Big Bang, most of the subatomic particles are still too excited (high energy state) to
actually slow down and form larger clusters of atoms. It was only then when the cooling and contraction of the first
formed gases (Hydrogen and Helium) allowed these atoms to be close enough and undergo the process of nuclear
fusion. This process is very important because it involves the release of tremendous amount of energy in the form of
light, heat, and cosmic rays. And thus, the first stars are formed from this contraction of gases and nuclear fusion.
Stars, from what we've learned in science, are balls of glowing gases-this definition still holds true based on the
solar nebula hypothesis. But more than just the glowing part, much of the nuclear fusion processes that occurs within a
star's interior produces heavier elements (up to the element Iron, Fe) that exist in this universe. The death of stars (a
supernova), especially the big ones, can have so much energy to allow the production of heavier elements in the
periodic table (past the element Iron). This hypothesis simply means that every element that we are made of came from
multiple episodes of births and deaths of stars. Now, how awesome is that?
THE BIRTH OF THE PLANET
We have learned that elements heavier than Hydrogen or Helium cannot be formed by the Big Bang alone. The
debris (the subatomic particles) must cool down first and coalesce before significant interaction and nuclear fusion
proceed to produce heavier elements. The cyclic birth (solar nebula) and death (supernova) of stars allowed the
formation of these elements that drift into space for billions of years. As these particles collect and form large
accumulations of dust and gas, the central portion again becomes so massive (and in time will become a star again)
leaving a small portion of the materials to form relatively smaller clusters of dust and gas that will now become the
planets.
The role of gravity in the formation of planets is relatively easy to understand. As the small units of dust come
together, it creates a bigger unit with larger mass capable of attracting other units around it. This growing accumulation
of dust becomes massive enough so that rather than falling into the center and joining the growing star, it just simply
revolves around it (more or less why planets revolve around a star).

Forming the Earth

The Earth is no different from all the other planets revolving around the sun in terms of formation. Just like
what we discussed earlier, as soon as most of the materials (dust, gas, etc.) have migrated towards the center of the
growing solar system, the smaller units (the planets) started to form.
Our planet earth started from the collection of dust and other particles drifting in space for some time. As it
grew larger, our young earth (for this discussion we'll call it 'protoplanet') gains mass enough to pull smaller particles
into it. This accumulation or accretion of materials provided heat through impact which became a factor in the 're-
melting of the whole planet'.

Remelting, Iron Catastrophe, and Differentiation

Why is "re-melting" important in the early formation of a planet? First, let us consider the materials that our
protoplanet has been amassing. It is mostly random and scattered everywhere in the rugged, clump-like accumulation
of materials it captured by its own gravitational pull. With the speedy arrival of larger objects, the impact and friction
produced heat (accompanied with radioactive decay) which is enough to re-melt the materials in the protoplanet. This
melting process produced a semi-molten body in which denser materials (like iron) sank to its core while the less dense
materials are left on the surface.
Why is this differentiation important in the formation of the earth? The sinking of the denser materials into the
core has allowed the formation of the different layers of the earth that we know today (the crust, mantle, and core)
including the presence of the atmosphere (remember, lighter elements remained on the surface). Without this
differentiation process, the earth would've been a rocky mass similar to some of the planets in the solar system.
The formation of surface waters
Much of the liquid water present on Earth is located on the surface. And looking back on the formation of our
differentiated planet, the presence of light elements including water vapour would not be possible if the early
atmosphere did not develop and protected the planet from solar wind. But more than the preservation of the little water
vapour molecules scattered on Earth, the question still remains as to where all the water came from.
If you are familiar with comets, the concept of filling up the young earth with water would be easy enough to
understand (Why? Because comets are mostly made up of ice). During the accretion and growth of a protoplanet, it will
attract a lot of comets passing and eventually add the icy portion into the mixture. And because the early atmosphere is
already present, the escape of the vapour into space is already impossible.
Continued addition (from icy comets) and containment of gas (by the atmosphere) would eventually lead to an
earth heavy with water vapour. With the planet being too close to the sun, the water vapour would remain in the
gaseous phase. A little too far, on the other hand, would return the water vapour back to ice form. The location of the
young planet earth from the sun allowed water to remain in the liquid phase which became vital to the formation of life
as we know it today.

Earth and Earth Systems

Have you looked at photos of the Earth taken from outer space (or perhaps the most famous one by Bill Anders
in 1968) and perhaps wondered how space travelling now allowed us to discover more of what we have here on Earth?
We have travelled so far from home to discover things and share them as soon as we get back. Technology now is
capable of sending proxies to other planets and send back information and images we once thought impossible. And
more than knowing what's out there, we actually understand more of what's here on Earth.

THE EARTH SYSTEMS

Going back to your picture of the Earth, what are the things you immediately notice? You'd probably see land
(as patches of brown, green, or gray), bodies of water (as blue areas), and clouds (as white smoky regions including
gas). These units you observe are actually parts of the physical environment of the Earth Traditionally divided into
three spheres (Geosphere, Hydrosphere, and Atmosphere), these units interact with each other in numerous ways
observed in the physical realm, With the coming of an additional unit/sphere, the biosphere, these spheres of the Earth's
environment interact with each other and influences the way they work through time.
The Geosphere
The largest of the four spheres, the geosphere comprises the solid portion of the earth. More than its surface
manifestations of mountains and other land masses, the geosphere extends 6,400 kilometers from the surface down to
the core. Going back to the formation of the earth, we already know that the geosphere is further divided into different
layers due to differentiation. The following sections will discuss the major divisions:
1. Crust
The Earth's thin and rocky outer skin. The crust is generally divided into two types based on composition and
physical properties (Oceanic and Continental, not to be confused with oceans and continents). Oceanic crust, although
usually found beneath oceans and large bodies of water, is made up of basaltic rocks (we will discuss this in the next
chapters) rich in ferromagnesian minerals (minerals rich in iron and magnesium). In terms of thickness, the oceanic
crust is thinner (7km) compared to continental crust. Continental crust, on the other hand, is thicker (may exceed 70km)
especially in mountainous regions. Composition of continental crust is different as it is dominated by granitic rocks.
Although both continental and oceanic crust dominate continents and ocean floors respectively, we will understand
later on that continents have portions of the oceanic crust while ocean floors may also be composed of continental
crust.
2. Mantle
Extending deeper than the crust, the mantle comprises more than 82 percent of the earth's total volume.
Compositionally speaking, the rocks found in this layer are more related to denser elements such as iron and
magnesium (similar to oceanic crust material). Due to pressure differences between mantle near the surface and mantle
at deeper depths, this layer is further subdivided into an upper mantle and a lower mantle.
The upper mantle extends from the bottom of the crust to a depth of about 660 kilometers. Because of pressure and
compositional differences, the upper mantle is further divided into a 'stiff lithosphere and a 'plastic asthenosphere. The
lithosphere is actually the stiff portion of the upper mantle and the whole crust above it. The asthenosphere, on the
other hand, is like a weaker (hence the use of the term 'plastic') layer beneath the lithosphere. The implication of this
stiff lithosphere overlying a plastic asthenosphere will be discussed in the next chapters.
3. Core
Considered to be the sink of dense elements (iron and nickel) from the differentiation process, the core represents
the deepest portion of the earth with a radius of approximately 3,400 kilometers. It is further divided into two regions
using their physical properties. The outer core represents the liquid portion of the core where the movement of iron is
believed to be generating the Earth's magnetic field. The solid inner core, on the other hand, remains in such phase due
to immense pressures.

The Hydrosphere
Accounting for more than seventy percent (>70%) of the Earth's surface area, water is what makes our planet
unique in the solar system. Within the solar system's habitable zone (a stretch of distance from the Sun that allows the
existence of several phases of elements including water that is vital to the formation and survival of life), the existence
of surface water provided the medium for different life processes to occur.
The hydrosphere is not limited to the water we see on the surface as oceans, rivers, lakes, and seas.
Underground and hidden from our sight, groundwater is part of the hydrosphere cycle that keeps all the water
continuously transported and transformed from one form to another. Ice locked in polar regions and mountains in high
latitudes are also part of this delicate cycle that has been going on since the formation of the earth.
The Atmosphere
Before you finish reading this sentence, you've probably interacted with one of the earth's spheres, the
atmosphere. The atmosphere is the layer of gaseous envelope that surrounds the planet on the surface and extends
thinly unto space. Most of the gases are found near the surface and decreases away from the planet with increasing
altitude. The set of processes occurring within the atmosphere includes weather and climate (climate is simply long-
term compared to weather). The atmosphere provides the exchange of gases we need for respiration and also protects
us from too much ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun.
The Biosphere
 The Biosphere includes all forms of life on Earth including the ones found in the deepest parts of the oceans
and highest parts of the atmosphere. We are all part of the delicate interaction between the atmosphere, the geosphere,
and the hydrosphere. Without the biosphere, the rest of the other spheres would not look like the way they are now.
Living things breathe (interaction with atmosphere), take in water (interaction with hydrosphere), and are
agents of sedimentation (interaction with geosphere). Our life processes drives us to be in constant need of interaction
with the planet we live in. At the same time, the planet (along with the other spheres) change accordingly to our inputs.
This fragile connection with our planet is something that we must protect for the survival of future generations of life
that will walk, crawl, swim, or fly on earth.
Man explaining the origin of his home
For centuries, man has always been observant of things around him mainly because of survival reasons. Then,
man progressed and was able to protect himself from danger and has secured his spot on the surface of the planet. But
man remained observant and later became more curious of the world around him. Man observed heavenly bodies and
has associated them with events that are able to help or threaten his survival. With the alignment of stars, planets,
moon, and the sun, it became obvious that certain phenomena happen more often, days or nights become longer, and
everything appeared to follow some sort of order.
It was then clear that everything follows a certain kind of pattern, rules, or laws that man has yet to discover.
He was able to make sense of the world and everything around him through observation of these laws and predicting
how they will proceed based on a natural set of patterns.
ANCIENT ASTRONOMY
The Golden age of early astronomy began in Ancient Greece around 600 B.C. The Greeks were able to explain
natural phenomena from their observations of the world. Applying geometry and mathematics, the Greeks were able to
measure distances (from earth) and size of the moon with good accuracy just by looking at them from a far.
The Greeks, because of their close affinity to mysticism, have held the idea of a Geocentric view of the
Universe (this means that the Earth is the center of the Universe and everything revolves around the planet). The
famous Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322B.C.) was the one to conclude of a spherical earth because of the curved
shadow it casts on the moon during eclipses. Eratosthenes (276-194 B.C.), a Greek mathematician, was able to measure
the circumference of the earth using principles of geometry.

Aristarchus (312-230 B.C.) was the first Greek to speculate about a Heliocentric (sun-centered) universe
through his geometric calculations of the size and distances of the moon and sun. However, because of the strong
degrees. Aristotlean idea (Geocentricism), the idea remained that the earth was the center of the universe for quite some
time.
Most of what we know from ancient Greek astronomy comes from the works compiled by Ptolemy (A.D. 141)
which includes models of the universe from the motion of celestial bodies. In these works called the Almagest, the
planets move around the Earth in perfect circular orbits (back then, a circle is multiplyin considered pure and perfect
shape). We know now that the sun is the center of complete the solar system (not the universe) and the earth is one of
the planets revolving the Earth around it but Ptolemy was able to develop such good models explaining the movement
of celestial bodies by using circles and remaining to an Earth centered universe ideology.
MODERN ASTRONOMY
For quite some time, the Aristotlean view of the universe persisted mainly through the works of Ptolemy and
Greek philosophers. For modern astronomy to succeed, it took numerous scientific breakthroughs to disprove
religiously rooted notions of the universe. We will discuss the works of five notable scientists involved in the transition
of astronomy to a science that we know today.
Nicolaus Copernicus
Very few scientific advancements were made for centuries after Ptolemy's works. It was then from a Polish
astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543) that the idea of a spherical earth was revived. For Nicolaus Copernicus,
the Earth is just like any other planet and that the movement of the heavenly bodies around it can be attributed to a
rotation. The heliocentric model of the solar system was then a break from the geocentric ideology persisting for
centuries. Copernicus sticked to spherical planets and perfect circular orbits making his predictions on the locations of
planets full with errors (Johannes Kepler deviated from circular orbits and used elliptical ones a century later).
Tycho Brahe
Born three years following Copernicus' death, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) became interested in astronomy and
had persuaded King Frederick II to establish an observatory in Copenhagen. From this observatory, he began to
observe the locations of heavenly bodies with such precision that his works became a legacy to astronomy. Tycho
Brahe did not believe in Copernican view of the solar system and was determined to disprove them through his works.
Brahe believed that if the Earth indeed revolves around the the sun, apparent position of nearby stars should shift
accordingly. This apparent shift is called stellar parallax and is now used for measuring the distances of nearby stars.
Back then, telescopes were not as precise as they are now which would make the "apparent shift" difficult to determine.

Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was an assistant of Brahe after he left his observatory in Copenhagen. Years
after Brahe's death, Kepler derived the three basic laws of planetary motion. Kepler was the first to speculate about the
irregularity of Mars' orbit (that it was not circular but elliptical). Later on, he was also able to predict about the
variation in the orbital speed of Mars (it speeds up when it is nearer to the sun). And in 1609, he proposed his two laws
of planetary motion:
1. The path of a planet around the sun is not perfectly circular but an ellipse. Having an ellipse would mean that the
orbit has two foci (focus) and one being the sun.
2. The law of equal area stating that a line connecting the sun and the earth will sweep a constant area in space that is
proportional to the time. This means that if the earth is given a month to sweep a certain amount of area as it goes
around the sun, this area will be the same whatever time of the year it is (as long as it is given a month to do so).
Having an elliptical orbit would mean that if the Earth is near the perihelion, it should travel faster because the
distance from the sun is shorter.

3. The orbital periods of planets and distances from the sun is proportional. In a mathematical formula, Kepler
expressed that the orbital period (time it take to revolve around the sun) squared is equal to the mean solar distance
cubed. For example, Mars has an orbital period of 1.88 years (Earth years). From calculations, the distance of Mars
from the Sun should be 1.52 astronomical units (1 astronomical unit = distance of Earth from sun) or 1.52 times the
distance of Earth from the sun.
Galileo Galilei
The greatest Italian scientist of the Renaissance, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) strongly supported the Copernican
Heliocentric theory. Galileo did a lot of experiments explaining theories and descriptions of moving objects which later
became the evidences for great scientific breakthroughs.
With the help of a telescope he constructed on his own (following the idea of a Dutch lens maker), Galileo Galilei
was able to view heavenly bodies no one was ever able to do in the past. From here he made discoveries that shook the
foundations of ancient astronomy.

1. The discovery of Jupiter's moons which would mean that not all bodies revolve around the Earth as stated in
ancient astronomy
2. Planets are just like the Earth and not just points of light like stars
3. The phases of planet Venus as seen from Earth.
4. The moon surface is not smooth as previously thought (glass sphere). Instead, craters and mountain-like features
were observed.
5. The sun has darker spots (called sunspots) and from these observations, the sun appears to also rotate.
The Copernican theory was critically condemned by the Church because it does not follow the old Scriptures and
was putting humans away as a center of Creation. Despite the opposition, Galileo continued to write and complete his
works (Dialogue of the Great World Systems) which put him under permanent house arrest until his death.
Sir Isaac Newton
Much of Kepler's work revolved around explaining planetary motion but not the one causing it. It was on the
same year of Galileo's death that a mathematician and physicist by the name of Sir Isaac Newton were born. At the
early age of 23, Newton was able to theorize the existence of a force that held the moon in orbit around the Earth. This
was called the Law of Universal Gravitation which states that:
Everybody that is present in this universe is able to attract other bodies via a force that is directly proportional
to their masses and inversely proportional at the same to the square of their distance from each other.
Gravity keeps satellites in their orbit and at the same time exert force on the planet they are revolving around
(e.g. tide on Earth). The effect of gravity applies not just on sun-earth-moon relationship but also on other planets. The
effects of a large planet against another when their orbits are close to each other would cause disturbances (or
perturbations) which would be visible as irregularities in the movement of both planets. These perturbations have been
useful in the discovery of other planets in the solar system.
PRESENT ASTRONOMY
Fast-forward to the present, the advancement of technology has lead us to discover more of what is in Earth
(through artificial satellites orbiting the planet) and beyond (unmanned spacecraft). We have come to refine the works
from ancient astronomy and made sense of the universe through laws and theories we have found consistent through
time. We are pushing our boundaries into the deepest portions of the universe at the same time we understand what lies
within our planet. There are so much more to learn and discover regarding the formation and evolution of the universe.
As observant and curious as our forefathers were, we should let the fire of enthusiasm burn and light our paths to the
future.
REMINDER
Output/s to be submitted ACTIVITY WORKSHEET IN EARTH SCIENCE FOR WEEK 18
Deadline of Submission JANUARY 10, 2022
Outputs
Mode of Submission Write your answer on the activity worksheet provided. Submit at Clarendon
College

Prepared:
GILBERT E. GONZALES
Teacher

Approved:
HAZEL P. PALAPUS
Principal