Infectious Disease Study Notes 

 
TOPIC 1 - Cause of Infectious Disease 2 
1.1 Pathogens 2 
1.1.1 Classifying Pathogens 3 
1.1.2 Transmission During an Epidemic 7 
1.1.3 Investigation of Microbial Testing 9 
1.1.4 Transmission of Pathogens 12
1.2 Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur 13
1.3 Disease in Agriculture 15 
1.3.1 Plant Diseases 15 
1.3.2 Animal Diseases 17 
1.4 Adaptations of Pathogens 18 

TOPIC 2 - Responses to Pathogens 23

2.1 Plant Responses 23 
2.2 Physical and Chemical Barriers 24 
2.2.1 Plant 25
2.2.2 Animals 27 

TOPIC 3 - Immunity 32
3.1 Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems 32 
3.1.1 Innate Immunity 33 
3.1.2 Adaptive Immunity 37 

TOPIC 4 - Prevention, Treatment and Control 41 

4.1 Disease Spread 41 
4.2 Methods for Preventing Disease 42 
4.2.1 Vaccination 42 
4.2.2 Quarantine 44
4.2.3 Hygiene Practices 46 
4.4.4 Public Health Campaigns 46 
4.4.5 Use of Pesticides 46 
4.4.6 GMOs 46 
4.3 Pharmatucial Treatments 47 
4.3.1 Antibiotics 47 
4.3.2 Antivirals 48
4.4 Environmental Management and Quarantine Methods 49 
4.5 Incidence and Prevalence Data 49 
4.5.1 Mobility of Individuals 49 
4.5.2 Dengue Fever in South-East Africa 49 
4.6 Differing Strategies to Predict and Control Disease 52
4.6.1 Historical Strategies 52 

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 4.6.2 Culturally Diverse Strategies 52 
4.6.3 Current Strategies 53 
4.7 Aboriginal Protocols 54 
 
TOPIC 1 - Cause of Infectious Disease 
Inquiry Question: How are diseases transmitted?  
 
1.1 Pathogens  
 
●Describe a variety of infectious diseases caused by pathogens, including 
microorganisms, macroorganisms and non-cellular pathogens, and collect primary and 
secondary-sourced data and information relating to disease transmission, including:  
- Classifying different pathogens that cause disease in plants and animals  
- Investigating the transmission of a disease during an epidemic 
- Design and conduct a practical investigation relating to the microbial testing of 
water or food samples 
- Investigate modes of transmission of infectious diseases, including direct contact, 
indirect contact and vector transmission 
 
Disease​: 
● Definition → any condition that harms a living organism and impairs its function  
● Disease is classified into infectious and non-infectious  
● Virulence → the severity or harmfulness of a disease 
● Infectious disease: 
● A disease that is caused by a p ​ athogen ​which can be transmitted from one 
organism to another is an infectious disease  
● A pathogen is an organism or biological molecule (e.g. protein) that acts as an 
infective agent. This means it 
can be passed from one 
organism to another. A 
pathogen is an organism which 
is capable of causing disease. 
● Can be transferred through direct 
contact of a sick person, 
contaminated food or water, 
airborne particles, touching 
contaminated surfaces, bites from 
insects or animals and exchange of 
bodily fluids (e.g. through sexual 
intercourse) 
● They are contagious  
● Examples → influenza, HIV and 
malaria 
● There are many different types 
of pathogens 

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1.1.1 Classifying Pathogens 
 

 
 
Bacteria (cellular & microscopic)​:  
● Bacteria are single-celled, prokaryotic organisms. Pathogenic bacteria are classified 
according to shape. There are 4 types: 
1. Bacilli (rod-shaped) 
2. Cocci (spherically shaped) 
3. Spirochaetes (spirals) 
4. Vibrio (rod-shaped) 
● Bacteria are not always pathogenic 
● Bacteria reproduce using binary fission 
● Bacteria have a cell wall but no membrane-bound nucleus or organelles.  
● Their cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan, a substance made of protein and 
carbohydrate molecules.  
● Transmission method​ → Bacteria can cause disease through reproduction within the 
host or by releasing toxins which are harmful to the host. Pathogenic bacteria overtake 
healthy bacteria or grow in tissues. 
● Immune system response​ → The body reacts to disease-causing bacteria by 
increasing local blood flow (inflammation) and sending in cells from the immune 
system to attack and destroy the bacteria. Antibodies produced by the immune system 
attach to the bacteria and help in their destruction. 
● Treatments ​→ Commonly treated with antibiotics. Antibiotics target bacteria and kill 
them and the aim is to prevent multiplication.  
● Example ​→ Whooping cough (caused by Bordetella​ pertussis​ bacteria). Once 
Bordetella pertussis bacteria get in the lungs, they stick to the lung's lining (mainly the 
cilia in the upper part of the respiratory system), where they make pertussis toxin. The 
toxins damage the cilia and cause the airways to swell. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Viruses (non-cellular & microscopic):  
● Infectious and cause a number of different diseases.  
● Viruses infect the living cells of other organisms and replicate inside the host cells. 
● They are bundles of DNA or RNA with a protein coat, the protein coat enables the virus 
to recognise suitable host cells. The virus's genetic material is then inserted into the 
host. The cell produces new viruses → cannot reproduce without a host. 
● The protein coat allows the pathogen to have surface proteins that enable it to bind to 
surface receptor proteins on the host cell via complementary binding. It can then enter 
the cell via endocytosis. 
● Extremely small (20- 400nm) 
● Transmission method → ​Can be transmitted very easily. Inhaling virus particles attack 
the cells of the new person (sinuses). 
● Immune system response → ​The body rises in temperature to slow down the rate at 
which most of the body’s chemical reactions occur. The immune system fights the 
infection until the virus is gone.  
● Treatments ​→ Best way to control viral diseases is through vaccines. Vaccines assist 
the immune system to deal with an attack. Vaccines are often used to defend against 
viral diseases by triggering a “false-alarm” immune response that will protect against 
the virus when there is a real attack. 
● Example → ​Influenza A (caused by Influenza type A virus). Influenza is a highly 
contagious respiratory illness that can have severe symptoms. It is transmitted 
through air transmission via water droplets from sneezing or coughing. It can also be 
transmitted through inhalation or oral ingestion _after unknowingly touching _the virus 
(e.g. park bench). 

 
Fungi (cellular & microscopic): 
● Similar to plants (rigid cell wall). Fungi are either saprophytes or parasites.   
● Can be unicellular (yeast) or multicellular (mushrooms) 
● Most species are made of long tubes known as hyphae. Intertwined hyphae are called 
mycelium. 
● Reproduce by spreading spores that can release harmful enzymes 
● They are dermatophyte pathogen they live on skin, nail or hair and absorb nutrients 
from environment by secreting digestive enzymes 
● Transmission method → ​Easily spread through the air in water or by direct contact. 
Mostly affected on the skin, nails and hair. Species that infect humans are known as 
anthropophilic fungi.  

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 ● Immune system response → ​Fungi are recognised by cells of the innate immune 
system (e.g. dendritic cells and macrophages) which bind components of fungal cell 
walls using pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on their surface.  
● Treatments → ​Antifungal agents work by preventing the formation of cell membranes. 
● Example → ​Tinea (​dermatophytosis)​ occurs in the feet, groin, underneath breasts and 
scalp. Easily spread in communal showers because the fungus likes warm, moist 
environments. It causes itching or burning, ring-shaped rash or blisters. 
 

 
 
Protozoa (cellular & microscopic): 
● Protozoa are single-celled, eukaryotic organisms. They get food from their 
surroundings (i.e. freshwater and marine environments).  
● Pathogenic protozoa are known as parasites.  
● Often infect humans when they are dormant.  
● There are different types: intestinal, urogenital and blood and tissue 
● Genetic material is enclosed in a nuclear membrane.  
● Many types of protozoa are harmless to humans 
● Transmission method → ​Spread among humans through female Anopheles 
mosquitoes. If a mosquito bites an infected person, it becomes infected and can then 
infect another human. Can’t be directly transferred from person to person. 
● Immune system response → ​Protozoa activate quite distinct specific immune 
responses, which are different from the responses to fungi, bacteria and viruses. 
Protozoa may be phagocytosed by macrophages, but many are resistant to phagocytic 
killing and may even replicate within macrophages. 
● Treatments → ​Can be successfully treated with antibiotics however they have become 
resistant to the medication. Research is ongoing.  
● Example → ​Malaria: caused by female Anopheles Mosquitoes which spread 
pathogenic ​plasmodium​. Malaria invades and reproduces inside the red blood cells. 
The cells rupture and the protozoa are released into the bloodstream where they 
attack other red blood cells.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Prions (non-cellular & microscopic)​: 
● Prions are infectious, self-reproducing proteins which can cause all different diseases.  
● Prions have no nucleic acids (also don’t contain any RNA or DNA meaning they have 
no genetic material) and are able to reproduce without nucleic acid.  
● They infect the lining of neural cells and eventually destroy them. They cause cells to 
burst which brings on infection of other cells.  
● Abnormal prions are folded slightly differently but have the same chemical 
composition as normal PrP. 
● Cause neurodegenerative diseases  
● Have a very long incubation period (5-20 years) but can progress rapidly after first 
clinical signs appear  
● Transmission method →  
1. Contaminated food is ingested. 
2. Prion infectivity is accumulated in lymphoid tissue. 
3. Prions spread throughout the lymphatic tissue and the enteric nervous system, 
finally reaching the CNS. There they infect the neurons and then are broadcast to 
other tissues for replication. 
● Immune system response → ​The immune system doesn’t react to prions because, in 
their undistorted form, they are present in the body from birth.   
● Treatment → ​There is no treatment/cure  
● Example ​→ CJD/mad cow disease: Rare degenerative brain disorder which is fatal. It 
affects nearly 1 in a million people. After onset, it causes rapid deterioration. Humans 
contract CJD after ingesting beef. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease may occur 
spontaneously, be inherited or be transmitted by contact with infected tissue, such as 
during a transplant or from eating contaminated meat. 

 
 
Macroparasites (cellular):  
● Parasites that are visible to the naked eye. They include helminths. The parasite only 
spends part of its life inside a host and spends most of its time multiplying outside of 
it.  
● Has a nucleus 
● Multi-cellular 
● Can directly cause disease and can also be vectors in the transmission of diseases 
● 2 main types: 
1. Endoparasites→ live inside the host’s body (e.g. flatworms) 
2. Ectoparasites → live outside the host’s body (e.g. leeches) 

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 ● Transmission method → ​Transmission through direct contact, consumption of 
secondary hosts or endoparasitic transmission by vectors.  
● Immune system response → ​The specific immune response to parasites leads to the 
production of antibodies. Infection by protozoan parasites is associated with the 
production of IgG and IgM.  
● Treatment ​→ Medications that work effectively. There are preventative measures such 
as sanitation.  
● Example ​→ T​ aeniasis (​ from tapeworm). Taeniasis​ i​ s a parasitic infection from 
tapeworms. The eggs/larvae grow in your intestine. Most people with the disease are 
asymptomatic. Transmitted by eating food/drink contaminated with poo that has 
microscopic tapeworm eggs. Also from eating raw meat from infected animals. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
1.1.2 Transmission During an Epidemic 
Definition → a disease that is prevalent over a whole country or the world; it affects great no. 
of people/animals, spreads to new areas 
 
Cholera (19th Century London)​:  
● Cholera is a water-borne bacteria that causes severe diarrhea to the point where 
people can die within a few hours to a few days  
● Dr John Snow was the first doctor to pinpoint the source of the disease 
● In the 1850s, Snow stopped an outbreak of Cholera  
● Soho → Bad sewer system, people dumped waste into the River Thames which was 
also the ma​in water source for London at the time. There was an increase in 
population and therefore more waste meaning more waste in the river. 
● Nothing was known about Cholera at the time  
● Cholera is highly infectious, causes severe diarrhea which leads to dehydration and 
cholera  
● It wasn’t known that bacteria and viruses were at the root of diseases and instead it 
was believed it was caused by ‘bad air’ 
● Snow believed that Cholera was caused by ingesting something that had been 
contaminated (not bad air) 
● Snow suspected that the Broad St pump was contaminated (there were white flecks in 
the water) and the outbreak started in that area. He asked where people had gotten 
their water from and he pinpointed the water pump for the root of the disease.  

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 ● Snow took his evidence to officials and they agreed with him, the handle was taken off 
so that people couldn’t use the pump  
● Snow found areas with downstream water supply and discovered that there were 14 
times more deaths from Cholera during the outbreak. Downstream water means it 
went all through the city and it was much more contaminated.  
● Microbes can cause disease  
● Snow’s ou​tbreak management strategies are still being used: 
● Mapping outbreaks in the community → can be used to see where the ​outbreaks 
are happening 
 
Horse Influenza (2007, Australia): 
● Horse flu is an exotic equine disease 
● Equine influenza virus is an orthomyxovirus which affects horses and donkeys 
● It doesn’t infect humans  
● It is caused by two mains strains of EIV known as equine-1 (H7N7) and equine 2 
(H3N8)  
● Symptoms include a fever, watery nasal discharge, hacking cough, loss of appetite  
● Transmi​ssion:  
● It is highly contagious  
● Can be spread directly between infected horses through nasal secretions and 
other body fluids  
● Can be spread indirectly through humans who carry the virus from an infected 
horse to oth​er horses via contaminated shoes, clothing, grooming equipment, food 
and water buckets 
● Management​ of the outbreak: 
● The NSW Chief Veterinary Office imposed a statewide lockdown on movement of 
horses. This eventually became nation-wide  
● A management centre was set up to coordinate management at the disease 
control headquarters in NSW 
● Horse properties were quarantined throughout NSW 
● The spread of the disease was mapped and by the end of August it was clear that 
the virus had spread to the Central Coast and Hunter Valley. Areas of high density 
horse stocking meant there was fast spreading disease.  
● With the loc​kdown of horse movements and quarantine procedures, the outbreak 
was controlled by December 2008 
● Control​ of future outbreaks: 
● The Australian Veterinary Association suggests that mass vaccination of 
Australian horses is not a justifiable option  
● The equine influenza virus mutates in the same way that the human influenza 
virus and so a vaccination wouldn’t confer against new strains of the virus 
● Restriction of the importation of live horses to hose from approved countries 
● Subject imported horses to strict biosecurity measures (quarantining the horses)  
● Public education, particular for those working in the horse industry, is vital for early 
detection  
● Provide biosecurity training for all involved in the importation of horses into 
Australia, incl​uding grooms, truck drivers, cleaners and airline staff 

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1.1.3 Investigation of Microbial Testing  
 
Practical Investigation → Microbial Food and Water Testing 
 
Background Information: 
● Micro-organisms can be found anywhere e.g. food, water, air  
● Some microorganisms can cause disease, some are beneficial to humans and some 
have no effect on all 
● Individual micro-organisms are too small to be seen with the naked eye but when many 
organisms are clumped together they form a colony. Colonies can be observed and 
seen with the naked eye (e.g. mould on bread) 
● Bacteria and fungi usually reproduce by means of microscopic spores which will then 
develop into colonies under the right conditions  
● Many micro-organisms will reproduce in a lab if there are suitable conditions (warmth, 
moisture and nutrients). After the dishes have been incubated, the plates have the 
ability to be macroscopically observed  
● Colonies are usually able to be distinguished by their size, shape, surface profile and 
colour  
● Bacterial colonies can be distinguished from fungal colonies by observation. Bacterial 
colonies are usually quite small, shiny and coloured whereas fungal colonies are 
generally quite large and generally fluffy.  
● Sterile techniques are essential in microbiological work  
 
Sterilisation Techniques: 
● When opening the petri dish: 
● When opening a petri dish, place the dish on a table and lift the lid at an angle (no 
more than 45 degrees). 
● Do not breathe over the dish and work as quickly as possible  
● After closing the dish, seal with tape  
● Sterilising with heat: 
● Before using any equipment such as the inoculating loop, test tube or probe, pass 
it through the blue flame of a Bunsen burner  
 
Terms: 
● Pure culture → a population of cells or multicellular organisms growing in the absence 
of other species  
● Colony → a visible mass of microorganisms all originating from a single mother cell 
● Streaking → a technique used to isolate a pure strain from a single species of 
microorganisms  
● Aseptic techniques → prevents cross contamination 
 
Experiment: 
 
Aim/Purpose: 
This practical investigation involves inoculating nutrient agar plates with food or water 
samples and incubating at 30 degrees for 3 days. The purpose of this experiment was to 

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conduct an investigation relating to microbial testing of food samples (yoghurt and cheese) 
as well as air and water. Also aiming to find or identify microorganisms present within the 
samples. The use of sterilisation techniques are also being used and are necessary for this 
experiment 
 
Materials: 
- Disinfectant  
- Incubator  
- Sterile nutrient agar plants: 1 for control, 1 for air, 1 for water, 1 for cheese and 1 for 
yoghurt 
- Bunsen burner  
- Matches  
- Inoculating loop  
- Sticky tape  
- Markers  
- Water  
- Cheese  
- Yoghurt  
 
Method​:  
1. Sterilise the workbench area with alcohol and wipe down 
2. Set up bunsen burner on the mat  
3. Collect other materials (matches, Petri dishes etc.) 
4. Place 5 sterile Petri dishes that contain nutrient agar on the bench 
5. Label each Petri dish with control, air, water, yoghurt and blue cheese. Also, add date 
and name to the petri dish 
6. Close and seal the control agar plate with sticky tape 
7. Leave the air agar plate open for 15 minutes then close and seal with sticky tape 
8. Sterilise your inoculating loop by passing it through a flame 
9. Dip the inoculating loop into your food type (yoghurt, water and blue cheese) and wipe 
it gently over the surface of an agar plate using the streak method 
10. Close and seal each agar plate with sticky tape 
11. Place all 5 Petri dishes in an incubator set to 30​o​C and leave for a few days  
 
Risk Assessment: 
Hazard   Prevention   Treatment  

Bunsen burner - leading to  Be careful around the  - Immediately inform the 
burns on the skin (i.e.  bunsen burner.   teacher of injury 
hands)  - Run the burn under 
water for at least 20 
minutes  

Having the incubator too  Only setting the incubator to   

high (impact on human  a temperature of 30 degrees 
health)  (no higher) 

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 Transmission of bacteria  Wear personal protective  - Inform teacher  
from food samples   equipment (i.e. gloves)  
 
Results: 
Sample tested  Bacteria   Fungi  

Number of  Number of  Number of  Number of 

colonies  types   colonies   types  

Control   3  1  -   -  

Air   4  2  -   -  

Water   48  1     

Cheese   276  2  3  1 

Yoghurt   321  2  -   -  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Variables: 
Control → agar plate with no food/water/air samples, same temperature, same agar, same 
size agar plate 
Independent Variable → sample type (cheese, air, yoghurt, water)  
Dependent Variable → number of colonies 
 
Analysis of Data: 
 
Reliability:​ This experiment is reliable as it was repeated four times and each trial produced 
consistent results. 
 
Accuracy: T ​ his experiment has a low level of accuracy since measurements of the cheese, 
yoghurt and water were varied amongst trials. An estimate was also taken of the colonies, 
further decreasing the validity of the experiment.   
 

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Validity: ​This experiment is of high validity as the method tested the aim. The controlled 
variables were kept the same (e.g. temperature and incubation period) and the independent 
variable was the only one changed.  
 
Interpreting Plates → Although bacterial and fungi colonies have many characteristics and 
some can be rare, there are a few basic elements that you can identify for all colonies: 
● Form - What is the basic shape of the colony? For example, circular, filamentous, etc. 
● Elevation - What is the cross-sectional shape of the colony? Turn the Petri dish on end. 
● Margin - What is the magnified shape of the edge of the colony? 
● Surface - How does the surface of the colony appear? For example, smooth, glistening, 
rough, dull (opposite of glistening), rugose (wrinkled), etc. 
● Opacity - For example, transparent (clear), opaque, translucent (almost clear, but 
distorted vision, like looking through frosted glass), iridescent (changing colours in 
reflected light), etc. 
● Chromogenesis (pigmentation) - For example, white, buff, red, purple, etc. 
● 3 additio​nal elements of morphology should be examined only in a supervised 
laboratory setting: consistency, emulsifiability, and odour. 
 
1.1.4 Transmission of Pathogens 
● An understanding of transmission methods is critical to the control of disease 
outbreaks​. For a disease to spread between organisms, a ‘chain of infection’ must be 
present:  
● A host that is susceptible to the disease 
● A pathogen that is capable of causing the disease 
● Am ​ ode of transmission → a way for the pathogen to get from host to host 
● There​ are three modes of transmission, or ways that a pathogen can get from host to 
host: 
● Direct contact → transfer of the pathogen via exposure to infected skin or body 
secretions  
● Indirect contact → transfer of the pathogen to a new host via a non-living object  
● Vect​or transmission → transfer of the pathogen via another organism, such as an 
arthropod  
 
Direct Transmission: 
● T​his involves individuals physically transferring the pathogens to each other  
● Kiss​ing, touching, intercourse, direct infection/contact with an open wound, contact 
with nasal/oral secretions  
 
Indirect Transmission: 
● This involves objects being contaminated with the pathogen and transferring it - the 
contaminated object is known as a fomite  
● Used tissues, objects with traces of saliva or feces, contaminated medical equipme​nt, 
airborne pathogens and those carried in food and water  
 
Vector Transmission: 
● Involves pathogen transfer by an infected animal to a new host 

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 ● Insects such as mosquito’s carry malaria parasite, Ross River Fever and Dengue fever 
virus  
● Mammals such as bats carry Rabies virus, Lyssavirus and possibly coronavirus  
● Birds ​- bird flu (avian influenza) 
 
1.2 Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur  
 
● Investigate the work of Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur to explain the causes of 
transmission of infectious diseases including: 
- Koch’s postulates  
- Pasteur’s experiments on microbial contamination  
 
Previous Theory → Spontaneous Generation: 
● The theory of spontaneous generation was put forward by ancient Greek philosophers 
and remained widely accepted until the 19th century 
● This theory suggested that life could come into existence from non-living matter (e.g. 
old bread could spontaneously grow mould or old meat could suddenly have maggots 
in it) 
● Due to the belief in spontaneous generation, when microbes were first observed in the 
blood of people suffering disease, the microbes were thought to have been created by 
the disease. The belief also fitted with religious views of the time meaning people were 
satisfied to accept it  
 
Robert Koch: 
● Koch was a German microbiologist working in the late 1800s 
● He is known as the founder of modern bacteriology as he was able to correctly identify 
the microbial origins of many diseases (e.g. anthrax, cholera and tuberculosis)  
● Most notable achievement → Developing the procedure for isolating and identifying 
diseases causing microbes. This method directly linked microbial growth as a 
causative agent in disease progression. 
● Koch formulated a systematic method for biological research. These are known as 
Koch’s Postulates  
● Koch and Pasteur were actually both working on anthrax around the same time in 
France and Germany. Koch was able to isolate a rod shaped bacteria from sick sheep 
suffering with anthrax, purify it and infect healthy animals. These animals then 
developed symptoms that were common to anthrax and Koch was the first to 
determine that a particular bacteria caused a specific disease. 
● Koch’s Postulates: 
1. In all organisms suffering from disease, the micro-organisms must be present in 
abundance  
2. Micro-organisms must be isolated from the diseased organism and grown in pure 
culture  
3. When a healthy organism is inoculated with the pure culture, it must develop the 
same symptoms as the original sick organism 

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 4. Isolate and re-grow the micro-organism from the newly infected organism. If it is 
identical to the micro-organism in step 2, it has been identified as the cause of the 
disease 
● Koch developed these postulates while working on the bacteria that causes 
tuberculosis and cholera and created one of the first diagnostic methods for 
identifying the microorganism responsible for disease → Shows significant 
contribution to the field of science. This allowed further research.  
● The Postulates have been superseded by technology and more accurate methods of 
identification including DNA sequencing  
● The Postulates don’t work for all bacteria or viruses (especially if the patient as 
asymptomatic)  
● Modern-day example using Koch’s Postulates: 
● Stomach ulcers → people believed that it was previously caused by stress. These 
scientists disproved this.  
● Barry Marshall and Robin Warren used Koch’s Postulates in the most severe way 
to prove that Helicobacter pylori was the bacteria responsible for stomach ulcers  
● Marshall drank the bacteria and developed the stomach ulcers and proved that the 
bacteria caused it. He then took antibiotics and was cured.  
 
Louis Pasteur: 
● Pasteur was a French microbiologist who worked in the 1800s 
● He proved that microbes caused fermentation (beer/wine), spoilage (food) and rotting 
● Developed the now commonly used technique of pasteurisation  
● Thoughts of the time: 
● The theory of spontaneous generation was believed. This theory states that living 
things can originate directly from non-living matter (e.g. rats from garbage) 
● Widespread belief in this theory prevented people from understanding what 
caused disease and how it was transmitted 
● Pasteur’s work in fermentation enabled him to identify that something he couldn’t see 
(microbes) were present when beer or wine were fermented  
● He also proposed that heating milk to a high temperature and pressure before bottling 
would prevent the milk from souring → this is now known as pasteurisation 
● Pasteur’s 1862 experiment: 
● Filled a swan-necked and a straight-necked flask with broth. Swan-necked 
remained clear, open flask became cloudy and smelly 
● Disproved spontaneous-generation theory (that disease occurs spontaneously), 
proved decay and disease were caused by air-borne ​microbes​—germ theory. 
● Swan-Necked Flask Experiment: 
● Placed yeast broth in 2 flasks with an S shaped top 
● Both flasks were heated for a prolonged period of time to kill any mirco-organisms 
in or on the glass  
● He broke off one of the tops to make it a straight neck 
● The flasks were cooled slowly  
● If there were germs in the air, they would fall into the flask with the straight neck 
and contaminate it, causing decay  

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 ● The S shaped neck trapped the microbes in the bend and therefore no bacteria 
grew 
● Discovered attenuated (weakened) pathogens could cause immunity, showing 
relationship between anthrax spores and anthrax infection. 
● Developed vaccines for chicken cholera, anthrax, rabies, and identified specific 
parasites responsible for silkworm disease 

1.3 Disease in Agriculture 

● Assess the causes and effects of diseases on agricultural production, including: 

- Plant diseases  
- Animal diseases  
 
Types​: 
● Types of disease in agriculture: endemic (consistently present), exotic (introduced). 
● Factors that can contribute to infectious disease development include host factors 
(susceptibility, immune system), pathogen factors (availability, adaptations, virulence 
factors), and environmental factors (hygiene and density) 
● Factors increasing risk of disease today include increasing mobility of human 
populations, industrial agriculture, deforestation, irrigation, climate change, pesticide 
resistance, loss of genetic diversity, and inexperienced farmers. 
 
1.3.1 Plant Diseases 
 

● Plant pathogens include: fungi, bacteria, protozoa and viruses 

● Example → Rust: fungus invades stem tissue of plants and destroys leaf tissue, 
reducing photosynthetic capacity. It produces spores which spread to other parts of 
the plant and other plants until the whole crop is covered. Rust destroyed 15 million 
tonnes of wheat worldwide annually 
● Plant disease symptoms: death of plants, necrosis (tissue destruction), abnormal 
growth, discolouration and wilting 
● Disease is any abnormal condition that harms an organism and lowers its ability to 
function effectively  
● Plant disease will occur if there is a pathogen present, if there is a susceptible host, if 
there is a favourable environment for the pathogen to reproduce  
● Vector transmission - such as an insect or bird may transmit the pathogen from one 
plant to another as it feeds and moves around  
 
Causes:  
● Plant pathogens (as listed above) can cause disease 
● There can also be abiotic factors such as drought or frost that can impact the health of 
a plant 
● Examples of pests which greatly affect agriculture: 
- Fruit flies: macro-parasite which infects fruits and vegetables  
- Potato cyst nematode: microscopic round worm which eats potato, tomato and 
eggplant roots 
- Sharka: plum pox virus which infects fruits such as cherries and plums  

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Effects: 
● Infectious diseases affect the ability for plants to carry out normal functions and 
therefore have a significant impact on the yield and quality of agricultural products  
● Due to a reduction in productivity and costs associated with prevention, plant disease 
cost Australia millions of dollars annually  
● Agriculture is a significant industry in Australia and the reduction in its efficient 
impacts trading abilities  
● Estimated that pathogens cause nearly 12.5% of crop losses 
● Plant disease can also have significant social impacts i.e. the Irish Potato Famine 
(death of nearly 1 million people) 
● Plant diseases can negatively affect biodiversity in natural ecosystems → particularly 
when they have been transported from foreign countries  
● Australia has strict biosecurity laws and practices in order to maintain our status as a 
relatively unaffected and safe nation 
● Main effects: 
- Death of the plant/crop 
- Abnormal growths  
- Destruction or discolouration of plant tissues  
- Wilting  
- Reduced yield  
- Loss of trading opportunities  
- Economic loss for farmer  
 
Example - Powdery Mildew Disease in Pea Plants: 
● This is the most common form of plant disease  
● Powdery mildew, plant disease of worldwide occurrence that causes a powdery 
growth on the surface of leaves, buds, young shoots, fruits, and flowers. 
● Fungal spores can travel through the air with the wind or with vectors and transfer 
easily from one plant to another 
● The spores land on the plant, germinate (if conditions are favourable) and the hyphae 
begin to grow. The hyphae invades the plant tissue including the xylem and phloem 
(consuming the plant's nutrients). The fungus begins to thrive while the plant 
deteriorates. The fungus continues to reproduce, form spores and the cycle continues.  
● Impact o ​ n agriculture: 
- Highly significant impact on crops. In Victoria, pea plants that contract this disease 
have wilting and defoliating in the leaves (meaning they’re destroyed) and this means 
they are unable to photosynthesise. Without photosynthesis the plant dies and 
ultimately there are larger scale flow-on-effects.  
- Local scale impact: this results in loss of up to 20% of the crop yield which can be 
devastating to the livelihood of farmers. This in turn will increase the price of peas 
and​ be passed onto the consumer.  
- Global scale impact: Farmers can lose international trade deals and o ​ pportunities 
due to the lower yield and higher price  

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 ● Can be prevented through ensuring there is enough spacing between plants to 
provide enough airflow around all parts of the plant. It is also important that the 
plants aren’t over fertilised. 
● Can be cured by potassium bicarbonate– Similar to baking soda, this has the unique 
advantage of actually eliminating powdery mildew once it's there. Potassium 
bicarbonate is a contact fungicide which kills the powdery mildew spores quickly. In 
addition, it's approved for use in organic growing. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
(Powdery Mildew Disease) 
 
 
1.3.2 Animal Diseases 
 

● Animal pathogens: fungi, bacteria, viruses, arthropods, helminths. 

● Impacts: Animal deaths, economic loss to farmer, loss of trading opportunities, human 
illness (zoonoses), low growth rates, loss of fertility, loss of economic value of 
individual animals 
 
Causes:  
● Animal diseases may be caused by a number of different infectious agents including 
bacteria, viruses, protozoa and macro-parasites  
● Diseases which are of particular concern to Australia biosecurity are: 
- Avian influenza (bird flu): a severe viral disease affecting poultry. There is no 
treatment  
- Foot and mouth disease: a highly contagious viral infection affecting 
cloven-hoofed animals, often leading to significant morality levels in young 
animals  
- Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (mad cow disease): a fatal 
neuro-degenerative disease caused by prions  
 
Effects:  
● Economic impacts: 
- Australia’s livestock industry is fundamental to the growth of the Australian 
economy in our recent history → contributed about $15 billion in export revenue. 
Animal disease means this figure could be much lower thus negatively affecting 
the economy 
- A major outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease could cost the Australian economy 
around $50 billion  

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 ● Food security: Animal disease may severely impact agriculture which has significant 
impacts upon at-risk populations facing poverty or malnutrition  
● Health risks: Animal diseases have the potential to infect humans too. This may affect 
farmers and handlers as well as those who consume the products 
 
Example - Foot Rot in Sheep: 
● Ovine (sheep) footrot is a serious disease which has long been dreaded by sheep 
owners.  
● It is a disease which causes severe economic loss, suffering due to lameness and 
disruption to normal farm operations. The economic losses result from reduced body 
weight and growth, decreased wool production and restrictions to marketing 
opportunities 
● It is a contagious disease caused by ​bacteria ​(D​ ichelobacter nodosus) 
● It can cause pain and discomfort for the sheep or affected organism  
● It has a number of strains and an outbreak may involve one or several strains 
● This disease is able to break down the connective tissue between the horn and flesh of 
the hoof. It mostly affects the skin between the toes  
● Can be spread from foot to foot via pasture or mud (still requires favourable conditions 
of warmth and moisture) 
● It requires warm, moist conditions for ideal multiplication. The bacteria can only 
survive away from the foot for a maximum for 7 days  
● It can be treated with dry heat, sunlight, cold and different chemicals  
● Short term immunity can be achieved with vaccines  
● Susceptibility factors include: 
- Foot shape and structure  
- The Merino breed is particularly susceptible  
● Sheep with footrot aren’t allowed to be sold or bought thus meaning the market can be 
negatively affected  
● There are also issues for farmers (who usually have a large flock) meaning they have 
to locate the root cause of the footrot, find infected sheep and treat them. This can be 
a lengthy process and also has an economic impact.  
● There can be impacts on trading and therefore affects not only the income of the 
individual farmer but the broader economy  
 
1.4 Adaptations of Pathogens  
 

● Compare the adaptations of different pathogens that facilitate their entry into and 
transmission between hosts 
 
● For an organism to cause disease it must: 
1. Enter the host 
2. Multiply in host tissues  
3. Resist or not stimulate host defence mechanisms 
4. Damage the host  

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 ● Pathogens have developed an array of strategies or adaptations to enable them to 
adhere to, gain entry to and persist in their host (these strategies are referred to as 
virulence factors)  
 
Pathogen (Entry)  Adaptation 

Prion ​(Spread between  - Prions are misfolded proteins that bind to neurons and degrades 
animals through body  them → this stops the transmission of messages 
fluids like feces, saliva,  - These misfolded proteins are resistant to high temperatures so 
blood, or urine, either  they don’t denature, they are able to resist high pressure and 
through direct contact  intestinal environment. This means they can be ingested and 
or indirectly through  survive the harsh digestive system  
environmental  - The host’s B lymphocytes are thought to play a role by secreting 
contamination of soil,  factors that enable prions to invade follicular dendritic cells in 
food or water.)  lymphoid tissue 
- From lymphoid tissue, prions invade nervous tissue through the 
autonomic nerves and travel to the brain  
- Prions can also ‘piggyback’ on other proteins such as ferritin (in 
meat) to facilitate movement through the stomach  

Virus (​ Transmission  - Viruses adapt to their hosts by evading defense mechanisms and 
can occur through  taking over cellular metabolism for their own benefit. They then 
indirect or direct  replicate in order to spread the infection. 
contact with  - Viruses are able to adapt to vaccines. Viruses continue replication 
contaminated surfaces  and spread to other hosts, ensuring the continuity of the virus as 
or organisms)  they rely on the host to survive.  
- A virus can evolve to vaccines by altering the shape of an antigen, 
making a vaccine less effective against the virus  
- Viruses used adhesion and they must enter the nucleus of the host 
cell to facilitate replication of the viral genome  
- The viral surface proteins adhere to host cell surface receptors 
- Invasion also occurs within a virus's virulence factors. 
Receptor-mediated endocytosis (movement of the virus into the 
cell) is involved. 
- Enveloped viruses (e.g. influenza) are enclosed within an envelope 
formed from the host cell membrane as they move into the cell. 
They can mutate and evolve frequently to produce new antigens.  
- Non-enveloped viruses (e.g. polio virus) form a pore in the host cell 
membrane and deliver the viral genome through it  
- Some viruses use the cell’s normal membrane-forming processes, 
follow a route through the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body 
and then bud off the surface 

Bacteria ​(Transmission  - Bacterial evolution: the genetic changes that a bacterium 

can occur through  accumulates during its lifetime, which come from adaptations in 
indirect or direct  response to environmental changes 
contact with  - Due to their short generation times and large population sizes, 
contaminated surfaces  bacteria has the ability to evolve rapidly. Bacteria evolve so quickly 
or organisms)  because their huge populations offer many opportunities for 
mutations and because they undergo h ​ orizontal gene transfer 

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 which involves the movement of DNA between organisms other 
than from parents.  
- Bacteria’s ‘generation time’ is around 20 minutes meaning the time 
they take to grow and produce offspring 
- Bacteria develop antibiotic resistance, resistance genes are found 
in plasmids. They acquire resistance from mutations during 
replication or through horizontal gene transfer. Antibiotic 
resistance can occur relatively quickly.  
- Bacteria can survive under extreme conditions (temperature and 
pressure). To do so, the enzymes must adapt to have the right level 
of stability and flexibility (e.g. under high pressure, the enzyme is 
compressed and becomes more rigid). The DNA gives instructions 
for the enzymes so mutations may assist in bacteria  
- Bacteria can acquire new genetic material from other bacteria 
(horizontal gene transfer), or even viruses and plants. This means 
they can evolve suddenly + rapidly rather than slowly adapting 
- Pili and fimbriae help with a ​ dhesion​. Pili is a hair like structure 
found on the surface of bacteria.he short attachment pili or 
fimbriae are organelles of adhesion allowing bacteria to colonize 
environmental surfaces or cells and resist flushing.  
- Adhesions on the surface of the bacterial cell resist washing action 
secretions such as urine, mucus, cilia  
- Translocation of bacterial proteins cause host cell membrane 
engulfment of bacteria  
- Bacterial cells also form a biofilm 
- In terms of​ invasion​ enzymes such as collagenase break down cell 
contents  
- Capsules are used to resist phagocytosis  
- Toxins are also secreted to damage host cells (endotoxins and 
exotoxins) 
- Helicobacter pylor​i is a type of bacteria that causes stomach 
infections and ulcers in humans. The mucous membrane contains 
antibodies to bind to pathogens to prevent them from invading the 
body and also contains lysozyme which aids in the breaking down 
of bacterial cell walls. The H.pylori bacteria uses its flagella and 
chemotaxis to move through the mucous membrane and bind to 
the epithelial cells of the stomach. 

Fungi (​ Fungi reproduce  - Fungus can adapt to have the ability to secrete necrotic factors 
by spreading  which are enzymes that break down portions of the cell membrane. 
microscopic spores.  This allows hypha to enter the host cell’s cytoplasm. 
These spores are often  - Fungi have heat shock proteins that allow them to tolerate body 
present in the air and  temperatures of 37°C 
soil, where they can be  - Fungi have adapted to develop a cell wall and capsules which 
inhaled or come into  protect fungi from host attacks  
contact with the  - Fungi have adapted to increase the surface area of their gills which 
surfaces of the body,  has increased the amount of spores that can disperse and  
primarily the skin)  - produce meaning they can survive for longer in the host 
- Fungi have adapted to have a thick cell wall, this has allowed for 
the spores to survive for longer periods on surfaces as well as 

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 providing better protection from adverse environments   
- In terms of adhesion, fungi are assisted by cell wall or capsule 
molecules that permit adhesion to host cells 
- In terms of invasion, thermotolerance is involved meaning heat 
shock proteins are synthesised to cope with body temperature 
(higher than air temperature) 
- Fungi cell wall and capsules protect them from host cell attacks  
- Secretion of enzymes causes damage to host cells and provides 
nutrients for the fungus  

Protozoan  - For the most part, parasitic protozoans live in a fairly constant 
(Transmission through  environment. Many protozoans respond to adverse environmental 
direct, faecal-oral,  conditions by encysting: they secrete a thick, tough wall around 
vector-borne and  themselves and effectively enter a quiescent state comparable to 
predator-prey  hibernation. 
transmission, sexual  - Toxoplasma gondii: ​microtubule protrusion into host cell facilitates 
transmission)  entry and formation of a vacuolar membrane gives protection from 
lysosomes  
- Trypansoma cruzi: ​uses in receptor-mediated attachment, recruits 
lysosomes to fuse with cell membranes. Pathogen enters vacuole 
made of lysosomal membrane then deactivates the enzymes 

Macro-parasite  - An example of a macro-parasite is hookworms larvae. They are 

(Transmission through  able to penetrate the skin such as between toes via hair follicles. If 
contact with  they are able to successfully enter the host, they will be carried to 
contaminated soil or  the heart and lungs by the bloodstream.  
water, or through the  - Through coughing and swallowing, hookworm larvae will enter the 
consumption of  small intestines, the site where they mature and develop eggs. The 
intermediate hosts)  adaptation in this is shown through the hookworms long chances 
of survival and receiving maximum benefit from the host but also 
have used their hooks to increase chance of survival through 
hooking onto small intestines etc.  
- During the time the hookworm remains in the body and intestines, it 
can cause many diseases such as by penetrating intestinal walls 
with their hooks 
- Hookworms can secrete proteins that reduce host cell immune 
responses. Third larval stage in soil invades host via hair follicles 
and migrates through circulation to lungs and intestines  
- Ticks have highly specialised mouthparts which are inserted into 
host skin to attach. The tick is anchored in the skin by ‘attachment 
cement’. Biologically active molecules are secreted in saliva to 
prevent vasontricion and to prevent the host from forming a clot or 
initiating an inflammatory response. 
 
 
 
 
Pathogen  Adaptation 
(Transmission) 

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Water   - Bacteria and protozoa can have a flagellum (tail) to help them swim 
through the water 
- Can be resistant to chlorine - meaning they survive the chemical that 
should kill them e.g. Staphylococcus aureus 

Air   - These pathogenic agents are in air droplets as a result of sneezing or 
coughing, passing from one organism to another. 
- These pathogens are capable of floating in air due to light weight and can 
survive suspended in the air for long periods of time, before infecting 
animals via the upper or lower respiratory tract. 
- Diseases that are commonly spread through air transmission include 
bacterial meningitis, SARS, and influenza. 

Oral   - A framework of fecal-oral transmission: Enteric pathogens can be 

transmitted between humans by the fecal-oral route via direct contact or 
indirect contact via contaminated fluids, including surface water, food, and 
carriers such as fomites 
- Main causes of fecal–oral disease transmission include lack of adequate 
sanitation (leading to open defecation), and poor hygiene practices.  
- If soil or water bodies are polluted with fecal material, humans can be 
infected with waterborne diseases or soil-transmitted diseases.  
- Fecal contamination of food is another form of fecal-oral transmission.  
- Washing hands properly after changing a baby's diaper or after performing 
anal hygiene can prevent foodborne illness from spreading 

Vector   - Vector transmission occurs when a living organism carries an infectious 

agent on its body (mechanical) or as an infection host itself (biological), to 
a new host.  
- This occurs commonly through arthropods (e.g. mosquitos, flies, ticks etc) 
as well as some plants and fungi and mammals such as birds and pigs 
- Vector transmission relies heavily on macroparasites, as these parasitic 
organisms are the way in which vector transmission occurs. 
- These macroparasites have adaptations that have allowed them to be 
most efficient and successful in transmitted pathogens into the host as 
well as surviving in the host. For example Tapeworms have many 
adaptations such as strong suckers and hooks for attachment to the lining 
of the small intestine. They’re also thin and flattened and have a very large 
surface area for absorption of nutrients 

Sexual   - Sexual transmissions happen during sexual intercourse have the ability to 
enter the uterus; they are also able to survive in the placenta and transmit 
disease when organisms consume the placenta. An example of this is HIV 
virus. 
 
   

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TOPIC 2 - Responses to Pathogens 
Inquiry Question: How does a plant or animal respond to infection? 
 
2.1 Plant Responses 
 

● Investigate the response of a named Australian plant to a named pathogen through 

research. For example: 
- Fungal pathogens 
- Viral pathogens  
 
Species to be investigated → M ​ usa (Musa acuminata banksia a ​ nd ​Musa jackeyi) 
Pathogen → Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV) 
 
Features of ​Musa​: 
● Bananas are a large herbaceous flowering plant that grow from a corm which is a 
swollen stem-based covered with scale leaves 
● The plant consists of an apparent trunk that is actually large leaves rolled over one 
another. A sucker will shoot from the corm to grow into another banana plant. Inside 
the rolled part of a leaf, there is a bud that will produce flowers which form a large 
spike that produces bananas  
 
Viral Pathogen: 
● Banana bunchy top virus (BBTW) is a single-stranded DNA viral disease of bananas 
that is transmitted from plant to plant by aphids (small sap-sucking insects) 
● There can also be transmission when transplanting occurs in an infected plant. The 
infected plant gets moved near other uninfected plants and the uninfected ones 
become infected. 
● The virus stunts leaf growth making young leaves appear yellow and ‘bunched’ and 
usually prevents the plant from producing fruit  
● The virus affects phloem tissue and when the infected cells die they are lighter in 
colour causing the area near the leaf stem to have a streaky appearance. The suckers 
of infected plants will also be diseased. 
● There has been research into resistant varieties of bananas  
● Most control measures involve controlled the aphid vectors (e.g. using chemical 
treatments and monitoring alternate vector feeding sites)  
● Biosecurity measures are also used to prevent the transportation of infected fruit and 
plant material  
● BBTV has a significant agricultural impact and outbreaks impact on quality production 
and trade.  
 
Banana Plant Response: 
● The pathogen means that a bunch isn’t able to grow from the plant or a bunch is 
produced with very little fruit  
● The banana plant responds by bunching it’s leaves and any new leaves that grow are 
much shorter than previous ones  

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 ● Infected plant are never able to recover from bunchy top and has to be destroyed if it is 
found to be infected  
● Symptoms usually appear in the second leaf to emerge after inoculation and consist of 
a few dark-green streaks or dots on the minor veins on the lower portion of the lamina. 
The streaks form 'hooks' as they enter the midrib and are best seen from the underside 
of the leaf in transmitted light. The 'dot-dash' symptoms can sometimes also be seen 
on the petiole.  
● The following leaf may display whitish streaks along the secondary veins when it is 
still rolled. These streaks become dark green as the leaf unfurls.  
● Successive leaves become smaller, both in length and in width of the lamina, and often 
have chlorotic, upturned margins. The leaves become dry and brittle and stand more 
erect than normal giving the plant a rosetted and 'bunchy top' appearance. 
● A technique known as RNA silencing is employed by plants, where plants recognize the 
viral genetic material and copy it so other cells can respond to the virus 
 
2.2 Physical and Chemical Barriers  
 

● Analyse responses to the presence of pathogens by assessing the physical and 

chemical changes that occur in the host animal cells and tissues  
 
Physical Barriers: 
● Skin: Consists of outer epidermis, dermis, hypodermis. Good blood supply = access for 
WBCs, RBCs, platelets. Epidermis is covered in keratin (waterproof protein = extra 
barrier). Upper epidermis = barrier of dead skin cells. 
● Mucous membrane: Line body cavities. Features—cilia (to remove particles), secrete 
protective substances (mucus traps and flushes away foreign substances) 
● Tight junctions: Line blood vessels to prevent diffusion of pathogens. 
● Peristalsis: Alimentary canal (mouth to anus) contracts, moving food and preventing 
bacteria from reproducing. 
● Vomiting, diarrhoea, increased urination: expel harmful substances and pathogens. 
 
Chemical Barriers 
● Urine: Antimicrobial peptides secreted along urinary tract prevent bacteria binding to 
cells and break down bacterial cell 
● Sweat: Secretes lysosomes that lyse (break down) bacterial cell walls 
● Saliva: Has a flushing action and antimicrobial molecules. 
● Tears: Produced by lacrimal glands, contains antimicrobial substances. 
● Gastric secretions: Hydrochloric acid’s high acidity discourages growth and survival of 
microbes 
 

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2.2.1 Plant  
 

 
Plant Barriers: 
● In both natural and cultivated environments, plants have inherent disease-resistance 
strategies. These defences can either be passive (chemical or physical) or active (after 
the pathogen has been recognised) 
● If a plant is able to prevent a pathogen from invading its tissue or prevent the pathogen 
from reproducing then it will be resistant to that pathogen → This process depends on 
a complex interaction between the plant and the pathogen at the time of infection 
 

 
Passive Defences → P ​ lants have two major types of passive defences against pathogen 
invasion: physical barriers and chemical barriers. 
 
Physical Barriers: 
● Physical barriers include: 
- Thick cuticle  
- Cell walls  
- Small stomata  

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 ● Some pathogens secrete enzymes down the cuticle and so plants with thicker cuticles 
are better able to withstand this.  
● Bark offers plants extra protection against pathogens that otherwise might invade and 
try to each the food source (sap) in the phloem beneath the bark 
● Vertical hanging leaves (that don’t accumulate a water film) reduce the likelihood of 
pathogen reservoirs building up on the outside of the leaves 
● Stomata open up during humid weather conditions and rainstorms which helps to 
regulate water in the plant but this also means pathogens can enter at this time 
 
Chemical Barriers: 
● Chemical barriers such as the presence of chemical compounds in the tissues of 
plants, can reduced fungal and bacterial growth and ward off vectors of viruses  
● Examples of chemicals include: 
- Glucosides  
- Saponins  
- Citronella → repels insects  
● Plants may also produce enzymes that break down pathogen-derived toxins  
● Chemical receptors on plant cells can detect that presence of a pathogen and activate 
the next stage of defence  
 
Active Defences → ​When its passive barriers are breached, the plant is now at grave risk of 
harm. The next line of defence involves more targeting responses by the plant. Three major 
groups of responses are involved: recognition of the pathogen, rapid response and delayed 
response.  
 
Pathogen recognition: 
● Plants are able to recognise pathogens by detecting certain physical and chemical 
signals including fragments from the cell walls of bacteria and fungi 
● Genes within the cells of the plant regulate plant responses 
 
Rapid active response: 
● Usually takes minutes - days  
● Recognition of a pathogen by proteins on the surface of cells in plants causes changes 
in the permeability of the plant cell membrane  
● This means ions have move into the cell and this triggers defence responses by 
activating the expression of certain genes  
● The release of hydrogen peroxide in an oxidative burst can kill microbes directly. This 
release of hydrogen peroxide if often used in experiments as a chemical indication of a 
plant immune response  
● Another response is reinforcement of the cell wall with aggregates of material in the 
cytoplasm near a defect in the wall → this is known as cell wall apposition 
● A third response is programmed cell death (apoptosis) which causes a cluster of dead 
plant cells to accumulate around the pathogen to isolate it, followed by the secretion 
of antimicrobial compounds  
 
 

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Delayed active response: 
● Usually takes days  
● Delayed active responses limit the spread of the pathogen 
● One important strategy is to repair wounds in the bark through cork cell production and 
gum secretion  
● Lysozyme-like chemicals are also released and have an antimicrobial action  
● Salicylic acid may act as a signalling agent of subsequent infections and play a role in 
the plant’s memory of a particular pathogen → This is known as systemic acquired 
resistance and limits the severity of subsequent infections with that pathogen 
 
Adaptations in plants: 

 
2.2.2 Animals  
 
Physical and Chemical Response: 
● Pathogen presence:  
- Invasive pathogens will be recognised immediately by phagocytes (macrophages 
and neutrophils), they are ingested and destroyed by the process of phagocytosis 
- In the process these phagocytes release chemicals such as hydrogen peroxide and 
nitric oxide which helps them engulf and digest the pathogen  
- These phagocytes will then release cytokines and histamines to assist with the 
inflammatory response  
● Phagocytosis → is the process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a 
large particle 
 
Role of Inflammation:  
● Inflammation brings plasma proteins and phagocytes to the site of infection (to 
destroy the pathogen) 
● Inflammation provides a physical barrier which prevents further spread of the infection 
(makes host aware) 
● Inflammation also promotes the repair of damaged cells 
● Histamines are also involved in the inflammatory response and have a central role as a 
mediator of itching. Histamines increase the permeability of the capillaries to white 

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 blood cells and some proteins, to allow them to engage pathogens in the infected 
tissues. 
 
The inflammatory response (initiated within minutes of infection or injury) includes: 
1. Pain - nerve pain or pain from chemical response  
2. Heat  
3. Redness  
4. Swelling  
5. Loss of function  
 

 
 
Process of Inflammation: 
● The blood vessels dilate to increase blood flow to affected area (allows more red and 
white blood cells and complement proteins)  
● There is increased permeability of blood vessels to that the white blood cells and 
complement proteins can move out of the bloodstream and into tissues easily  
● Physical changes: 
- Increased diameter of blood vessels  
- Increased blood flow and volume to the affected area  
- This results in redness, heat and swelling to the area or tissues affected (visibly 
seen/felt by host) 
- As white blood cells and defense proteins move out of the now wider blood vessels 
and into the issue, they accumulate and build up in the site of the infection and this 
causes the swelling and pain we feel in the site of infection 
● Chemical changes: 
- When the blood vessels are activated it causes the cells lining this area to release 
adhesion chemicals. These help the white blood cells that are flowing into the area to 
‘stick’ or bind to the site of infection  
- Once the endothelial cells in the blood vessels have been activated, they also release 
proteins and chemicals that support blood clotting  

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 - This helps reduce the loss of blood but also creates a border and prevents the 
pathogen from spreading out of the tissue and into the bloodstream (this prevents 
sepsis)  
 
Redness   Heat   Swelling   Pain   Loss of function 

Caused by  Increased  Caused by  Direct injury of  Increased pain 
dilation of  chemical  accumulation of  nerve fibers,  of swelling  
arterioles/incre activity and  blood and  pressure of 
ased blood flow  increased blood  damaged tissue  hematoma on 
flow to skin  cells   nerve endings. 
surface  Chemical irritants 
- bradykinin, 
histamine, 
prostaglandin  
 
Summary of Physical and Chemical Changes: 
 
Chemical changes  Physical changes  

Hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide produced by  Increased diameter of blood vessels which 
phagocytes helps to kill pathogen   results in increased blood flow 

Phagocytes release cytokines that initiate the  Increased permeability of blood vessels and this 
inflammatory response  therefore allows more RBC and WBC flow 
through vessels into tissue  

Adhesion proteins and chemicals are secreted  Increased body and tissue temperature to 
by endothelial cells lining the blood vessels  support inflammation and destroy pathogen  
during inflammation  

Proteins and chemicals that initiate blood  Development of blood clots 

clotting are secreted by endothelial cells lining 
the blood vessels during inflammation 
 
Physical Responses (Examples): 
 
Granuloma’s (Sealing off the pathogen) 
● Sometimes cells die to seal off an area of tissue that is infected and is not being 
successfully defended by the body. If the infected cells are surrounded by a wall of 
dead cells, this prevents the infection from spreading to other areas and infecting 
them. 
● This wall of dead cells forms a capsule known as a granuloma. The cells inside the 
granuloma die, causing the destruction of the pathogens that are infecting them.  
● The debris inside the granuloma is destroyed by macrophages that have surrounded 
the ‘walled off’ area  
● The bacteria that cause tuberculosis and leprosy (Mycobacterium spp.) typically 
caused granuloma formations  

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 ● Granulomas in the lungs are referred to as tubercles (thus tuberculosis) 
● Granuloma formation is part of the second line of defence  
 
Vomiting (response to toxin in digestive system): 
● Vomiting (emesis) is a reflex action coordinated by the vomiting centre 
(chemoreceptor trigger zone) of the brain 
● It happens in response to many different signals, one of which is the presence of 
pathogens in the gut (gastroenteritis) 
● It is the body’s way of expelling harmful substances. Interestingly, hypersalivation 
occurs before vomiting in order to protect your tooth enamel from stomach acid 
 
Frequent urination (symptom of UTI): 
● When the bladder lining is attacked by a pathogen, a common response by the body is 
inflammation (​cystitis​) and the need to pass frequent small amounts of urine 
(​pollakiuria) 
● This is thought to be a response by the body to help flush out pathogens 
 
Chemical Responses: 
 
The Complement System (Innate Immunity): 
● A group of around 30 soluble proteins that assist other defence mechanisms in 
destroying extracellular pathogens.  
● These proteins are usually inactive (when we are healthy) but when a pathogen breaks 
through the barriers to infection, the complement system becomes activated  
● These complement proteins can stimulate phagocytes to become more active, attract 
phagocytes to the site of the infection or destroy the membranes of the invading 
pathogen 
● Complement proteins are manufactured in liver cells and macrophages  
● These proteins circulate in the blood and are a part of the initial response to infection  
● During the third line of defence, some pathogens bind to proteins in the blood called 
antibodies  
● Complement proteins are attracted to pathogen-antibody complexes and bind to them 
as well. A layer of complement proteins now coats the antigen-antibody complex. This 
acts as a signal for phagocytes and other lymphocytes called B cells (third line of 
defence) to destroy the pathogen  
● This enhancement process is called opsonization. Some complement proteins can 
‘punch’ holes in microbial cell membranes, causing the cell contents to leak out. All 
these processes form part of the innate immune response to pathogens  
● They also ‘flag’ antigens for removal, this enhances the activity of phagocytes and 
antibodies  
 
Pyrogens and its role in fever: 
● The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that contains a special cluster of cells 
responsible for regulating body temperature 
● It acts like a thermostat to initiate responses to keep the body temperature within a 
certain set range. Normal body temperature of humans is 37 degrees 

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 ● The body may react to pathogens by altering the hypothalamic set point of body 
temperature and allowing the tissue to heat up. It does this by releasing ‘fever-causing’ 
chemicals known as pyrogens 
● Humans experience this elevation in body temperature as a fever. The purpose of a 
fever is to kill or limit the growth of pathogens  
● It may also enhance the activity of white blood cells and thereby strengthen the 
response of the presence of the pathogen  
● The scientific name for fever is pyrexia. Fever is usually accompanied by sweating, 
chills, muscle aches and general weakness 
● Although a temporary and mild fever is a normal response to pathogen invasion, very 
high fever for a prolonged period is a cue to seek further medical advice as it may be a 
sign of significant illness and elevated blood temperature in the brain can cause 
seizures  
● An unexplained fever in a child, especially younger than three months is cause for 
investigation by a doctor  

 
 
Cytokines (Innate Immunity): 
● Cytokines are chemical messengers that are produced during an infection and they 
promote the development and differentiation of T and B lymphocytes for the third line 
of defence  
● One example is interleukin (IL). These chemicals form a link between the innate and 
adaptive immune systems.  
● A burst of cytokines occurs as infected cells signal to nearby uninfected cells to also 
release cytokines.  
● Interferons are another example of cytokines. They act as a chemical signal to viruses 
to stop replicating. They do this by signalling to uninfected cells to destroy RNA and 
reduce protein synthesis.  
● Infected cells are also signalled to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death) 
● Cytokines play a role in the feelings of lethargy, muscle pain and nausea that is 
experienced if there is an infection present. The implication of this is that the animal 

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 isolates itself and rests and is therefore prevented from spreading the infection to 
other animals 
 
TOPIC 3 - Immunity 
Inquiry Question: How does the human immune system respond to exposure to a 
pathogen? 
 
3.1 Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems 
 
● Investigate and model the innate and adaptive immune systems in the human body  
● Explain how the immune system responds after primary exposure to a pathogen, 
including innate and acquired immunity 
 
Protecting the Body: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
There are two types of immunity: 
1. Innate (non-specific) 
- First line and second of immune response 
- Relies on mechanisms that exist before infection 
2. Adaptive (specific) 
- Third line of response (if innate fails) 
- Relies on mechanisms that adapt after infection  
- Handled by T- and B- lymphocytes 
- One cell determines one antigenic determinant 
 
 

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3.1.1 Innate Immunity 
Innate immunity refers to nonspecific defense mechanisms that come into play immediately 
or within hours of an antigen's appearance in the body. These mechanisms include physical 
barriers such as skin, chemicals in the blood, and immune system cells that attack foreign 
cells in the body. 
 
First Line of Defence:  
● There are physical and chemical barriers in the first line of defence: 
- Non-specific natural barriers which restrict entry of a pathogen 
- Protects the body at all possible entry points 
- Main aim is to prevent pathogens entering the body 
● There are several components of the 1st line: 
 
1. Skin barrier: 
● The skin barrier has two layers (epidermis and dermis).  
● Epidermis: Thin outer layer of epithelial tissue which contains langerhans cells. 
● Dermis: Thick inner layer of connective tissue.  
● The skin covers the entire 
body. The dead outer cells 
are difficult for microbes to 
penetrate unless it’s broken.  
● The sebaceous glands 
produce sebum which 
combine with our natural 
bacteria to prevent the 
growth of some harmful 
bacteria and fungi.  
● Skin cells are very tightly 
packed making it difficult for 
pathogens to get through. If 
the skin is broken, blood clotting quickly seals the wound to prevent entry of 
pathogens. 
 
2. Mucous membranes (physical): 
● These line the respiratory, digestive, reproductive and urinary tracts with slimy 
mucous.  
● This allows for exchange of substances when needed. It protects against invasion 
by the presence of IgA, an antibody that reacts to potential pathogens.  
 
3. Cilia (physical):  
● Cilia are minute hairs that protect respiratory surfaces.  
● They sweep mucous along to an opening where they can be 
coughed out or swallowed.  
● Cilia are found in the trachea, nose and bronchial tubes.  
 
 

33
  
4. Chemical barriers: 
● Chemical barriers include stomach acid/gastric juice which is a mixture of 
hydrochloric acid, enzymes and mucus.  
● pH between 1.2-3 kills many microbes and destroys most toxins.  
● Helicobacter pylori​ neutralises stomach acid and can grow in the stomach, 
causing gastritis and ulcers. 
 
5. Other secretions: 
● Urine → a sterile acidic liquid that cleanses the urethra and prevents growth of 
microorganisms  
● Saliva → washes microbes from teeth and mouth mucous membranes 
● Vaginal secretions → create acidic conditions which inhibit the growth of some 
bacteria and fungi 
 
The Second Line of Defence: 
● If the pathogen has managed to get past the first line of defence, there is a second set 
of mechanisms in our second line of defence  
● These barriers keep most pathogens out of the body. If pathogens do manage to enter 
the body, the body's second line of defense attacks them. The second line of defense 
includes inflammation, phagocytosis, and fever 
 
1. Inflammatory response: 
● After invasion of a pathogen or damage to cells, 
the area can become red, swollen, hot and 
painful 
● Once the infected cells have been damaged they 
release chemokines which then: 
- Attract neutrophils (stop the spread) 
- They act on mast cells (causing them to release 
histamine → causes dilation of the blood vessel 
and means more can pass through to the affected 
area) 
● The purpose of inflammation is to destroy and 
remove pathogens. If destruction isn’t possible, 
to limit effects by confining the pathogen and its products.  
● Heat within inflammation aims to slow the spread (messes with the enzymes of 
the pathogens) of the pathogen to the rest of the body → gives defences time to 
kick in. The increase in temperature also means that white blood cells can work 
more effectively to eliminate the pathogen. 
● The inflammatory response also repairs and replaces tissue damaged by 
pathogen and its products 
● Blood vessels dilate to increase blood flow to affected area which then increases 
the number of RBC and WBC (also ​complement proteins​) 

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 ● There is increased permeability of blood vessels so that the WBC (such as 
phagocytes) and complement proteins can move out of bloodstream and into 
tissues easily 
● Goal of inflammation: 
- To confine the pathogen to one area 
- Destroy the pathogen  
- Remove the pathogen, its products and any damaged tissue. 
 
2. Phagocytosis (physical):  
● Carried out by phagocytes (WBCs) which move from the blood into the tissues to 
seek out, ingest and destroy pathogens  
● In early infection (hours-days) the cells present are called neutrophils 
● In chronic infection (weeks-months) the cells present are called macrophages 
● Both are phagocytes  
● Phagocytosis (multi-step process resulting in microbial death):  
1. Attachment  
2. Ingestion of pathogen and formation of a phagosome  
3. Fusion of pathogen with lysosome  
4. Digestion  
5. Release 

3. Neutrophils:  
● The neutrophils and 
macrophages recognise chemicals produced by the bacteria and migrate towards 
them  
● After investigating the foreign invader, they show pieces of the antigen on the cell 
membrane. This tells other cells what to look for so they can attack them 
 
4. Fever (physical):  
● An increase in body temperature has been known since ancient times to be 
associated with infection and inflammation 
● Normal body temperature of humans is 37 degrees and the body may react to 
pathogens by altering the hypothalamic set point of body temperature and 
allowing the tissue to heat up. It does this by releasing ‘fever-causing’ chemicals 
known as pyrogens 

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 ● Humans experience this elevation in body temperature as a fever. The purpose of 
a fever is to kill or limit the growth of pathogens  
● It may also enhance the activity of white blood cells and thereby strengthen the 
response of the presence of the pathogen 
 
5. The Lymphatic System: 
● A system of nodes, capillaries and veins that drains fluid from tissue and returns it 
to the blood. 
● Lymph is a colourless fluid , similar to blood (without the red blood cells) that 
travels through the lymphatic system, joining 
the circulatory system at the heart. 
● Swollen lymph nodes indicate the body is 
fighting infection  
● Lymph nodes: 
- Act as filters, removing microbes, 
foreign particles, tissue debris and 
dead cells from circulation. 
- Lymphocytes formed in activated 
lymph nodes travel to the bloodstream 
so they can circulate around the body 
to fight infection 
 
6. Granuloma: 
● A granuloma is a cluster of cells that 
produce a covering to seal the pathogen in that area. 
● These cells die and are surrounded by macrophages, lymphocytes and a hard 
outer covering. 
● Granulomas are produced in tuberculosis and leprosy 
 
7. Natural killer cells: 
● These are specialized white blood cells that can recognize when a cell is infected 
with a virus 
● They release a chemical while attached to the infected cell causing to undergo cell 
death – apoptosis 
● NK cells can also recognise some tumour cells and cause apoptosis in them as 
well 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

36
 
 
 
3.1.2 Adaptive Immunity 
● If the innate immune system isn’t able to expel the pathogen, adaptive immunity steps 
in 
● After the first and second lines of defence, there is another (third line) to help protect 
the body  
● The adaptive immune system is highly specific, providing specialised protection 
against pathogens which enter the body 
● Includes B and T cells as well as other factors i.e antibodies  
● Antigens are proteins found on the surface of pathogens. They are recognised as 
non-self. Antigens will trigger an immune response and by stimulating the B cells to 
produce antigen specific antibodies 
● Humoral immunity is the aspect of immunity that is mediated by macromolecules 
found in extracellular fluids such as secreted antibodies, complement proteins, and 
certain antimicrobial peptides. Humoral immunity is so named because it involves 
substances found in the humors, or body fluids. 
 
Third Line of Defence: 

 
● Antigen → any molecule that the body recognises as foreign and that triggers an 
immune response  
 
B Lymphocytes (B cells): 
● B cells are white blood cells that are formed (like all white blood cells) in the bone 
marrow  
● B cells also mature in bone marrow (hence the name B cell) 
● These B cells move into the lymph nodes (mall lumps of tissue that contain white 
blood cells, which fight infection, found in neck, groin and underarms) where they 
wait for phagocytes and other cells to present antigens to them  
● This will active them to become a certain type of B cell  
● B cells provide antibody mediated immunity  

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 ● Antigens activate the B cells to divide and differentiate into either plasma or 
memory cells 
● This is humoral immunity  
Plasma Cells (create antibodies): 
● Plasma cells secrete immunoglobulins called antibodies that are compatible with 
the antigen  
● B-cell response produces plasma cells  
● It is like a lock and key fit 
● The antibody binds to the antigen forming an antigen-antibody complex. This 
neutralises and destroys the antigen  
● This binding destroys the antigen  
● Plasma cells are found in bone marrow  
● Clone themselves very quickly using mitosis 
● Antibody strategies include: 
1. Neutralisation: deactivating a pathogen or toxin by blocking its active site. This 
mainly prevents the antigen from binding with its target  
2. Precipitation: antibodies bind to soluble antigens causing them to form insoluble 
clumps (enhances phagocytosis as the clumps are more easily removed by the 
phagocytes) 
3. Agglutination: antibodies bind to antigens on the surface of cells to form clumps of 
cells. Specifically pertains to cells instead of soluble antigens  
4. Activating the complement system: this helps to disarm pathogens, enhance 
phagocytosis, inflammation and pathogen removal by cell lysis.  
 
Shape of the antibody:  
● The shape of the antibody is important as it forms the antigen-antibody complex  
● This will help to significant other components of the immune system  
 
Memory B-cells: 
● At the time of infection and B-cell response is underway, some of the B-cells are 
made are called memory cells 
● These circulate in our body for a very long time and provide us with immunological 
memory  
● If you are re-infected with that same antigen, the memory B-cells will cause a rapid 
large scale production of the antibody required  
● Memory cells provide long term immunity 
● These cells remain dormant in lymph tissue but if the animal is exposed to the 
same antigen again, the memory cells recognise it and divide to produce 
antibody-producing plasma cells. 
● The secondary response is faster, stronger and longer lasting due to the presence 
of memory B cells → symptoms are less severe  
 
 
 
 
 

38
 
 
T lymphocytes (T cells): 

 
● T cells are formed in the bone marrow they mature in the thymus - behind the 
sternum (hence T cells) 
● T cells provide ‘cell mediated immunity’ 
● They are very effective against body cells infected by virus 
● Types of T cells: 
- Killer t cells (cytotoxic) → Destroy cells identified as ‘non-self’. They form when 
the macrophage displays the antigen on its surface. The T cells bind to the 
infected one and infects the toxic chemical (perforin) into the cell and causes it 
to rupture  
- Helper t cells (CD4 T cells) → A helper T lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell 
that serves as a key mediator of immune function. Helper T cells play a central 
role in normal immune responses by producing factors that activate virtually all 
the other immune system cells. helper T cells activate B cells to differentiate into 
plasma cells so they can produce antibodies. Also activate cytotoxic T cells to 
divide and reproduce. Cytokines are also secreted by helper T cells. This then 
allows for an increase in the activity of phagocytes, helps to promote 
inflammation and stimulates the production of cytotoxic T cells. HIV specifically 
infects helper T cells, this has a negative impact on the immune system. Helper 
cells can active the B cells into two ways: 
1. Direct contact where the helper cell touches the B cell 
2. T cell produces a chemical called a cytokine and this reacts with the B 
cell membrane and activates it  
- Suppressor (regulatory) T cells: Turn off the immune response and suppress the 
production of antibodies  
- Memory T cells: Like memory B cells, memory T cells remain in the body after 
the primary exposure to the antigen. If our body encounters that same pathogen 
later in life there will be a rapid, large scale response to it 
 
  

39
  
 
Interactions in the Immune System: 
● Humoral​ response (antibody mediated):​ Antibodies are involved in attacking 
pathogens that our outside the cells i.e. in the bloodstream or body fluids 
● Steps involved: 
1. Antigen binds to B cell 
2. Helper T cell activates B cell  
3. B cell divide and produce plasma cells  
4. Antibodies are made by the plasma cells  
5. These antibodies circulate through the blood neutralising pathogens, activating 
more phagocytes and activating the complement system (a series of proteins that 
enhance the immune response) 
6. Finally memory cells are made and provide long term immunity 
● Cell mediated response: activated when the pathogen has entered the host cells or 
tissues  
● The T cells need to be activated so they can release cytokines (chemicals) that destroy 
the antigen 
● Antigens then bind to T cells 
● Interleukins (chemicals) activate T cells to begin functioning  
● T cells divide and produce cytotoxic T cells which destroy the antigens 
 
These two systems are interrelated. B cells can’t function without T cells. Helper T cells 
induce B cells to divide, resulting in large numbers of B cells dedicated to destroying the 
antigen. T cells stimulate production of antibodies by the plasma B cells. 
 
Steps - Immune Response: 
1. Pathogen enters the body and is recognised as non-self by the antigens on its surface  

 
2. Inflammation leads to increase in diameter of blood vessels and in turn increased 
blood flow to the site as well as increased permeability allowing WBC to move into the 
infected area  
3. Non-specific responses phagocytosis (macrophages and neutrophils) occurs and 
simultaneous release cytokines that signal more WBC to help fight infection 
4. Phagocytes present the antigen to the B and T cells in the lymph nodes - where antigen 
specific B and T cells are selected an reproduce by clonal selection  

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 5. B cells differentiate into plasma cells and start secreting antibodies to bind and 
immobilise foreign cells. Simultaneously cytotoxic T cells are attacking pathogenic 
cells with cytotoxins like perforin.  
6. Memory T and B cells are produced  
7. The pathogen is cleared from the site of infection and suppressor T cells come in and 
dampen the immune response as the infection is resolved  
8. The memory B and T cells remain in circulation providing long term immunity 
 
TOPIC 4 - Prevention, Treatment and Control 
Inquiry Question: How can the spread of infectious diseases be controlled? 
 
4.1 Disease Spread 
● Investigate and analyse the wide range of interrelated factors involved in limiting local, 
regional and global spread of a named infectious disease 
 
There are three different levels we can target to control the spread of disease: local, regional 
and global.  
 
  Local   Regional   Global  

Individual-level   - Limiting person to  - Limiting person to  - Limiting person to 
person spread by  person transmission  person transmission 
employing good  through border  through travel bans and 
hygiene practices   protection (e.g. borders  restrictions  
- Covering mouth and  are closed for  - Screening and 
nose while coughing  COVID-19, Queensland,  quarantining of arrivals 
and sneezing   WA and SA)  in hotels/hospitals to 
- Washing hands with  - Screening new arrivals  ensure the incubation 
soap and water   before entering a state  period is covered and 
- Wearing PPE such as  - Although this is  the person is tested 
mask and gloves   disruptive and difficult  negative  
- Social distancing and  to implement (in the 
isolating   case of COVID-19) it is 
a necessary strategy 

Community-level   - Public health  - Quarantining areas with  - Equality in the 

campaigns (e.g. Stay  in the state (e.g. WA  distribution of 
COVID Safe) on TV and  has sectioned off their  medication and 
radio which educate  state into 3 areas and  vaccines (e.g. not 
people on mass about  people are not  apparent for COVID-19, 
how to stay safe and  permitted to move out  disadvantaged 
reduce transmission   of their section of the  countries not receiving 
- Public health and  state)  mediation/ventilators) 
community measures  - Widespread  - Global guidelines for 
to conduct widespread  surveillance of case  infection control to be 
testing for early  numbers to identify  followed (e.g. WHO 
detection of the virus   hotspots   finding origin, 
- Closure of businesses,  - Promoting prevention  transmission, how did it 

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 shops and schools   and control practices  become a pandemic) 
- Preparation of  within the community  - Global surveillance to 
hospitals and  (e.g. education groups  determine the path of 
equipment for any new  of people)  transmission (e.g. 
cases of the disease  COVID-19 was first 
(e.g ventilators for  seen in China then the 
COVID-19)   spread was monitored 
- Use of vaccination  across the world) 
campaign or antiviral 
medication to protect 
health care workers 
(not yet for COVID-19) 
 
4.2 Methods for Preventing Disease 
● Investigate procedures that can be employed to prevent the spread of disease: 
- Vaccination including passive and active immunity  
- Quarantine  
- Hygiene practices 
- Public health campaigns 
- Use of pesticides 
- Genetic engineering 
 
4.2.1 Vaccination 
● Definition → The process of making people resistant to infection caused by a 
pathogen 
● It involves receiving an injection or oral dose of vaccine that provides immunity  
● Aims to prevent the infectious disease from developing and spreading throughout the 
community. Also aims to provide antibodies and memory cells  
● What is a vaccine: 
● Preparation of live, dead or broken up pathogens that are injected so that 
immunity to a disease is developed (minus the symptoms). Allows the body to 
recognise the pathogen, not a big enough dose to make you sick but big enough 
for the body to recognise the pathogen.  
● Two types:  
1. Active immunisation (the body being challenged and body making memory cells 
and antibodies)  
2. Passive immunisation (given antibodies)  
 
Types of Vaccine: 
● Attenuated: live strains that are grown in the lab to be harmless (e.g. measles) 
● Killed/dead pathogens: killed by heat or chemicals (e.g. typhoid)  
● Fragments: part of the cell wall or virus capsid  
● Toxoid: Toxin molecule is made harmless by heat or chemicals (e.g. tetanus) 
 
Active Immunisation: 

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 ● Injection of antigen which causes the body to actively produce antibodies and provide 
long term immunity  
● Memory cells are produced in the process and provide long term immunity  
● Steps:  
1. Once vaccinated your body will produce specific antibodies to that antigen (this is 
the primary response).  
2. The memory cells will be circulating throughout the body and if exposed to that 
antigen a large scale, a rapid immune response will be activated 
3. The memory B cells will produce huge amounts of antigen-specific antibody to 
combat the pathogen and prevent the disease from affecting you 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Passive Immunisation: 
● The injection of antibodies to a specific pathogen 
● Only provides a person with short term immunity  
● Is able to last for up to 3 months before it is broken down in the body  
● Example → hepatitis A (administered prior to travel) 
 
Since the introduction of vaccinations (in Australia): 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

43
 
 
 
 
 
 
Examples of Vaccination Programs: 
● Diseases such as smallpox, diphtheria and polio are now uncommon because of 
successful vaccination programs 
Smallpox: 
● Smallpox was the first disease for which a vaccine was developed. Edward Jenner 
did this in 1796. The vaccination program that was started in the 1960s was so 
successful that the World Health Organisation (WHO) has declared it eradicated. 
● Famous for his vaccination against smallpox.  
● This disease killed one in three of those who caught it and badly disfigured those 
who survived it. 
● He was fascinated by an old wives tale that said milk maids could not get 
smallpox but could get a milder version called cowpox! 
● Testing this theory: He took some pus from cowpox blisters found on the hand of 
a milkmaid. He injected a young boy with the pus in increasing doses over a few 
days. He then injected the boy with smallpox virus! The boy became ill, but 
recovered completely after a few days with no side effect World’s first effective 
vaccination! 
● Jenner did not patent the vaccination, thereby allowing the masses to be 
vaccinated. Smallpox was officially declared eradicated in 1979 thanks to the 
work of Jenner 
 
4.2.2 Quarantine 
● Quarantine is a period of isolation to prevent the spread of contagious diseases plays 
an essential role in preventing the entry of pests and disease into Australia 
● Control of quarantine in Australia is controlled by the Department of Agriculture, more 
specifically the Quarantine and Biosecurity department 
● Inspect people, animals, plants, machinery and any other materials entering Australia  
● Role of Department of Agriculture (Quarantine and Biosecurity) 
- Australia’s Quarantine or Biosecurity program is an arm of the Department of 
Agriculture  
- It’s role is to protect Australia’s unique environment by helping mitigate the risk of the 
introduction and spread of exotic pests and diseases, often introduced through 
shipping 
- Prospective exporters or their Australian importer should first check for any 
important requirements for their products with the Department of Agricultures Import 
Conditions Database 
● Because of strict quarantine laws, Australia’s animals and plants do not have some of 
the serious diseases found elsewhere  
● Strategies:  

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 - Quarantine inspectors are on duty 24 hours a day at all major points of entry of ships 
and aircraft  
- Check people entering as well as their belongings  
- Check all cargo and mail entering the country  
- Imported animals are isolated in quarantine for a period of time to ensure they are 
free of disease  
- Imported plant seeds are inspected for the presence of weed seeds mixed in  
- Imported vehicles and farm machinery are inspected and clean so no soil or plant 
matter enters  
● Importance:  
- Because of our strict quarantine laws, Australia’s animals and plants do not have 
some of the serious diseases found elsewhere  
- If harmful diseases enter Australia, they would cause huge financial losses in lost 
profits to many industries (especially agriculture) 
- It would also be costly to attempt to bring the disease under control once it has 
entered 
- The cost of quarantine is much less than these costs would be should the diseases 
enter Australia or travel across Australia 
● Animals:  
- Foot and Mouth disease is widespread in Britain and Europe (outbreak 2001) 
- Mad cow disease and Rabies have never crossed Australian borders  
● Plants: 
- Fire blight is a bacterial disease infecting apples and pears - not present in Australia. 
The bacteria has spread from North America to Europe, the Middle East, Central 
America and New Zealand. Australia’s strict quarantine laws prohibit the entry of all 
plant material   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
● Interstate Quarantine:  

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 - Trying to prevent the spread of disease from one state to another 
- Phylloxera → insect affecting grapevines is present in Eastern Australia but not in 
South or Western Australian. If it is therefore forbidden to transport vines across 
these borders.  
- Fruit fly → insect affecting fruit causing serious damage. Fruit is forbidden from 
being transported across borders to prevent the spread of fruit flies 
 
4.2.3 Hygiene Practices 
● Washing hands, particularly with soap and water (if not available then hand sanitiser 
with an alcohol content of above 70%) 
● Cleaning surfaces regularly with disinfectant  
● Cleaning wounds  
● Undertaking responsible food preparation  
 
4.4.4 Public Health Campaigns  
● Focus on prevention, promotion and protection rather than on treatment  
● Focus on populations rather than individuals  
● Focus on the factors and behaviours that cause illness and injury rather than the 
illness and injury itself  
● Communicable Disease Control:  
- Certain diseases in Australia are classified as ‘notifiable’ (inform the government so 
they can keep track of what is happening) e.g. AIDS, Anthrax, measles. 
- Other diseases require a quarantine period e.g. Cholera, Rabies, Smallpox. Needle 
and syringe programs are also used in control of communicable disease.  
● Health Promotion: Health promotion campaigns that address health risks such as sun 
exposure, poor nutrition and physical inactivity. (e.g. Healthy Harold, Slip Slop Slap) 
● Organised immunisation: Immunisation clinics, school immunisation programs, 
immunisation education, public awareness, immunisation databases and information 
systems.  
● Food standards and hygiene: Development, review and implementation of food 
standards, regulations and legislation as well as the testing of food by regularly 
agencies  
● Screening programs: Breast cancer screening, cervical screening and bowel cancer 
screening programs  
● Prevention of hazardous and harmful drug use: Reduce and prevent the overuse or 
abuse of alcohol, tobacco, illicit and other drugs of dependence 
 
4.4.5 Use of Pesticides  
● Widely used to treat materials brought into Australia  
● Poison is sprayed to kill insects especially crops, homes and other areas  
● However it is known that over use of pesticides can lead to resistance in a population  
 
4.4.6 GMOs 
● Genetically engineered crops to contain resistant genes (resistant to pests and 
diseases) 

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 ● Bt cotton is a disease resistant crop. They produce a poison as they grow which kills 
the cotton pest Heliothis  
● Again, the organism can become resistant due to natural selection  
 
4.3 Pharmatucial Treatments  
● Investigate and assess the effectiveness of pharmaceuticals as treatment strategies 
for the control of infectious disease: 
- Antibiotics  
- Antivirals  
 
4.3.1 Antibiotics  
● Chemicals produced by microorganisms that kill or stop the growth of bacteria and 
fungi  
● Many antibiotics have been discovered but only a few are effective against bacteria 
without harming the host 
 
Penicillin: 
● Discovered in 1928 by Alexander Flemming  
● Australian, Howard Florey purified the Penicillium strain for use to produce the 
penicillin antibiotics and started large scale production 
● Proved effective against staphylococcus  
 
How do they work? 
● Penicillin: destroy cells wall of bacteria 
● Streptomycin: disrupts protein synthesis  
● Amphotericin: destroys cell membranes 
● Broad spectrum: kill many different types of bacteria (including non-pathogenic forms) 
● Narrow spectrum: kill one or two specific bacteria 
 
Importance:  
● Large scale production of antibiotics occurred during and post WWII. This reduced 
world infant mortality and eradicated many deadly diseases 
● The spread of bacterial infections can be controlled by the widespread use of 
antibiotics. This can then restrict the spread of disease to other cities or countries, 
reducing the incidence of epidemics 
 
Antibiotic Resistance: 
● Indiscriminate or incorrect use of antibiotics can act as a selecting agent on the 
bacteria, resulting in the evolution of multi-resistant strains that are difficult to kill 
● This, in-turn can lead to a worldwide epidemic and the spread of disease, without a 
current treatment to prevent its spread  
● Antibiotics are effective against many urinary tract infections, most ear infections and 
some sinus infections but are ineffective against all colds and flu, most coughs and 
most sore throats.  
 
   

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4.3.2 Antivirals  
Viral Replication:  
● A virus cannot replicate on their own but instead must attach to and enter a host cell 
● It then uses the host cell’s energy to synthesize protein (makes more of the virus), DNA 
and RNA  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
● Viruses are different to kill because they live inside cells 
● This means that any drug that kills a virus may also kill the host cells - this is not 
beneficial to the host as it can cause serious harm  
 
How do they work? 
● Doesn’t destroy it but instead inhibits growth 
● Used to control viral infections by interfering with the virus life cycle and slowing it 
down 
● This allows our immune system to ‘catch up’ and deal with the virus naturally  
● The antiviral will also help with preventing further spread of the virus  
● Able to enter the cells infected with virus  
● Interfere with viral nucleic acid synthesis and regulation  
● Some drugs interfere with ability of the virus to bind to cells  
● Some drugs stimulate the body’s immune system  
● Best responses to antiviral drugs are in patients with complement immune system i.e. 
not immunocompromised  
● A healthy immune system works synergistically with the drug to eliminate or suppress 
viral activity   
 
Types Available:  
● Cytomegalovirus (CMV)  
● Hepatitis viruses (A-E) 
● Herpes viruses (e.g. cold sores) 
● Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 
● Varicella (chicken pox and shingles) 
● Influenza viruses (the flu) 
● Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) 

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4.4 Environmental Management and Quarantine Methods 
● Investigate and evaluate environmental management and quarantine methods used to 
control an epidemic or pandemic 
 
Ebola Virus (2014-16) 
● Severe infectious disease, causes rapid death (50% death rate), spread through direct 
contact, a zoonose. 
● Management incl. broad spectrum antibiotics, replacement of lost fluids. 
● Admin control—organisation of response, allocation of tasks 
● Environmental control—facilities for barrier nursing, hand hygiene, waste management 
(leak proof bags, covered bins), PPE (masks, gloves, waterproof boots, respirator, suit), 
surfaces sterilised every day. 
● Quarantine—isolate patients in a single room/at least 3m between patient beds. Same 
clinical staff and equipment assigned to single patients. Visits restricted. 
● Work with and educate the community on transmission and prevention. 
 
 
4.5 Incidence and Prevalence Data  
● Interpret data relating to the incidence and prevalence of infectious disease in 
populations. For example: 
- Mobility of individuals and the portion that are immune or immunised 
- Dengue Fever in South East Asia 
Definitions: 
● Incidence → the frequency of new cases of a disease over a specified period of time  
● Prevalence → the proportion of a particular population affected by a disease 
● Mortality rates → the number of deaths within a particular population as a result of a 
certain disease, over a specified period of time  
 
4.5.1 Mobility of Individuals 
● Incidence: New cases during a certain time 
● Prevalence: Proportion of population with a disease at a certain time. 
● Historical mobility 
- Silk Road → trade route from China to Europe this spread the Black Death. 
- Christopher Columbus → introduced 30 infectious diseases into the Americas e.g. 
smallpox, malaria. 
● Modern mobility 
- Mobility in WWI spread the Spanish flu → killed more people than died in the war 
- HIV → originated in Democratic Republic of Congo. Increased, improved, cheaper 
travel options -> pandemic by 1980s. 
- Urbanisation → overcrowding, pressure on healthcare, increasing homeless 
population, poor living conditions which leads to the spread of disease e.g. TB, ebola. 
● About 86% of the global population is immunised today. 
 
4.5.2 Dengue Fever in South-East Africa 
● Description:  
- Mosquito-borne tropical disease caused by dengue virus  

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 - Spread by the Aedes types of mosquito  
- Infection results in fever, headache, joint pain and fatigue  
- May lead to development of dengue hemorrhagic fever or develop into dengue shock 
syndrome 
● Viral illness  
● Commonly found in Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Philippines, 
Singapore 
● A mosquito-borne viral illness caused by a flavivirus  
● There are four different serotypes and the virus is carried by the A
​ edes aegypti 
mosquito 
● It is found in tropical and subtropical areas  
● Found in Northern Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory 
● Symptoms:  
- Range from asymptomatic to severe flu-like symptoms (aches, fever and fatigue)  
- Small proportion of cases develop severe dengue which involves hemorrhaging and 
multiorgan failure, then death can follow hen not treated correctly  
 
Epidemiology:  
● Dengue was identified in the 1950s ater epidemics in Thailand and the Philippines - 
today it has spread to most Asian countries and its incidence has been climbing ever 
since  
● Also found in South America, Africa and Australia  
 
Incidence and Prevalence: 
● The incidence of dengue has grown dramatically around the world in recent decades  
● A vast majority of cases are self-managed and hence the actual numbers of dengue 
cases are under-reported. Many cases are also misdiagnosed as other febrile 
illnesses. 
● One modelling estimate indicates 390 million dengue virus infections per year (95% 
credible interval 284–528 million), of which 96 million (67–136 million) manifest 
clinically (with any severity of disease). Another study on the prevalence of dengue 
estimates that 3.9 billion people are at risk of infection with dengue viruses. Despite a 
risk of infection existing in 129 countries, 70% of the actual burden is in Asia. 
● The number of dengue cases reported to WHO increased over 15 fold over the last two 
decades, from 505,430 cases in 2000 to over 2,400,138 in 2010 and 3,312,040 in 2015. 
Deaths from 2000 to 2015 increased from 960 to more than 40 
 
Incidence:  
● There are 390 million infections globally (per year)  
● Current global estimates are that 3.9 billion people in 128 countries are at risk of 
infection  
● 75% of the global population exposed to DF live in the Asia-Pacific region  
● 2019 (worst year on record) → High number of cases were reported in Bangladesh 
(101,000), Malaysia (131,000) Philippines (420,000), Vietnam (320,000) in Asia. 

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 ● More than a million cases were reported in south-east Asia in 2019 with poorer 
households most at risk. The epidemic is exacerbated by poor infrastructure and lack 
of access to healthcare, with struggling health services overwhelmed by outbreaks. 
● In the Philippines, there have been more than 1,000 deaths and 403,000 cases were 
reported in 2019 – a 98% increase in 2018. In Thailand 110 people died from dengue 
between January and October, with 106,000 cases reported. For the same period last 
year there were just 50,000 
 
Prevalence​:  
● Found in tropical and sub-tropical climates 
● Higher ratio of males than females hospitalised 
● Typically affects children between the ages of 2-15 at a higher rate than adults  
● Epicentres of outbreaks are located in major cities, mostly affecting urban and 
semi-urban areas  
● Currently associated with the rainy season  
● The rate is expected to increase due to viral evolution, climate change, globalisation, 
travel and trade factors  
● Approximately a million people in South-East Asia  
 
Distribution - Mobility (travel): 
● Before 1970, only 9 countries had experienced severe dengue epidemics. The disease 
is now endemic in more than 100 countries in the WHO regions of Africa, the 
Americas, the Eastern Mediterranean, South-East Asia and the Western Pacific. The 
America, South-East Asia and Western Pacific regions are the most seriously affected, 
with Asia representing ~70% of the global burden of disease. 
● Explosive outbreaks are occurring. The threat of a possible outbreak of dengue now 
exists in Europe; local transmission was reported for the first time in France and 
Croatia in 2010 and imported cases were detected in 3 other European countries. 
● The largest number of dengue cases ever reported globally was in 2019. All regions 
were affected, and dengue transmission was recorded in Afghanistan for the first time. 
 
Mortality Rates: 
● Mortality rates: 22 million deaths globally per year 
● Seasonal disease, first roughly 20 weeks of 2019: 
- Example → Malaysia: 50,000+ cases, 0.002% prevalence, 2x higher than last year. 
- Singapore → Almost 4000 cases, 0.0007% prevalence, 4x higher than last year. 
● Climate change meant an increased spread. 
● Dengue causes 10 million cases and 10,000 deaths per day. 
 
   

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4.6 Differing Strategies to Predict and Control Disease  
● Evaluate historical, culturally diverse and current strategies to predict and control the 
spread of disease 
 
4.6.1 Historical Strategies 
 
Predicting Disease: 
● There was very little understanding for the cause of disease so this meant minimal 
understanding for treatment, prevention or control  
● Previously thought disease was caused by bad air  
● Bernoulli was one of the earliest people to develop a mathematical model that showed 
if a person was vaccinated against smallpox then life expectancy was increased. This 
was found before the germ theory.  
● The Epidemic Model (1972) was able to describe the relationship between susceptible, 
infected and immune people in a population 
● Therefore they were able to determine possible spread and allowing for ways to 
control the disease to be implemented early and quickly  
 
Controlling Disease: 
● Widely believed that the Black Death, Malaria and Cholera were caused by ‘bad air’  
● Control strategies included: 
- Moving away from the bad air (swaps/sewage) 
- Using pomanders (perfumed wax) to repel the bad smell and fight infection 
 
Examples: 
● 460-370 BCE → Hippocrates (Greek physician) has the idea to collect and analyse data 
to predict and control disease. He believed that disease was a result of local 
conditions and collected data about the natural environment to determine when and 
where illness would occur.  
● 69-30 BCE → Cleopatra used mosquito nets in her bedroom to protect her from being 
bitten during the night  
● 1377 CE → The city Marseille uses quarantine to control the spread of disease by 
detaining individuals who had travelled from plague-infected areas for 40 days  
● 1854 CE → John Snow (during the London cholera outbreak) used maps to record 
deaths and pinpoint the pathogen source 
 
4.6.2 Culturally Diverse Strategies 
 
Predicting Disease: 
● There are many cultural and religious beliefs about health, disease, treatments and 
vaccination 
● Cultural practices played a major role in the spread of Ebola in Africa (2013-2016): 
- African culture has very strong values placed on family and community (greetings 
involve close contact) 
- The elderly and ill are cared for by family 

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 - Many infected with Ebola did not go to hospital for treatment because there is a 
believe that they could die from being away from loved ones 
- Cultural practices for burial and mourning also involve very close contact with the 
corpse of the deceased.  
 
Controlling Disease: 
● Traditional Chinese medicine includes: acupuncture, herbal medicine, diet, massage 
and Tai Chi 
● Ancient Chinese doctors established a pattern of warm disease that spread from 
people or households and treated them with specific herbs many still used today e.g. 
Ginseng and honeysuckle  
● In Philippines uses traditional foods (e.g. garlic and onion) that contain quercetin to 
lower blood pressure 
 
4.6.3 Current Strategies  
 
Predicting Disease: 
● Surveillance programs, notifiable diseases, public health intervention are all vital to 
maintaining control  
● Mathematical modelling is used to predict: 
- Future occurrence of disease 
- How a disease will spread and progress 
- How intervention strategies may impact on incidence of cases 
- Hotspots of emerging cases  
● Computer programing and algorithms allow for increased complexity and analysis of 
the data to get the most accurate picture of what is happening with the disease 
● We still use mapping and contact tracing to predict where and when the next outbreak 
will occur  
 
Controlling Disease: 
● Australia has a national framework for communicable disease control and this helps 
with prevention, detection and response to disease 
● National Notifiable Disease Surveillance System (NNDSS) → any confirmed cases of 
notifiable disease are investigated to ensure that it is contained and prevent further 
transmission   
● Quarantine → For example, in 2003, there was an outbreak of severe acute respiratory 
syndrome and people were told to isolate in their houses. 
 
Examples:  
● World Health Organisation (WHO) ​→ Uses both traditional surveillance methods and 
informal event-based data and coordinates international outbreak response using data 
from GOARN. Data sets that combine existing data on climate, vaccination and 
populating immunity are used to predict outbreaks while networks are established to 
improve communications among people during an epidemic  
● Global Public Health Intelligence Network (GPHIN) → ​Event-based surveillance 
system that systematically scans a multitude of informal sources including news 

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 reports, online newspapers, social media and internet-based searches. In 2002 GPHIN 
issued the first alert of unusual respiratory illness in Guangdong province which 
triggered an international response  
● Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (GOARN) → E ​ stablished in 2002 by 
WHO and gatherers infectious disease intelligence in order to promptly detect and 
verify outbreaks, issue real time alerts and rapidly respond to global or national public 
health threats.  
 
4.7 Aboriginal Protocols 
● Investigate the contemporary application of Aboriginal protocols in the development of 
particular medicines and biological materials in Australia and how recognition and 
protection of Indigenous cultural ​and​ intellectual property is important, for example: 
- Bush medicine 
- Smokebush in Western Australia 
 
● Aboriginal Australians are the custodians of a rich and detailed knowledge base of 
medicinal native Australian herbs, fruits and vegetables  
● Traditionally, Aboriginal people lived healthy lives but there was sometimes a need to 
manage wounds (from burns, stings, bites) 
● Substances from plants such as tannins, mucilage, oils, latex and alkaloids were used 
for medicine.  
● The plant material was usually crushed and used as a poultice or infused with water to 
drink. Animal fat was often incorporated into the plant material. This increased the fat 
solubility of the plant substance and increased absorption rates into the issues.  
● There has been a renewed interest in traditional Aboriginal medicinal knowledge. 
Databases are being compiled by different groups to ensure that these traditional 
approaches to disease control are not lost  
● Scientists are now discovering that many bioactive compounds are contained in these 
traditional bush medicines. Some contain antimicrobial properties that are useful in 
managing certain infectious diseases. 
● For example, alkaloid compounds from the Moreton Bay Chestnut (​Castanospermum 
austral) ​or black bean are showing promise in the management of HIV/AIDS.  
● It must be remembered that many of these plants contain potentially deadly 
compounds as well. Aboriginal people used specialised preparation techniques to 
minimise the harmful effects  
 
Smoke Bush (bush medicine example)​: 
● In 1798, English botanist James Smith named the genus ​Conospermum ​meaning ‘cone 
seed’. These plants are commonly known as smokebush and grow mostly in 
south-west Western Australia  
● Some species of this plant have very big and woolly white flowers that resemble 
drifting smoke 
● These plants are a member of the Proteaceae family.  
● Indigenous people have used smokebush for healing and scientists have now 
investigated the properties of this plant and its potential uses against cancer and 
HIV/AIDS  

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Bush medicine:  
● Bush medicine is a new branch of horticulture that promises to be a fertile area for the 
development of new and effective treatment against a range of pathogens  
● Scientists must separate the useful from the deadly before these treatments can be 
used commercially  
 
Plant or Animal  Traditional properties and uses as  Photo 
antimicrobials  

Emu bush leaves  - Has been valued for both medicinal and 
ceremonial purposes by Indigenous 
people in coastal parts of Australia. 
- The leaves have been used as a decoction 
for sores and wounds, an infusion for 
colds, headaches, chest pains and 
smoked to create a sterile environment for 
 
newborn babies and healing new mothers 
 

Gumbi Gumbi   - Gumbi Gumbi (pittosporum angustifolium) 

is found throughout the drier areas of 
Australia and is perhaps the most potent, 
yet versatile indigenous medicine.  
- It is used in a significant number of 
traditional medicinal applications, from the 
treatment of coughs and colds to eczema, 
 
and even used for lactagogue (milk 
let-down) activity. 

Tea tree leaves   - Grows in sand or clay around swampy and 

seasonally wet areas  
- Tea tree is none of the most widely known 
natural antiseptics in the world and has 
been used as a mainstream 
pharmaceutical since the 1920s  
- Traditionally it was crushed and the 
vapour was inhaled to treat headaches. It   
was also brewed as a tea for throat 
ailments and could be applied to wounds 
and superficial injuries  
- Today, it is widely used as a natural 
antiseptic with proven antimicrobial 
properties  
- A recent study found that antiviral agents 
is a promising combative to recurring 
herpes  

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Kakadu plum fruit   - The world’s highest source of Vitamin C 
and is an essential nutrient, rich in 
antioxidants  
- Vitamin C is involved in tissue repair and 
building collagen which plays a role in 
wound healing and anti-aging  
- It is also rich in iron and Vitamin E  
 

Witchetty grub   - Commonly known for being ‘bush tucker’  

- Nutritionally witchetty grubs (​E. 
leucomochla​) are a great source of 
proteins and also contains good fats and 
vitamin C  
- They can also be used to treat burns and 
open wounds (once crushed and made   
into a paste) 
 
Recognition and protection of Indigenous cultural and intellectual property: 
● Rights to develop the patent in Australia were licensed exclusively to a Victorian 
Pharmaceutical company (AMRAD). In order to gain access to rights over the plant for 
research, $1.65 million was paid to the WA Government  
● Recognised that rights are sometimes only obtained so that Aboriginal culture can be 
exploited for monetary gain  
● Patenting also represents a threat to Aboriginal communities and their traditional 
cultural practices. There is a possibility that the rights to use an entire species of flora 
may be sold to large multinational drug companies. This would prevent groups from 
using such plants subject to an exclusive agreement 
● Essentially, the patenting of traditional medicinal plants may prevent Indigenous 
Australians from continuing to autonomously use their own cultural knowledge  
● It is important that we understand the culture-specific rules associated with 
Indigenous knowledge (since they know the land and have done so for 65,000 years) 
● Ownership manifests itself in very different ways across Indigenous and Western 
societies  
● As Aboriginal Australians have used oral histories to pass their cultural information 
through generations, there may be complex rules governing the dissemination of 
information 
● Some information may be sacred (meaning it is only allowed to be used by those 
within a group possessing certain authority). Customary laws and community values 
should be respected during any commercialisation process so that Indigenous 
knowledge may be protected as intended. This is particularly important in light of the 
limited control Indigenous people have over their land.  

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