11/6/2021

Spring 2021

BY: ALIREZA KAZEMI

RESERVOIR
SIMULATION

1.
WHAT IS SIMULATION
Let’s start with a definition of reservoir simulation

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Reservoir simulation
In reservoir simulation we aim to predict the reservoir’s
performance under different operating conditions by
combining:

▷ Physics
▷ Mathematics
▷ Reservoir engineering
▷ and computer programming

Reservoir simulation
What we are going to predict is the flow and reservoir
behavior in a time interval

Flow behavior is dependent on several factors:

▷ reservoir geometry (linear, radial, spherical)
▷ Fluid type (compressible, incompressible, slightly
compressible)
▷ Flow regime (steady-state, pseudo steady-state, transient)
▷ Flow phases (single-phase, two-phase, three-phase)
▷ Reservoir type (fractured, conventional)
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Reservoir Geometry
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Reservoir Geometry
For many engineering purposes, however, the actual
flow geometry may be represented by one of the
following flow geometries:
 Radial flow
 Linear flow
 Spherical flow and hemispherical flow

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Reservoir Geometry
Radial flow:
▷ In the absence of severe reservoir heterogeneities,
flow into or away from a wellbore will follow radial
flow lines from a substantial distance from the
wellbore. Because fluids move toward the well from
all directions and coverage at the wellbore, the term
radial flow is given to characterize the flow of fluid
into the wellbore.

Reservoir Geometry
Radial flow:

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Reservoir Geometry
Radial flow:
Radial flow geometry is usually used in well-testing.
The typical analytical solution to the radial flow is
obtained by line-source solution to the fluid flow
equations

Reservoir Geometry
Linear flow:
▷ Linear flow occurs when flow paths are parallel and
the fluid flows in a single direction. In addition, the
cross sectional area to flow must be constant
▷ A common application of linear flow equations is the
fluid flow into vertical hydraulic fractures

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Reservoir Geometry
Linear flow:

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Reservoir Geometry
Spherical flow:
▷ Depending upon the type of wellbore completion
configuration, it is possible to have a spherical or
hemispherical flow near the wellbore.
▷ A well with a limited perforated interval could result
in spherical flow in the vicinity of the perforations

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Reservoir Geometry
Spherical flow:
Wellbore

𝑃 Flow lines

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Reservoir Geometry

Hemispherical flow:
▷ A well that only partially penetrates the pay zone
results in hemispherical flow
▷ The condition could arise where coning of bottom
water is important.

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Reservoir Geometry
Hemispherical flow:
Wellbore

Flow lines

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Fluid Type
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Fluid Type
▷ The isothermal compressibility coefficient is
essentially the controlling factor in identifying the
type of the reservoir fluid
▷ In general, reservoir fluids are classified into three
groups:
1. Incompressible fluids
2. Slightly compressible fluids
3. Compressible fluids

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Fluid Type
▷ The isothermal compressibility coefficient 𝒄 is described
mathematically by the following two equivalent
expressions
▷ In terms of fluid volume:
1 𝜕𝑉
𝑐=−
𝑉 𝜕𝑝
▷ In terms of fluid volume:
1 𝜕𝜌
𝑐=
𝜌 𝜕𝑝

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Fluid Type
Incompressible fluids
▷ An incompressible fluid is defined as the fluid whose volume
(or density) does not change with pressure
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝜌
= 0 𝑜𝑟 =0
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝

▷ Incompressible fluids do not exist; this behavior, however, may be

assumed in some cases to simplify the derivation and the final
form of many flow equations.

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Fluid Type
Slightly compressible fluids
▷ These “slightly” compressible fluids exhibit small changes in
volume, or density, with changes in pressure.
▷ Knowing the volume 𝑉 of a slightly compressible liquid at a
reference (initial) pressure 𝑃 , the changes in the volumetric
behavior of this fluid as a function of pressure 𝑝 can be
mathematically described by integrating 𝑐 = − to give:
𝑑𝑉
−𝑐 𝑑𝑝 =
𝑉
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Fluid Type
Slightly compressible fluids
𝑉
𝑒 =
𝑉
𝑉= 𝑉 𝑒
where :
▷ 𝑝 = pressure, psia
▷ 𝑉 = volume at pressure 𝑝, ft3
▷ 𝑝 = initial (reference) pressure, psia
▷ 𝑉 = fluid volume at initial (reference) pressure, psia
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Fluid Type
Slightly compressible fluids
The 𝑒 may be represented by a series expansion as:
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑒 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + …+
2! 3! 𝑛!
Because the exponent 𝑥 [which represents the term
𝑐 𝑝 − 𝑝 ] is very small, because c is very small, the 𝑒
term can be approximated by:

𝑒 =1+𝑥

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Fluid Type
Slightly compressible fluids
Combining the above approximation with 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑒
gives us:
𝑉 = 𝑉 1+𝑐 𝑝 −𝑝

And with the density equation:

𝜌= 𝜌 1+𝑐 𝑝 −𝑝
It should be pointed out that crude oil and water systems fit into this
category.
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Fluid Type
Compressible fluids
▷ These are fluids that experience large changes in volume as a function
of pressure
▷ All gases are considered compressible fluids
▷ The truncation of the series expansion is not valid in this category and
the complete expansion is used
▷ the isothermal compressibility of any compressible fluid is described
by the following expression
1 1 𝜕𝑧 Z in the gas
𝑐 = −
𝑝 𝑧 𝜕𝑝 compressibility factor

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Fluid Type

Incompressible Compressible

Slightly compressible

Density
Volume

Slightly compressible

Compressible
Incompressible

Pressure Pressure

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Flow Regimes
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Flow Regimes
There are basically three
types of flow regimes that Steady-state
must be recognized in
order to describe the fluid
flow behavior and
reservoir pressure
distribution as a function
of time.

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Flow Regimes
Steady-state flow
▷ The flow regime is identified as a steady-state flow if the
pressure at every location in the reservoir remains
constant, i.e., does not change with time.
𝜕𝑝
=0
𝜕𝑡
▷ The above equation states that the rate of change of
pressure 𝑝 with respect to time 𝑡 at any location 𝑖 is zero

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Flow Regimes

Steady-state flow

▷ In reservoirs, the steady-state flow condition can only

occur when the reservoir is completely recharged and
supported by strong aquifer or pressure maintenance
operations.

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Flow Regimes

Transient flow
▷ The unsteady-state flow (frequently called transient flow) is
defined as the fluid flowing condition at which the rate of
change of pressure with respect to time at any position in
the reservoir is not zero or constant
▷ This definition suggests that the pressure derivative with
respect to time is essentially a function of both position 𝑖
and time 𝑡, thus
𝜕𝑝
= 𝑓(𝑖, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑡
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Flow Regimes

Pseudo steady-state flow

▷ When the pressure at different locations in the reservoir is

declining linearly as a function of time, i.e., at a constant
declining rate, the flowing condition is characterized as the
pseudo steady-state flow
▷ This flow regime occurs when pressure drop has reached the
reservoir’s boundaries
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Flow Regimes

Pseudo steady-state flow

▷ Mathematically, this definition states that the rate of

change of pressure with respect to time at every position is
constant, or
𝜕𝑝
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜕𝑡

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Flow Regimes

Steady state
Pressure at location

Pseudo steady state

Transient

Time
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Flow Phases
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Flow Phases
▷ The mathematical expressions that are used to predict the
volumetric performance and pressure behavior of the
reservoir vary in forms and complexity depending upon the
number of mobile fluids in the reservoir
▷ There are generally three cases of flowing systems:

1. Single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas)

2. Two-phase flow (oil-water, oil-gas, or gas-water)
3. Three-phase flow (oil, water, and gas)

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Flow Phases
▷ As the number of phases increases, we need to solve
additional equations regarding the saturation changes for
each phase present beside the equations for pressure
changes

▷ The description of fluid flow and subsequent analysis of

pressure data becomes more difficult as the number of
mobile fluids increases.

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Reservoir Type
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Reservoir Type
▷ Reservoirs can be fractured (naturally or hydraulically)
▷ Reservoir type highly influences the fluid flow behavior
▷ Presence of fractures in the reservoir requires implementing
dual-porosity and/or dual-permeability models
▷ In fractured reservoirs we have to take fluid flow from matrix to
fractures and vice versa into account.
▷ In this manner, fracture density, fracture geometry, fracture
intensity, etc. will govern the fluid flow inside the reservoir

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Fracture modeling

Numerical model

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Reservoir Type
▷ In a fractured reservoir, drainage of oil from matrix to the
fractures is driven by water or gas
▷ If the system is a water-oil system, capillary pressure is the
dominant force
▷ If the system is a gas-oil system, gravity drainage is the dominant
force

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Reservoir Type
▷ Consider a matrix containing
oil surrounded by fractures
containing water
▷ By applying Darcy’s Law and
considering the capillary
forces we can derive the
equation of oil recovery
from the matrix

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Reservoir Type
𝑝 𝑝
𝑡 = 1−𝑀 𝑧 − 𝑀+ 1−𝑀 1+ ln 1 + −𝑧
𝐻∆𝜌𝑔 𝐻∆𝜌𝑔

𝑧 =
∆
𝑡 = 𝑡

𝑀=

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Reservoir Type
▷ Consider a matrix containing
oil surrounded by fractures
containing gas
▷ By applying Darcy’s Law and
considering the gravity
forces we can derive the
equation of oil recovery
from the matrix

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Reservoir Type
𝐻∆𝜌𝑔 𝑝
𝑀𝑝 𝑀−1+ ln 𝑧 − 1 +
𝑝 𝐻∆𝜌𝑔
𝑡 = 𝑀𝑧 − 1 𝑀 −
𝐻∆𝜌𝑔
𝑧
𝑧 =
𝐻
𝑘𝑘 ∆𝜌𝑔
𝑡 = 𝑡
𝜇 𝐻𝜑
𝜇 𝑘
𝑀=
𝑘 𝜇

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Reservoir Type

▷ In the following we are going to review the governing equations

to model fluid flow under various configurations of fluid type,
reservoir geometry, and flow regimes

▷ Examples are given in some cases

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2.
FLOW EQUATIONS
Governing fluid flow equations and examples

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Flow Equations
▷ The fluid flow equations that are used to describe the flow
behavior in a reservoir can take many forms depending
upon the combination of variables presented previously,
(i.e., types of flow, types of fluids, etc.).
▷ By combining the conservation of mass equation with the
transport equation (Darcy’s equation) and various
equations-of-state, the necessary flow equations can be
developed
▷ Since all flow equations to be considered depend on
Darcy’s Law, it is important to consider this transport
relationship first.
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Darcy’s Law
▷ The fundamental law of fluid motion in porous media is
Darcy’s Law
▷ The mathematical expression developed by Henry Darcy in
1856 states the velocity of a homogeneous fluid in a
porous medium is proportional to the pressure gradient
and inversely proportional to the fluid viscosity

▷ For a horizontal linear system, this relationship is:

𝑞 𝑘 𝑑𝑝
𝑣= =−
𝐴 𝜇 𝑑𝑥
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Darcy’s Law
▷ 𝜈 is the apparent velocity in centimeters per second and is
equal to 𝒒/𝑨, where 𝒒 is the volumetric flow rate in cubic
centimeters per second and 𝑨 is total cross-sectional area
of the rock in square centimeters.
▷ 𝑨 includes the area of the rock material as well as the area
of the pore channels. The fluid viscosity, 𝝁, is expressed in
centipoise units, and the pressure gradient, 𝒅𝒑/𝒅𝒙, is in
atmospheres per centimeter, taken in the same direction
as 𝜈 and 𝑞
▷ The proportionality constant, 𝒌, is the permeability of the
rock expressed in Darcy units
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Darcy’s Law
▷ The negative sign in the linear equation is added because
the pressure gradient is negative in the direction of flow.

Direction of flow

𝑝
Pressure

𝜕𝑝
<0
𝜕𝑥
𝑝
𝑥

Distance 50

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Darcy’s Law
▷ For a horizontal-radial system, the pressure gradient is
positive and Darcy’s equation can be expressed in the
following generalized radial form:
𝑞 𝑘 𝜕𝑝
𝑣= =
𝐴 𝜇 𝜕𝑟
▷ 𝑞 = volumetric flow rate at radius 𝑟
▷ 𝐴 = cross-sectional area to flow at radius 𝑟
▷ = pressure gradient at radius 𝑟
▷ 𝑣 = apparent velocity at radius 𝑟
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Darcy’s Law
Direction of flow
𝑝

𝜕𝑝
>0
𝜕𝑟

𝑟 𝑟
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Darcy’s Law
▷ The cross-sectional area at radius r is essentially the
surface area of a cylinder. For a fully penetrated well with a
net thickness of h, the cross sectional area 𝐴 is given by:
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ

▷ Darcy’s Law applies only when the following conditions

exist:
1. Laminar (viscous) flow
2. Steady-state flow
3. Incompressible fluids
4. Homogeneous formation
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Darcy’s Law
▷ For turbulent flow, which occurs at higher velocities, the
pressure gradient increases at a greater rate than does the
flow rate and a special modification of Darcy’s equation is
needed. When turbulent flow exists, the application of
Darcy’s equation can result in serious errors.
▷ Consequently, Darcy’s Law has to be modified to take into
account the turbulence effect of the flow

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Steady State Eqs.

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Steady State Equations

▷ Steady-state flow represents the condition that exists when the
pressure throughout the reservoir does not change with time.
▷ The applications of the steady-state flow to describe the flow behavior
of several types of fluid in different reservoir geometries are
presented below:
○ Linear flow of incompressible fluids
○ Linear flow of slightly compressible fluids
○ Linear flow of compressible fluids
○ Radial flow of incompressible fluids
○ Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
○ Radial flow of compressible fluids
○ Multiphase flow 56

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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids
▷ In the linear system, it is assumed the flow occurs through a constant
cross-sectional area 𝐴, where both ends are entirely open to flow
▷ It is also assumed that no flow crosses the sides, top, or bottom
𝑝
𝑝

𝑑𝑥

𝐿 57

Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids
▷ If an incompressible fluid is flowing across the element 𝑑𝑥, then the
fluid velocity 𝑣 and the flow rate 𝑞 are constants at all points
▷ The flow behavior in this system can be expressed by the differential
form of Darcy’s equation:
𝑞 𝑘
𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑝
𝐴 𝜇
This gives
𝑘𝐴(𝑝 − 𝑝 )
𝑞=
𝜇𝐿
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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids
▷ It is desirable to express the above relationship in customary field
units, or:
0.001127𝑘𝐴(𝑝 − 𝑝 )
𝑞=
𝜇𝐿
𝑞 = flow rate, bbl/day
𝑘 = absolute permeability, md
𝑝 = pressure, psia
𝜇 = viscosity, cp
𝐿 = distance, ft
𝐴 = cross-sectional area, 𝑓𝑡 59

Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids
▷ The difference in the pressure (𝑝 − 𝑝 ) in is not the only driving force
in a tilted reservoir.
▷ The gravitational force is the other important driving force that must
be accounted for to determine the direction and rate of flow
▷ The fluid gradient force (gravitational force) is always directed
vertically downward while the force that results from an applied
pressure drop may be in any direction
▷ The force causing flow would be then the vector sum of these two.
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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids
▷ In practice, we obtain this result by introducing a new
parameter, called fluid potential, which has the same
dimensions as pressure, e.g., psi

▷ The fluid potential at any point in the reservoir is defined as the

pressure at that point less the pressure that would be exerted
by a fluid head extending to an arbitrarily assigned datum level

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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids
▷ Letting ∆𝑧 be the vertical distance from a point i in the
reservoir to this datum level
𝜌
Φ =𝑝 − ∆𝑧
144
where 𝜌 is the density in 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡3.

▷ Expressing the fluid density in gm/cc (𝛾) in gives:

Φ = 𝑝 − 0.433𝛾∆𝑧

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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids
▷ The datum is usually selected at the gas-oil contact, oil-water
contact, or at the highest point in formation

▷ To calculate the fluid potential Φ at location 𝑖 , the vertical

distance ∆𝑧 is assigned as a positive value when the point 𝑖 is
below the datum level and as a negative when it is above the
datum level

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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids
▷ If point 𝑖 is above the datum level
𝜌
Φ =𝑝 + ∆𝑧
144

▷ If point 𝑖 is below the datum level:

𝜌
Φ =𝑝 − ∆𝑧
144

For example, if a point is above the datum depth, ∆𝑧 will be negative, and
Φ will be less than 𝑝
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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids
▷ Applying the above-generalized concept to Darcy’s equation

0.001127𝑘𝐴(Φ − Φ )
𝑞=
𝜇𝐿
▷ It should be pointed out that the fluid potential drop (Φ − Φ )
is equal to the pressure drop (𝑝 − 𝑝 ) only when the flow
system is horizontal

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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids – Example
▷ An incompressible fluid with a density of 42 lb/ft3 flows in a
linear porous media with the following properties:
𝐿 = 2000 ft ℎ = 20′ width = 300′
𝑘 = 100 md 𝜑= 15% 𝜇 = 2 cp
𝑝 = 2000 psi 𝑝 = 1990 psi angle = 5°
Calculate:
1. Flow rate in bbl/day
2. Apparent fluid velocity in ft/day
3. Actual fluid velocity in ft/day
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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids – Example

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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids – Example
▷ Step 1. For the purpose of illustrating the concept of fluid potential,
select the datum level at half the vertical distance between the two
points, i.e., at 87.15 feet
▷ Step 2. Calculate the fluid potential at Points 1 and 2.
Since Point 1 is below the datum level, then:
𝜌 42
Φ =𝑝 − ∆𝑧 = 2000 − 87.15 = 1974.58 𝑝𝑠𝑖
144 144
Since Point 2 is above the datum level, then:
𝜌 42
Φ =𝑝 + ∆𝑧 = 1990 + 87.15 = 2015.42 𝑝𝑠𝑖
144 144
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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids – Example
▷ Because Φ > Φ , the fluid flows downward from Point 2 to
Point 1. The difference in the fluid potential is:
∆𝛷 = 2015.42 − 1974.58 = 40.84 𝑝𝑠𝑖

Step 3. Calculate the flow rate

(0.001127)(100)(6000)(40.84)
𝑞= = 6.9 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑑𝑎𝑦
(2)(2000)

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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids – Example

▷ Step 4. Calculate the velocity:

(6.9)(5.615)
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 0.0065 𝑓𝑡/𝑑𝑎𝑦
6000

6.9 (5.615)
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 0.043𝑓𝑡/𝑑𝑎𝑦
(0.15)(6000)

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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Slightly Compressible Fluids
▷ Recall the relationship that exists between pressure and
volume for slightly compressible fluid
𝑉 = 𝑉 1+𝑐 𝑝 −𝑝

▷ The above equation can be modified and written in terms of

flow rate as:
𝑞= 𝑞 1+𝑐 𝑝 −𝑝
where 𝑞 is the flow rate at some reference pressure 𝑝
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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Slightly Compressible Fluids

▷ Substituting the above relationship in Darcy’s equation and

integrating gives:

0.001127𝑘𝐴 1+𝑐 𝑝 −𝑝
𝑞 = ln
𝜇𝑐𝐿 1+𝑐 𝑝 −𝑝

𝑐 = average liquid compressibility, 𝑝𝑠𝑖

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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Compressible Fluids (Gases)
▷ For a viscous (laminar) gas flow in a homogeneous-linear
system, the real-gas equation-of-state can be applied to
calculate the number of gas moles 𝑛 at pressure 𝑝, temperature
𝑇, and volume 𝑉 :
𝑝𝑉
𝑛=
𝑧𝑅𝑇
▷ At standard conditions, the volume occupied by the above 𝑛
moles is given by:
𝑛𝑧 𝑅𝑇
𝑉 =
𝑝
73

Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Compressible Fluids (Gases)
▷ Combining the above two expressions and assuming 𝑧 = 1
gives:
𝑝𝑉 𝑝 𝑉
=
𝑧𝑇 𝑇
▷ Equivalently, the above relation can be expressed in terms of
the flow rate as:
5.615𝑝𝑞 𝑝 𝑄
=
𝑧𝑇 𝑇

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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Compressible Fluids (Gases)
▷ Rearranging:
𝑝 𝑧𝑇 𝑄
=𝑞
𝑇 𝑝 5.615
▷ 𝑞 = gas flow rate at pressure p in bbl/day
▷ 𝑄 = gas flow rate at standard conditions, scf/day
▷ 𝑧 = gas compressibility factor
▷ 𝑇 , 𝑝 = standard temperature and pressure in °R and psia,
▷ respectively
75

Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Compressible Fluids (Gases)
▷ Replacing the gas flow rate q with that of Darcy’s Law
𝑞 𝑝 𝑧𝑇 𝑄 1 𝑘 𝑑𝑝
= = −0.001127
𝐴 𝑇 𝑝 5.615 𝐴 𝜇 𝑑𝑥

Separating variables and arranging yields:

𝑞 𝑝 𝑇 𝑝
𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑝
0.006328 𝑘 𝑇 𝐴 𝑧𝜇

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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Compressible Fluids (Gases)
▷ Assuming constant 𝑧 and 𝜇 over the specified pressures, i.e., 𝑝
and 𝑝 , and integrating gives
0.003164𝑇 𝐴𝑘 𝑝 − 𝑝
𝑄 =
𝑝 𝑇𝐿𝑧𝜇
▷ 𝑄 = gas flow rate at standard conditions, scf/day
▷ 𝑇 = temperature, °R
▷ 𝜇 = gas viscosity, cp
▷ 𝐴 = cross-sectional area, 𝑓𝑡
▷ 𝐿 = total length of the linear system, ft 77

Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Compressible Fluids (Gases)

▷ Setting 𝑝 =14.7 psi and 𝑇 = 520 °R

0.111924𝐴𝑘 𝑝 − 𝑝
𝑄 =
𝑇𝐿𝑧𝜇

78

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Steady State Equations

Linear Flow of Compressible Fluids (Gases)
▷ It is essential to notice that those gas properties 𝑧 and 𝜇 are a
very strong function of pressure, but they have been removed
from the integral to simplify the final form of the gas flow
equation.
▷ The above equation is valid for applications when the pressure
< 2000 psi. The gas properties must be evaluated at the average
pressure 𝑝̅ as defined below.
  𝑝 +𝑝
𝑝̅ =
2
79

Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Incompressible Fluids

The pressure in the

formation at the wellbore
must be less than the
pressure in the formation at
some distance from the well

80

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Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Incompressible Fluids
▷ Let 𝑝 represent the maintained bottom-hole flowing pressure at
the wellbore radius 𝑟 and 𝑝 denote the external pressure at the
external or drainage radius.
𝑞 𝑘 𝑑𝑝
𝑣= = 0.001127
𝐴 𝜇 𝑑𝑟
▷ The flow rate for a crude oil system is customarily expressed in
surface units, i.e., stock-tank barrels (STB), rather than reservoir
units. Using the symbol 𝑄 to represent the oil flow as expressed in
STB/day, then
𝑞=𝑄 𝐵
81

Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Incompressible Fluids
▷ where Bo is the oil formation volume factor bbl/STB. The flow rate
in Darcy’s equation can be expressed in STB/day to give
𝑄 𝐵 𝑘 𝑑𝑝
= 0.001127
2𝜋𝑟ℎ 𝜇 𝑑𝑟

▷ Integrating the above equation between two radii, 𝑟 and 𝑟 , when

the pressures are 𝑝 and 𝑝 yields
0.00708𝑘ℎ 𝑝 − 𝑝
𝑄 =
𝜇 𝐵 ln 𝑟 /𝑟
82

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Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Incompressible Fluids
▷ Frequently the two radii of interest are the wellbore radius
𝑟 and the external or drainage radius 𝑟 . Then:
0.00708𝑘ℎ 𝑝 − 𝑝
𝑄 =
𝜇 𝐵 ln 𝑟 /𝑟
▷ 𝑄 = oil, flow rate, STB/day
▷ 𝑝 = external pressure, psi
▷ 𝐵 = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
▷ ℎ = thickness, ft
83

Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Slightly Compressible Fluids

▷ As discussed earlier, the dependency of the flow rate on

pressure for slightly compressible fluids is given by
𝑞= 𝑞 1+𝑐 𝑝 −𝑝

𝑞 𝑞 1+𝑐 𝑝 −𝑝 𝑘 𝑑𝑝
= = 0.001127
𝐴 2𝜋𝑟ℎ 𝜇 𝑑𝑟

84

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Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Compressible Gases
▷ The basic differential form of Darcy’s Law for a horizontal
laminar flow is valid for describing the flow of both gas and
liquid systems.
▷ For a radial gas flow, the Darcy’s equation takes the form:
0.001127 2𝜋𝑟ℎ 𝑘 𝑑𝑝
𝑞 =
𝜇 𝑑𝑟
The gas flow rate is usually expressed in scf/day.

85

Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Compressible Gases
▷ Referring to the gas flow rate at standard condition as 𝑄 , the
gas flow rate 𝑞 under pressure and temperature can be
converted to that of standard condition by applying the real
gas equation-of-state to both conditions.

𝑝 𝑧𝑇
𝑄 =𝑞
5.615𝑇 𝑝

86

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Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Compressible Gases
▷ Combining two equations and assuming that 𝑇 = 520 °𝑅
and 𝑝 = 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎:
𝑇𝑄 𝑑𝑟 2𝑝
= 0.703 𝑑𝑝
𝑘ℎ 𝑟 𝜇 𝑧
▷ Integrating from 𝑟 and 𝑝 to ant point in the reservoir (𝑟 and 𝑝)
and assuming Darcy’s Law conditions (Homogenous reservoir and
steady state flow):
𝑇𝑄 𝑟 2𝑝
ln = 0.703 𝑑𝑝
𝑘ℎ 𝑟 𝜇 𝑧
87

Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Compressible Gases

▷ The term ∫ 𝑑𝑝 can be expanded:

2𝑝 2𝑝 2𝑝
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑝 − 𝑑𝑝
𝜇 𝑧 𝜇 𝑧 𝜇 𝑧
▷ Combining the above relationships yields
𝑇𝑄 𝑟 2𝑝 2𝑝
ln = 0.703 𝑑𝑝 − 𝑑𝑝
𝑘ℎ 𝑟 𝜇 𝑧 𝜇 𝑧

88

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Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Compressible Gases
▷ The integral ∫ 𝑑𝑝 is called the real gas potential or real
gas pseudo pressure and it is usually represented by 𝑚(𝑝) or Ψ.
Thus
2𝑝
𝑚 𝑝 =Ψ= 𝑑𝑝
𝜇 𝑧
Therefore:
𝑄 𝑇 𝑟
Ψ=Ψ + ln
0.703𝑘ℎ 𝑟

89

Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Compressible Gases
▷ In the particular case when 𝑟 = 𝑟 , then
0.703𝑘ℎ Ψ − Ψ
𝑄 =
𝑟
𝑇 ln
𝑟
Ψ = real gas potential as evaluated from 0 to 𝑝 , psi2/cp
Ψ = real gas potential as evaluated from 0 to 𝑝 , psi2/cp
𝑄 = gas flow rate, scf/day

90

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Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Compressible Gases
▷ The gas flow rate is commonly expressed in Mscf/day, or
𝑘ℎ Ψ − Ψ
𝑄 =
𝑟
1422𝑇 ln
𝑟
▷ This equation can be expressed in terms of the average
reservoir pressure 𝒑𝒓 instead of the initial reservoir pressure
𝑝 as:
𝑘ℎ Ψ − Ψ
𝑄 =
𝑟
1422𝑇 ln − 0.5
𝑟
91

Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Compressible Gases
Approximation of the Gas Flow Rate:
▷ The exact gas flow rate as expressed by the different forms of
Darcy’s Law can be approximated by removing the term
outside the integral as a constant
▷ It should be pointed out that the 𝜇 𝑧 is considered constant
only under a pressure range of < 2000 psi

92

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Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Compressible Gases
Approximation of the Gas Flow Rate:
𝑘ℎ 2𝑝
𝑄 = 𝑑𝑝
𝑟 𝜇 𝑧
1422𝑇 ln
𝑟

Removing the term and integrating gives:

𝑘ℎ 𝑝 − 𝑝
𝑄 =
𝑟
1422𝑇 𝜇 𝑧 ln
𝑟
93

Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Compressible Gases
Approximation of the Gas Flow Rate:
▷ The term 𝜇 𝑧 is evaluated at an average pressure 𝑝̅ that
is defined by the following expression
  𝑝 +𝑝
𝑝̅ =
2
▷ The above approximation method is called the pressure-
squared method and is limited to flow calculations when the
reservoir pressure is less that 2000 psi
94

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Steady State Equations

Radial Flow of Compressible Gases

𝑝
𝜇 𝑧 Pseudo pressure Pressure method
method
Pressure
squared method

𝑝 < 2000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 2000 < 𝑝 < 3000 𝑝 > 3000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 Pressure
95

Steady State Equations

Horizontal Multiple-Phase Flow

▷ When several fluid phases are flowing simultaneously in a

horizontal porous system, the concept of the effective
permeability to each phase and the associated physical
properties must be used in Darcy’s equation

96

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Steady State Equations

Horizontal Multiple-Phase Flow
▷ For a radial system, the generalized form of Darcy’s equation
can be applied to each reservoir as follows
𝑞 = 0.001127 𝑘

𝑞 = 0.001127 𝑘

𝑞 = 0.001127 𝑘

97

Steady State Equations

Horizontal Multiple-Phase Flow

▷ The effective permeability can be expressed in terms of the

relative and absolute permeability
▷ 𝑘 =𝑘 𝑘
▷ 𝑘 =𝑘 𝑘
▷ 𝑘 =𝑘 𝑘

98

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Steady State Equations

Horizontal Multiple-Phase Flow
▷ Using the above concept in Darcy’s equation and expressing
the flow rate in standard conditions yield
𝑄 = 0.00708 𝑟ℎ𝑘

𝑄 = 0.00708 𝑟ℎ𝑘

𝑄 = 0.00708 𝑟ℎ𝑘

𝐵 = 0.005035 ; 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑠𝑐𝑓
99

Steady State Equations

Horizontal Multiple-Phase Flow
▷ Performing the regular integration approach

Oil phase
0.00708 𝑘ℎ 𝑘 𝑝 −𝑝
𝑄 =
𝜇 𝐵 ln 𝑟 /𝑟
Water phase
0.00708 𝑘ℎ 𝑘 𝑝 −𝑝
𝑄 =
𝜇 𝐵 ln 𝑟 /𝑟
100

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Steady State Equations

Horizontal Multiple-Phase Flow
▷ Performing the regular integration approach
Gas phase
𝑘ℎ 𝑘 Ψ −Ψ
𝑄 =
1422 𝑇 ln 𝑟 /𝑟

𝑘ℎ 𝑘 𝑝 −𝑝
𝑄 =
1422 𝜇 𝑧 𝑇 ln 𝑟 /𝑟

101

Steady State Equations

Horizontal Multiple-Phase Flow
▷ In numerous petroleum engineering calculations, it is
convenient to express the flow rate of any phase as a ratio of
other flowing phase

▷ Two important flow ratios are the “instantaneous” water-oil

ratio (WOR) and “instantaneous” gas-oil ratio (GOR).

102

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Steady State Equations

Horizontal Multiple-Phase Flow
▷ The water-oil ratio is defined as the ratio of the water flow
rate to that of the oil. Both rates are expressed in stock-tank
barrels per day
𝑄
𝑊𝑂𝑅 = , STB/STB
𝑄
𝑘 𝜇 𝐵
𝑊𝑂𝑅 =
𝑘 𝜇 𝐵

103

Steady State Equations

Horizontal Multiple-Phase Flow
▷ The instantaneous GOR, as expressed in scf/STB, is defined
as the total gas flow rate, i.e., free gas and solution gas,
divided by the oil flow rate
𝑄
𝐺𝑂𝑅 = 𝑅 +
𝑄
▷ GOR = “instantaneous” gas-oil ratio, scf/STB
▷ 𝑅 = gas solubility, scf/STB
▷ 𝑄 = free gas flow rate, scf/day
▷ 𝑄 = oil flow rate, STB/day 104

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Unsteady State Eqs.

105

Unsteady State Equations

▷ The transient (unsteady-state) flow is defined as that time
period during which the boundary has no effect on the
pressure behavior in the reservoir and the reservoir will
behave as it is infinite in size
▷ The variables in unsteady state flow additional to those already
used for steady-state flow, are:
1. Time, 𝑡
2. Porosity, 𝜑
3. Total compressibility, 𝑐
106

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Unsteady State Equations

▷ The mathematical formulation of the transient-flow equation is
based on combining three independent equations and a
specifying set of boundary and initial conditions
▷ These equations and boundary conditions are briefly described
below:
a. Continuity Equation
▷ The continuity equation is essentially a material balance
equation that accounts for every pound mass of fluid produced,
injected, or remaining in the reservoir.

107

Unsteady State Equations

b. Transport Equation
▷ The continuity equation is combined with the equation for fluid
motion (transport equation) to describe the fluid flow rate “in”
and “out” of the reservoir. Basically, the transport equation is
Darcy’s equation in its generalized differential form.
c. Compressibility Equation
▷ The fluid compressibility equation (expressed in terms of
density or volume) is used in formulating the unsteady-state
equation with the objective of describing the changes in the
fluid volume as a function of pressure.
108

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Unsteady State Equations

d. Initial and Boundary Conditions
▷ There are two boundary conditions and one initial condition
required to complete the formulation and the solution of the
transient flow equation. The two boundary conditions are:
1. The formation produces at a constant rate into the
wellbore.
2. There is no flow across the outer boundary and the
reservoir behaves as if it were infinite in size, i.e., 𝑟 = ∞
▷ The initial condition simply states the reservoir is at a uniform
pressure when production begins, i.e., time = 0.
109

Unsteady State Equations

▷ In unsteady state flow regime we discuss the following single-
phase flow systems:

1. Linear flow of incompressible fluids

2. Linear flow of slightly compressible fluids

3. Linear flow of compressible fluids

4. Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids

5. Radial flow of compressible fluids 110

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Unsteady State Equations

▷ Considering a control volume with ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦, ∆𝑧 dimensions with a
source/sink

Source/sink

(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

∆𝒛
∆𝒚

∆𝒙
111

Unsteady State Equations

▷ The general flow equation in three dimensions is as follows:

∅
𝛽 ∆𝑥 + 𝛽 ∆𝑦 + 𝛽 ∆𝑧 + 𝑞 =

𝐴 ,𝐴 ,𝐴 are flow cross sectional area in x, y, and z directions

𝑘 ,𝑘 ,𝑘 are permeability at x, y, and z directions

𝑉 , 𝜇, 𝐵 are the bulk volume, viscosity and formation volume factor

𝛽 ,𝛼 are conversion factors

Φ is flow potential 112

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Unsteady State Equations

Linear flow of incompressible fluids

Incompressible flow means fluid density, and consequently, formation

volume factor is constant with respect to pressure. If we also consider
isothermal conditions, the viscosity will also be constant. Therefore:

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 ∆𝑥 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 ∆𝑦 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 ∆𝑧 + 𝜇𝐵𝑞 =

113

Unsteady State Equations

Linear flow of slightly compressible fluids

For slightly compressible fluids, we assume that the formation volume

factor changes according to the following relation:
𝐵= 𝐵 / 1+𝑐 𝑝−𝑝

By substituting this equation to the general form of linear flow equation

we obtain:

114

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Unsteady State Equations

Linear flow of slightly compressible fluids

𝛽 ∆𝑥 + 𝛽 ∆𝑦 + 𝛽 ∆𝑧 + 𝑞 =

We will prove these equation in following chapters

115

Unsteady State Equations

Linear flow of slightly compressible fluids

By substituting the slightly compressible formation volume factor

equation and taking viscosity as constant:

1+𝑐 𝑝−𝑝 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 ∆𝑥 + 𝛽 𝐴 𝑘 ∆𝑥 + 1 + 𝑐 𝑝 −

𝑝 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 ∆𝑦 + 𝛽 𝐴 𝑘 ∆𝑦 + 1 + 𝑐 𝑝 −

∅
𝑝 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 ∆𝑧 + 𝛽 𝐴 𝑘 ∆𝑧 + 𝐵 𝜇𝑞 = 116

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Unsteady State Equations

Linear flow of slightly compressible fluids

As 𝑐 is very small , usually 1 + 𝑐 𝑝 − 𝑝 ≈ 1. Therefore, the square of

pressure gradients are neglected:

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 ∆𝑥 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 ∆𝑦 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 ∆+𝐵 𝜇𝑞 =

117

Unsteady State Equations

Linear flow of compressible fluids
For gas flow it is impossible to assume constant
compressibility and viscosity. Therefore, the real-gas las is
used as an EOS to express the variation of the density of the
gas wit pressure.
𝛽 ∆𝑥 + 𝛽 ∆𝑦 + 𝛽 ∆𝑧 +
∅
𝑞 =

118

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Unsteady State Equations

Linear flow of compressible fluids
Assuming that porosity is independent of pressure and
substituting for the gas-phase FVF
𝑝 𝑇𝑍
𝐵 =
𝛼 𝑇 𝑝

𝛽 ∆𝑥 + 𝛽 ∆𝑦 + 𝛽 ∆𝑧 +
∅
𝑞 =
119

Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of fluids
By combining the aforementioned three equations and Darcy’s
Law in radial coordinates and assuming radial flow, the following
equation in the PDE form is derived:

0.006328 𝜕 𝑘 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜌
𝜌𝑟 = 𝜌𝜑𝑐 + 𝜑
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜇 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

where 𝑐 is the compressibility of formation

Note that time is in days in this equations
120

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Unsteady State Equations

▷ This equation is the general partial differential equation used to
describe the flow of any fluid flowing in a radial direction in
porous media
▷ In addition to the initial assumptions, Darcy’s equation has been
added, which implies that the flow is laminar. Otherwise, the
equation is not restricted to any type of fluid and equally valid
for gases or liquids.
▷ Compressible and slightly compressible fluids, however, must
be treated separately in order to develop practical equations
that can be used to describe the flow behavior of these two
fluids
121

Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
As mentioned earlier, radial flow is used in well testing. To
have an analytical solution, we make some simplifying
assumptions like constant permeability and viscosity over
pressure, time, and distance ranges.

0.006328 𝑘 𝜕 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝑟𝜌 = 𝜌𝜑𝑐 + 𝜑
𝜇𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

122

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Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
By expanding the derivatives and using the chain rule and
dividing the equation by density we obtain

𝑘1 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝑝 𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕𝑝
0.006328 + +
𝜇𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜌 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕𝑝
= 𝜑𝑐 + 𝜑
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑟

123

Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids

Recalling that c = and neglecting :

𝑘 1 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝑝 𝜕𝑝
0.006328 + = 𝜑 𝑐 +𝑐
𝜇 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑡
Taking 𝑐 = 𝑐 + 𝑐
𝜕 𝑝 1 𝜕𝑝 𝜑𝜇𝑐 𝜕𝑝
+ =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 0.006328𝑘 𝜕𝑡
This is called the diffusivity equation. 𝑡 is in days 124

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Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
▷ When the reservoir contains more than one fluid, total
compressibility should be computed as
𝑐 = 𝑐 𝑆 +𝑐 𝑆 +𝑐 𝑆 +𝑐
▷ Note that using this relation for 𝑐 does not make the
diffusivity equation in the previous page usable for
multiphase flow. It simply accounts for the compressibility
of any immobile fluids which may be in the reservoir with
the fluid that is flowing
125

Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
▷ The diffusivity equation is obtained by considering
following assumptions
1. Homogeneous and isotropic porous medium
2. Uniform thickness
3. Single phase flow
4. Laminar flow
5. Rock and fluid properties independent of pressure
126

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Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
▷ The constant-terminal-pressure solution is designed to
provide the cumulative flow at any particular time for a
reservoir in which the pressure at one boundary of the
reservoir is held constant. This technique is frequently
used in water influx calculations in gas and oil reservoirs.
▷ The constant-terminal-rate solution of the radial
diffusivity equation solves for the pressure change
throughout the radial system providing that the flow rate
is held constant at one terminal end of the radial system,
i.e., at the producing well 127

Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
▷ The constant-terminal-rate solution is an integral part of
most transient test analysis techniques, such as with
drawdown and pressure buildup analyses. Most of these
tests involve producing the well at a constant flow rate
and recording the flowing pressure as a function of time,
i.e., 𝑝 𝑟 , 𝑡 . There are two commonly used forms of the
constant-terminal-rate solution:
1. The Ei-function solution
2. The dimensionless pressure 𝑝 solution
128

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Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
The Ei-function solution
Under following assumptions:
1. Infinite acting reservoir
2. The well is producing at a constant flow rate.
3. The reservoir is at a uniform pressure, 𝑝 , at beginning.
4. The well, with a wellbore radius of 𝑟 , is centered in a
cylindrical reservoir of radius 𝑟 .
5. No flow across the outer boundary, i.e., at 𝑟.
129

Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
Employing these assumptions:
70.6 𝑄 𝐵 𝜇 −948𝜇 𝑐 𝜑𝑟
𝑝 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝑝 + 𝐸
𝑘ℎ 𝑘𝑡
▷ 𝑝 𝑟, 𝑡 = pressure at radius r from the well after t hours
▷ 𝑡 = time, hrs
▷ 𝑘 = permeability, md.
▷ 𝑄 = flow rate, STB/day Known as line-source
solutions
130

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Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
▷ It should be noted that the equation cannot be used until the
flow time t exceeds the limit imposed by the following
constraint
𝜇 𝑐 𝜑𝑟
𝑡 > 9.84 × 10
𝑘
▷ where 𝑡 = time, hr
▷ 𝑘 = permeability, md

131

Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids – Example
▷ An oil well is producing at a constant flow rate of 300 STB/day
under unsteady-state flow conditions. The reservoir has the
following rock and fluid properties

▷ 𝐵 = 1.25 bbl/STB 𝜇 = 1.5 cp 𝑐 = 12 × 1E−6 psi−1

▷ 𝑘 = 60 md h = 15 ft 𝑝 = 4000 psi
▷ 𝜑 = 15% 𝑟 = 0.25 ft

132

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Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids – Example
▷ Estimate the bottom-hole flowing pressure after 10 hours of
production.
▷ Solution:
▷ Step 1: checking time limit
(0.15)(1.5)(12 × 10 ) 0.25
𝑡 = 9.84 10 = 0.153 𝑠𝑒𝑐
60

10 ℎ𝑟 ≫ 0.153 𝑠𝑒𝑐
133

Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids – Example
▷ Step 2: calculate 𝑝 :

. ( )( . )( . ) ( . )( . )( × )( . )
𝑝 = 4000 + 𝐸 =
( )( ) ( )( )
3358 𝑝𝑠𝑖

134

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Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of compressible fluids
▷ As discussed earlier, to account for the compressibility and
density variation of gas two gas equations must be added to the
diffusivity equation:
1. Real gas density:
𝑝𝑀
𝜌=
𝑧𝑅𝑇
2. Gas compressibility equation:
1 1 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 = −
𝑝 𝑧 𝑑𝑝
135

Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of compressible fluids
▷ Combining these equation with the diffusivity equation gives:

1 𝜕 𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜇𝜑𝑐 𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝑟 =
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜇𝑧 𝜕𝑟 0.000264 𝑘 𝜇𝑧 𝜕𝑡

In this equation time is in hours

136

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Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of compressible fluids
▷ Taking:
2𝑝
𝑚 𝑝 = 𝑑𝑝
𝜇𝑧

𝜕 𝑚(𝑝) 1 𝜕𝑚(𝑝) 𝜑𝜇𝑐 𝜕𝑚(𝑝)

+ =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 0.000264𝑘 𝜕𝑡
This is called the gas diffusivity equations

137

Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of compressible fluids
▷ In general, there are three forms of the mathematical solution to
the gas diffusivity equation:

1. The m(p)-Solution Method (Exact Solution)

2. The Pressure-Squared Method (p2-Approximation Method)
3. The Pressure Method (p-Approximation Method)

138

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Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of compressible fluids
▷ The m(p)-Solution Method (Exact-Solution)
Imposing the constant-rate condition as one of the boundary conditions:
1673𝑄 𝑇 𝑘𝑡
𝑚 𝑝 =𝑚 𝑝 − log − 3.23
𝑘ℎ 𝜑𝜇 𝑐 𝑟
𝑄 = gas flow rate, Mscf/day
t = time, hr
𝜇 = gas viscosity at the initial pressure, cp
𝑐 = total compressibility coefficient at 𝑝 , 𝑝𝑠𝑖
139

Unsteady State Equations

Radial flow of compressible fluids
The Pressure Approximation Method
▷ The second method of approximation to the exact solution of the radial
flow of gases is to treat the gas as a pseudoliquid.
▷ Fetkovich (1973) suggested that at high pressures (p > 3000), 1/𝜇𝐵 is
nearly constant
162.5 × 10 𝑄 𝜇̅ 𝐵 𝑘𝑡
𝑝 =𝑝 − log − 3.23
𝑘ℎ 𝜑𝜇̅ 𝑐 𝑟
𝑝 +𝑝
𝑝̅ =
2
140

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Pseudo steady
State Eqs.
141

Pseudo steady State Equations

▷ As soon as the pressure disturbance reaches all drainage

boundaries, it ends the transient (unsteady-state) flow regime.
▷ A different flow regime begins that is called pseudosteady
(semisteady)-state flow.
▷ It is necessary at this point to impose different boundary
conditions on the diffusivity equation and drive an appropriate
solution to this flow regime.

142

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Pseudo steady State Equations

𝜕𝑝
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜕𝑡
Unsteady state

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑡 𝑡
𝑡 𝑡

𝑃
Pseudo steady state
Boundary Boundary

143

Pseudo steady State Equations

▷ Using the material balance:
𝑑𝑝 −0.23396𝑞
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑐 𝐴ℎ𝜑

▷ The reservoir pressure declines at a higher rate with an increase

in the fluids production rate
▷ The reservoir pressure declines at a slower rate for reservoirs
with higher total compressibility coefficients
▷ The reservoir pressure declines at a lower rate for reservoirs
with larger pore volumes
144

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Pseudo steady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
By substituting into the diffusivity equation:

𝜕 𝑝 1 𝜕𝑝 𝜑𝜇𝑐 −0.23396𝑞
+ =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 0.006328𝑘 𝑐 𝐴ℎ𝜑

1𝜕 𝜕𝑝 887.22𝑞𝜇
𝑟 =−
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 (𝜋𝑟 ) ℎ𝑘

145

Pseudo steady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
By double integration and imposing the boundary conditions:
0.00708 𝑘ℎ 𝑝 − 𝑝
𝑄=
𝑟
𝜇𝐵 ln − 0.5
𝑟
If we use the reservoir average pressure:

0.00708 𝑘ℎ 𝑝 − 𝑝
𝑄=
𝑟
𝜇𝐵 ln − 0.75
𝑟
146

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Pseudo steady State Equations

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
If the reservoir is not circular, we introduce shape factor 𝑪𝑨 to the
equations:
𝑘ℎ 𝑝̅ − 𝑝
𝑄=
4𝐴
162.6𝐵𝜇 log
1.781𝐶 𝑟

𝐴 is the reservoir area, 𝑓𝑡

𝐶 is the shape factor, dimensionless

147

Pseudo steady State Equations

Radial flow of compressible fluids

▷ The radial diffusivity equation was developed to study the

performance of compressible fluid under unsteady-state
conditions
𝜕 𝑚(𝑝) 1 𝜕𝑚(𝑝) 𝜑𝜇𝑐 𝜕𝑚(𝑝)
+ =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 0.000264𝑘 𝜕𝑡
▷ For the semi steady-state flow, the rate of change of the real gas
pseudo pressure with respect to time is constant
𝜕𝑚(𝑝)
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜕𝑡
148

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Pseudo steady State Equations

Radial flow of compressible fluids

▷ Using the same technique identical to that described previously

for liquids gives the following exact solution to the diffusivity
equation
𝑘ℎ 𝑚 𝑝 − 𝑚 𝑝
𝑄=
𝑟
1422𝜇𝐵 ln − 0.75
𝑟
𝑚 𝑝 can be calculated using numerical integration methods

149

Pseudo steady State Equations

Radial flow of compressible fluids

▷ Two approximations to the above solution are widely used.

These approximations are:
1. Pressure-squared approximation
2. Pressure-approximation

150

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Pseudo steady State Equations

Radial flow of compressible fluids

Pressure approximation method

▷ This approximation method is applicable at p > 3000 psi and has the
following mathematical form
𝑘ℎ 𝑝 − 𝑝
𝑄=
𝑟
1422𝜇̅ 𝐵 ln − 0.75
𝑟
with the gas properties evaluated at:
𝑝 +𝑝
𝑝̅ =
2 151

Pseudo steady State Equations

Radial flow of compressible fluids

Pressure-squared approximation method

▷ As outlined previously, the method provides us with compatible results
to that of the exact solution approach when p < 2000.
𝑘ℎ 𝑝̅ − 𝑝
𝑄=
𝑟
1422𝑇𝜇̅ 𝑧̅ ln − 0.75
𝑟
with the gas properties evaluated at:
  𝑝̅ + 𝑝
𝑝̅ =
2
152

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General flow equation

Multi-phase three-dimensional flow
▷ The most general flow equation considering oil, water, and gas phases
in three dimensions and gravitational effect can be derived by
combining continuity, compressibility, and transport equations

▷ If each phase is considered as a component, the model is known as the

black-oil model. However, if the composition of each phase is important
for us, the model is known as the compositional model.

153

General flow equation

Multi-phase three-dimensional flow
▷ We just present the general equation:

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑥 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑦 +

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆z = −𝑞 Oil phase

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑥 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑦 +

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆z = −𝑞 Water phase
154

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General flow equation

Multi-phase three-dimensional flow

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 +𝛽 𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑥 +

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 +𝛽 𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑦 +

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 +𝛽 𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆z = + −

𝑞 Gas phase

155

General flow equation

Multi-phase three-dimensional flow
Additional relationships:
𝑆 +𝑆 +𝑆 =1
𝑃 =𝑝 −𝑝 =𝑓 𝑠
𝑃 = 𝑝 −𝑝 = 𝑓 𝑠

Here, water is the wetting phase, gas is the non-wetting phase, and oil is
the intermediate wetting phase.

Usually, the equations are written using the water saturation, oil pressure
and capillary pressure 156

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General flow equation

Multi-phase three-dimensional flow

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑥 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑦 +

( )
𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆z = −𝑞 Oil phase

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 − −𝛾 ∆𝑥 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −
𝛾 ∆𝑦 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 − −𝛾 ∆z = −
𝑞 Water phase

157

General flow equation

Multi-phase three-dimensional flow

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 + −𝛾 +𝛽 𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑥 +

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 + −𝛾 +𝛽 𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑦 +

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 + −𝛾 +𝛽 𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆z = +

( )
−𝑞 Gas phase

158

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3.
ADVANCED EQUATIONS
Governing fluid flow equations for advanced flows

Advanced flow equations

Advanced flow equations include:

1. Polymer flooding equations

2. Alkaline flooding equations
3. Foam flooding equations
4. Miscible gas flooding equations

160

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Advanced flow equations

Polymer flooding equations

▷ The flow of the polymer solution through the porous medium is

assumed to have no influence on the flow of the hydrocarbon phases.
The standard Blackoil equations are therefore used to describe the
hydrocarbon phases in the model.
▷ Modification is required to the standard aqueous (water) equation and
additional equations are needed to describe the flow of polymer and
brine within the finite difference grid. The water, polymer and brine
equations used in the model are as follows:

161

Advanced flow equations

Polymer flooding equations

= 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑥 +
,

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑦 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −
, ,

𝛾 ∆z + 𝑞 Water phase
∗
+ 𝑉𝜌 𝐶 = 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −
,

𝛾 ∆𝑥 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑦 +
,

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆z 𝐶 + 𝑞 𝐶 Polymer
, 162
phase

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Advanced flow equations

Polymer flooding equations

= 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑥
,

+ 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑦 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘
, ,

−𝛾 ∆z + 𝑞 𝐶 Brine equation

𝑉 ∗ = 𝑉(1 − 𝑆 )

163

Advanced flow equations

Polymer flooding equations
𝑺𝒅𝒑𝒗 the dead pore space within each grid cell 𝝁𝐚.𝒆𝒇𝒇 the effective viscosity of the water
(a=w), polymer (a=p) and salt (a=s).
𝑪𝒂𝒑 the polymer adsorption concentration 𝑩𝒓 , 𝑩𝒘 are the rock and water formation
volumes
𝝆𝒓 the mass density of the rock formation 𝑽𝒃 is the block pore volume

𝑹𝒌 the relative permeability reduction factor for 𝒒𝐰𝐬𝐜 is the water production rate
the aqueous phase due to polymer retention
𝑪𝒑 , 𝑪𝒏 the polymer and salt concentrations
respectively in the aqueous phase

164

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Advanced flow equations

Alkaline flooding equations
The alkaline is assumed to exist only in the water phase

+ 𝜌𝐶 = 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −
,

𝛾 ∆𝑥 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑦 +
,

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆z 𝐶 + 𝑞 𝐶
,

Alkaline transport in water

165

Advanced flow equations

Alkaline flooding equations

▷ 𝐶 denotes the alkaline concentration

▷ 𝐶 denotes the adsorbed alkaline concentration
▷ 𝜇 , denotes the effective viscosity of the salt
▷ 𝑄 is the water production rate

166

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Advanced flow equations

Foam flooding equations

▷ Although foam is essentially a mixture of gas, water and surfactant, we

model it as an effective concentration of surfactant transported in
either the gas or the water phase.

▷ The distribution of the injected foam is therefore solved by a

conservation equation

▷ Foam only exists in either the water or gas phases

167

Advanced flow equations

Foam flooding equations

+ 𝜌𝐶 = 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 𝑀 −

𝛾 ∆𝑥 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 𝑀 −𝛾 ∆𝑦 +

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 𝑀 −𝛾 ∆z 𝐶 + 𝑞 𝐶 − 𝜆 𝑆 ,𝑆 𝐶

Foam transport in gas phase

168

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Advanced flow equations

Foam flooding equations

+ 𝜌𝐶 = 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑥 +

𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −𝛾 ∆𝑦 + 𝛽𝐴 𝑘 −

𝛾 ∆z 𝐶 + 𝑄 𝐶 − 𝜆 𝑆 , 𝑆 𝐶

Foam transport in water phase

169

Advanced flow equations

Foam flooding equations
𝐶 denotes the foam concentration
𝐶 denotes the adsorbed foam concentration
𝑉 is the block pore volume
𝜆 𝑆 , 𝑆 is the rate decay parameter function of oil and water
saturation
𝑀 is the gas mobility reduction factor described below
Typically the foam suffers from adsorption on to the rock matrix, decay
over time, and enhanced decay in the presence of water. 170

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Miscible and immiscible flow

Immiscible flow Miscible flow
An interface separates the fluids No interface exists between miscible fluids
There will be irreducible or residual of different composition
saturations after the displacement has Steady state is reached when one fluid has
reached steady state completely displaced the other fluid; the
The interfacial tensions associated with concept of irreducible or residual
the immiscible fluid interfaces play a saturations does not apply
significant role in determining the fluid A mixing zone is established, where the
distributions within the porous medium composition of the in-situ fluid changes
The displacement front in an immiscible from the composition of one pure fluid to
displacement will be sharper at higher that of the other pure fluid
flow rates, or when capillary forces are In the absence of fluid/fluid interfaces,
neglected capillary forces are absent 171

Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
▷ In this miscible flood model, the injected gas is identified as a
miscible agent (solvent) with the oil.
▷ The flow equations are a special case of the standard three-phase,
three-component flow (water, oil and gas) where the gas-oil
capillary pressure is set to zero because of the miscibility 𝑃 = 0
▷ Some modifications have to be made to the relative permeability,
viscosity, density, and water saturation models

172

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Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Relative permeability modelling
▷ The injected gas and reservoir oil are considered to be miscible
components of the hydrocarbon (nonwetting) phase.
▷ The flow is two-phase in character and two-phase relative permeability
curves need to be defined for the water and hydrocarbon phases say
𝑘 (𝑆 ) and 𝑘 (𝑆 ) (where 𝑆 is the water saturation and 𝑆 = 𝑆 + 𝑆 is
the hydrocarbon phase saturation).
▷ 𝑘 can be considered to be the relative permeability of oil as measured
in a water flood test.
173

Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Relative permeability modelling
▷ The oil and gas relative permeabilities are then computed as
saturation weighted fraction that is:

𝑆 −𝑆
𝑘 = 𝑘 𝑆
𝑆 −𝑆 −𝑆

𝑆 −𝑆
𝑘 = 𝑘 𝑆
𝑆 −𝑆 −𝑆
174

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Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Effect of water saturation
▷ A feature of miscible gas injection processes that may also be
modeled is the screening effect of high water saturation on the
contact between the miscible gas and the oil in-place in each grid
cell.
▷ The effective residual oil saturation to a miscible gas drive is
found to increase with increasing water saturation and correct
modeling of the effect is important since it may reduce the
efficiency of the miscible displacement
175

Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Effect of water saturation
▷ The process is modeled by introducing an effective residual oil
saturation, 𝑆 , which depends on the water saturation (𝑆 +𝑆 𝑆 ). A
mobile oil saturation is then calculated by
𝑆 ∗ = 𝑀𝐴𝑋 𝑆 − 𝑆 , 0.0
▷ The mobile oil saturation 𝑆 ∗ is then used to determine the relative
permeabilities of miscible components and the effective gas and oil
viscosities and densities in each grid cell

176

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Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Viscosity model
▷ The effective oil and miscible gas viscosities follow the Todd-Longstaff
model. They are given by:
𝜇 , =𝜇 𝜇

𝜇 , =𝜇 𝜇

▷ The value of ω thus controls the degree of fluid mixing within each grid
cell

177

Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Viscosity model
▷ The mixture viscosity 𝜇 is given by a 1/4-power fluid mixing rule
𝜇 𝜇
𝜇 =
𝑆 / 𝑆 /
.𝜇 + .𝜇
𝑆 𝑆
𝑆 = 𝑆 −𝑆
𝑆 = 𝑆 −𝑆

𝑆 = 𝑆 +𝑆
178

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Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Density model
▷ The treatment of effective oil and gas densities is based on the
same 1/4-power rule as the effective viscosities
▷ First, the partially mixed or effective viscosities are calculated
▷ The value of each effective component viscosity is then used to
yield an effective saturation fraction to be used in oil and gas
density calculations

179

Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Density model
𝑆 𝜇 𝜇 ,
−𝜇
=
𝑆
𝜇 ,
𝜇 −𝜇

𝑆 𝜇 𝜇 ,
−𝜇
=
𝑆
𝜇 ,
𝜇 −𝜇

180

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Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Density model
▷ The effective oil and gas densities (𝝆𝒐,𝒆𝒇𝒇 , 𝝆𝒈 𝒆𝒇𝒇 ) are now
computed from the effective saturations fractions and the pure
component densities (𝝆𝒐 , 𝝆𝒈 ) using the following formulae:
𝑆 𝑆
𝜌 , =𝜌 +𝜌 1−
𝑆 𝑆

𝑆 𝑆
𝜌 , =𝜌 +𝜌 1−
𝑆 𝑆

181

Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Density model
▷ For the fully mixed case, that is 𝜔 = 1, the effective saturations
are equal:
𝑆 𝑆 𝜇 𝜇 −𝜇
= =
𝑆 𝑆
𝜇 𝜇 −𝜇

and the effective densities are therefore equal, 𝜌 , =𝜌 , =𝜌

182

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Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Density model
▷ For the unmixed, fully segregated case, that is 𝜔 = 0, the effective
saturations simplify to
𝑆 𝑆
= 1, =0
𝑆 𝑆
and the effective densities are equal to the “pure” phase densities
𝜌 , = 𝜌 ,𝜌 , =𝜌

183

Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Some points have to be taken into account in miscible displacements
▷ The oil recovery in a miscible displacement process depends on the size of
the mixing zone between the injected fluid and the reservoir oil
▷ For maximum oil recovery at breakthrough to occur, the mixing zone should
remain small compared to the reservoir volume so that the oil produced is
not diluted by the injected fluid.
▷ Ideally in a reservoir with a small mixing zone, for complete oil recovery,
slightly more than one reservoir pore volume of injection fluid is required.
However, if the mixing zone is large, several reservoir pore volumes of
injection fluid may be needed to achieve complete recovery.
184

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Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Some points have to be taken into account in miscible displacements
▷ The mixing due to diffusion and dispersion can dampen out viscous fingers in
an unstable displacement, leading to increased sweep efficiency.
▷ Dispersive mixing is caused by molecular diffusion and mechanical
dispersion and is the main part of the mixing in miscible displacements
▷ Molecular diffusion is a phenomenon whereby the transport of mass of a
species (component) occurs within a single fluid phase from one point to the
other in the direction of decreasing concentration.
 Diffusion is a consequence of the random motion of molecules and can
also take place in the absence of bulk movement or agitation.
185

Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Some points have to be taken into account in miscible displacements
▷ Spreading of a component in a phase due to microscopic variations in the
velocity field is called convective or mechanical-dispersion. A number of
mechanisms are responsible for variations in both magnitude and direction of
the velocity in permeable media:
○ parabolic velocity distribution associated with viscous flow through a
pore,
○ existence of different pore geometries, and
○ fluctuations in the stream lines with respect to the mean flow direction.

186

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Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations

▷ The presented models are used along with the three-phase three-
dimensional flow equations to model a miscible gas injection

▷ The advanced models are only presented to get familiar with

them

187

Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
For simplicity, we only include the x dimension. The equations can
easily be extended to three dimensions
Mass conservation:

− 𝑥 𝜌 , 𝑣 + 𝑦 𝜌 , + = 𝜑 𝑆 𝑥 𝜌 , +
𝑆 𝑦 𝜌 ,

188

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 11/6/2021

Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
For simplicity, we only include the x dimension. The equations can
easily be extended to three dimensions
Mass conservation:

− 𝑥 𝜌 , 𝑣 + 𝑦 𝜌 , + = 𝜑 𝑆 𝑥 𝜌 ,

+ 𝑆 𝑦 𝜌 ,
Diffusion phenomena in the liquid phase
𝑣 =𝑣 + 𝑣 can be about hundred times less
significant than diffusive effects within a
𝑣 =𝑣 + 𝑣 gas phase, therefore,
189

Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Therefore:
𝑣 =𝑣
𝑣 =𝑣 + 𝑣

𝑣 =
,
Darcy’s Law Fick’s Law 𝑣 = −𝜑𝑆
,
𝑣 =

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 11/6/2021

Advanced flow equations

Miscible gas flooding equations
Substituting to the mass conservation law:

𝑥 𝜌 , 𝐴 𝑘 +𝑦 𝜌 , 𝐴 𝑘 +
,
𝑦 𝑆 𝐴 ∆𝑥 + 𝑀 = 𝜑 𝑆 𝑥 𝜌 , +𝑆 𝑦 𝜌 ,
. .

𝑚 = 1,2, … , 𝑛
𝑛 is the number of components
𝑥 is the gas fraction
𝑦 is the liquid fraction 191

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