EARTH SCIENCE The Lithosphere--contains all of the cold, hard solid land of the

planet's crust (surface), the semi-solid land underneath the

WHAT MAKES EARTH SUITABLE FOR LIFE? crust, and the liquid land near the center of the planet. The
surface of the lithosphere is very uneven.
The Moon
The solid, semi-solid, and liquid land of the lithosphere form
The Earth has a slight tilt and teeters which can cause drastic layers that are physically and chemically different. If someone
shifts in climate over the course of thousands of years. But were to cut through Earth to its center, these layers would be
because of the moon's stabilizing effect on our orbit, our climate revealed like the layers of an onion. The outermost layer of the
is a lot steadier. And also, the moon causes the tides, and some lithosphere consists of loose soil rich in nutrients, oxygen, and
experts assume life began in tidal pools. silicon. Beneath that layer lies a very thin, solid crust of oxygen
and silicon. Next is a thick, semi-solid mantle of oxygen,
Stable rotation silicon, iron, and magnesium. Below that is a liquid outer core
of nickel and iron. At the center of Earth is a solid inner core of
The regularity and frequency of day and night on this planet go nickel and iron.
far to prevent extreme temperatures and encourage life.
Hydrosphere
A magnetic field
The Hydrosphere -- contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous
Our planet is blessed with a strong, stable magnetic field, which water of the planet. It ranges from 10 to 20 kilometers in
staves off the cosmic rays and solar flares that could “burn” the thickness. The hydrosphere extends from Earth's surface
planet every now and then. downward several kilometers into the lithosphere and upward
about 12 kilometers into the atmosphere. A small portion of the
Dynamic geology water in the hydrosphere is fresh (non-salty). This water flows
as precipitation from the atmosphere down to Earth's surface,
The cloud of gas and dust that eventually coalesced into the as rivers and streams along Earth's surface, and as groundwater
Earth contained enough radioactive elements to keep the core beneath Earth's surface. Most of Earth's fresh water, however,
of the planet churning merrily for billions of years. Without that is frozen.
motion, there wouldn't be a magnetic field at all.
Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is salty. The salty water
Atmosphere collects indeep valleys along Earth's surface. These large
collections of salty water are referred to as oceans. The image
The importance of the ozone layer should also be considered. above depicts the different temperatures one would find on
Back in the very early days of life, plant-like organisms oceans' surfaces. Water near the poles is very cold while water
unknowingly made way for animal life by filling the near the equator is very warm. The differences in temperature
atmosphere with oxygen. That high-altitude layer of gas cause water to change physical states. Extremely low
shielded early animals from lethal radiation. temperatures like those found at the poles cause water to freeze
into a solid such as a polar icecap, a glacier, or an iceberg.
Isolation Extremely high temperatures like those found at the equator
Venus and Mars are close to the Earth, but our solar system as cause water to evaporate into a gas.
a whole is in the middle of nowhere. Because we're far from the
major spiral arms of the Milky Way, we're in a lot less danger Biosphere
of encountering some greater star's gravitational pull (among
other hazards). The Biosphere --contains all the planet's living things. This
sphere includes all of the microorganisms, plants, and animals
Long-lived sun of Earth. 

Within the biosphere, living things form ecological
Our sun is a yellow dwarf, a relatively rare type of star that's communities based on the physical surroundings of an area.
both small and stable. It also has a long life, and probably won't These communities are referred to as biomes. Deserts,
start to fizzle out for another five billion years or so. Larger stars grasslands, and tropical rainforests are three of the many types
generally burn hotter and die sooner, while smaller stars have a of biomes that exist within the biosphere.
tendency to spit out enormous plumes of radiation.

Plenty of time Atmosphere

The sun has about five billion years left, and the Earth itself is
around four and a half billion years old. But life only arrived in The Atmosphere--contains all the air in Earth's system. It
that last half-billion. We're here because our planet was sturdy extends from less than 1 m below the planet's surface to more
enough to last until the first signs of life appeared. than 10,000 km above the planet's surface. The upper portion of
the atmosphere protects the organisms of the biosphere from the
Gas-giant neighbors sun's ultraviolet radiation. It also absorbs and emits heat. When
The sun and moon are great, but there's another large planet to air temperature in the lower portion of this sphere changes,
help make Earth habitable: Jupiter. In general, gas giants tend weather occur. As air in the lower atmosphere is heated or
to clump up near their home stars. And because they're toward cooled, it moves around the planet. The result can be as simple
the outside of our solar system, their intense gravity as a breeze or as complex as a tornado.
conveniently catches wayward asteroids and comets, making
events like the one that killed the dinosaurs a rarity. Interaction Between the Four Spheres

Changes that take place within an ecosystem are referred to as

Subsystems of Earth events. Although the four systems have their individual
identities, there is important interaction between them.
Lithosphere Environmental scientists study the effects of events in one
sphere on the other spheres. There are ten possible types of
interactions that could occur within the earth system. Four of

1|Page
these interactions are between the event and each of the 3 earth's
spheres. The double-headed arrows indicate that the cause and Bases are compounds which always contain a combination of 1
effect relationships of these interactions go in both directions. atom of oxygen and 1 atom of hydrogen, called the hydroxide
(OH) group. Salts are compounds of a metal and a non-metal or
The event “hydrosphere" refers to the effects of the event on the a non-metallic group.
hydrosphere, as well as the effects of the hydrosphere on the
event. For example, a volcanic eruption in the geosphere may Properties of Minerals
cause profound direct and indirect effects on the hydrosphere,
atmosphere and biosphere. Color
Most obvious property. The color of the freshly broken surface
of some minerals is a reliable clue to their identification. The
color of the surface tarnish of those materials that have a
metallic luster should also be taken into account.

Streak
Color of a thin layer of the finely powdered mineral. A streak
is usually obtained by rubbing the mineral against a streak plate
of unglazed porcelain, such as the back of a tile. The streak of
a non-metallic mineral is either colorless or very light while
metallic minerals have a dark streak.

Luster
Source: https://www.space.com/5595-earth-special-compared- Ability of a mineral to reflect, refract (bend) or absorb light
planets.html falling into its surface. Various terms are used to describe the
general types of luster. These include dull, pearly, resinous,
silky, earthy, metallic, glassy or vitreous and brilliant or
ELEMENTS adamantine.

All materials on Earth are made up of elements. An element is Crystal form

a substance that cannot be changed by ordinary means into any Significant because it provides a clue to the internal structure of
other substance. The smallest particle of an element that has all the mineral. Most minerals are crystalline. Their atoms, ions or
the properties of that element is called an atom. Ninety-two molecules are arranged in definite patterns. Minerals crystallize
elements occur naturally on or in the Earth (although others in six basic shapes: isometric or cubic, orthorhombic,
elements have been created in the laboratory). Of the natural tetragonal, monoclinic, hexagonal and triclinic.
elements, a few very common ones compose most of Earth’s
air, water and solid material. Cleavage and fracture
Also indicate the structure of the mineral. Minerals are said to
The three major classification of elements are metals, non- have poor, fair, good, perfect or eminent cleavage. Fracture
metals and metalloids. Metals have a shiny luster, conduct both reveal the true color of the mineral. Some types of fracture are
heat and electricity readily and they reflect light. Most metals conchoidal, fibrous or splintery, irregular and earthy.
are malleable and ductile.
Hardness
Non-metals are usually poor conductors of heat and electricity. Its resistance to abrasion (scratching). Certain minerals are
They are brittle rather than malleable and ductile. A few used as standards of comparison for all others. The scale of
elements have some of the properties of both the metals and hardness, called Mohs’ scale, consists of ten minerals. These
non-metals. Such elements are called metalloids. range from talc, one of the softest minerals to diamond, the
hardest of all minerals.
The nucleus is the center of the atom and has a positive electric
charge. It is composed of protons, which are electrically Specific gravity
positive and neutrons, which have no electric charge. The relative weights of various minerals can be judged by
Surrounding the nucleus is a group of electrons, having a weighing or handling pieces of roughly the same size (hefting).
negative charge. A more precise method is to measure its specific gravity. This
is expressed as a number that tells how many times heavier a
Compounds given volume of the substance is than an equal volume of water.

Elements exist under two conditions. They may be free or they Special properties
may be united chemically in chemical compounds. Magnetism
Electrical properties
In a mixture, substances are physically mingled. A solution is Fluorescence
a particular type of mixture. In solutions of some chemical Radioactivity
compounds, the particles, called molecules, are made up of two Temperature of fusion
or more atoms of elements. These atoms are chemically Optical properties
combined in a fixed proportion by weight. Solutions of other
compounds may consist of electrically charged particles, MINERAL
smaller than molecules, called ions.
A mineral is a natural substance with distinctive chemical and
Oxides, acids, bases and salts are four classes of compounds physical properties, composition, and atomic structure. The
which are often met in the study of rocks and minerals. definition of an economic mineral is broader, and includes
minerals, metals, rocks and hydrocarbons (solid and liquid) that
Oxides are compounds of elements that are combined with are extracted from the earth by mining, quarrying and pumping.
oxygen alone. Acids are compounds which always contain Economic minerals are used in a wide range of applications
hydrogen; their water solutions turn blue litmus paper to red.
2|Page
related to construction, manufacturing, agriculture and energy POTASH Carbonate of potassium, is used in
supply. fertilizers, medicines and the chemical
industry.
Minerals are basic and essential raw materials in our daily lives, RARE Planthanum, Cerium, Praseodymium,
and are vital for economic, social and technological EARTH Neodymium, Europium, etc., are used in
development. ELEMENTS petroleum refining, computers, televisions,
magnetic industry, metallurgical
applications, ceramics and lighting.
LITHIUM Lithium ore is currently primarily used to
produce lithium carbonate which is utilized
to manufacture auto batteries.
Mineral Uses Source: https://www.nps.gov/subjects/geology/rocks-and-
COPPER Copper is used for electrical conductors, minerals.htm
motors, appliances, piping and in metal
alloys. MINING
GOLD Gold has many high tech applications
including computers and many scientific Surface mining is a form of mining in which the soil and the
instruments, is used in electrical rock covering the mineral deposits are removed. It is the other
conductors, is used in the face shields of way of underground mining, in which the overlying rock is left
fire fighters to reflect the heat of a fire. is behind, and the required mineral deposits are removed through
used in building windows for reflecting the shafts or tunnels.
heat from the sun, medical and dental
equipment, and jewelry. Surface mining is basically employed when deposits of
commercially viable minerals or rock are found closer to the
ZINC ZnO is used to prevent Sunburn, zinc is
surface; that is, where overstrain (surface material covering the
used for protective coatings for steel,
valuable deposit) is relatively very less or the material of
casting alloys and extensively in
interest is structurally unsuitable for heavy handling or
medicines.
tunneling (as would usually be the case for sand, cinder, and
NICKEL Nickel is primarily used to manufacture
gravel).
stainless steel.
SILVER Silver is used in electrical conductors,
Where ever minerals occur deep below the earths crest or the
photography, chemical manufacturing,
overburden is too thick or the mineral occurs as strands in hard
dental and medical uses.
rock, Underground mining methods are employed to extract the
ALUMINUM Aluminum is used in electrical conductors, valuable mineral deposits.
ships, airplanes, doors, windows, roofing,
insulation, packaging, food processing, Surface mines are naturally extended until either the valuable
domestic utensils. deposit is exhausted, or the cost of de-cresting larger volumes
IRON Iron is used in steel manufacturing, of overburden makes further mining an uneconomic option to
magnets, medicines, biomedical research, shoulder.
paints, printing inks, plastics, cosmetics,
dyes. Iron is used in volume, about 20 times In most types of surface mining, heavy paraphernalia's such as
more than any other metal in our society. earthmovers are utilized. They 1st remove the overburden the
BORAX Borax is used to make fiberglass, high soil and rock above the deposit. Then followed by the huge
temperature glass, cleaning agents, machines, such as dragline excavators, extract the mineral.
ceramics, wood preservatives, corrosion
inhibitors and fertilizers. It is a known fact that Mother Earth contributes largely to the
TITANIUM Titanium is used in paint manufacture as wealth of the world. The mining takes place in those areas
pigments, and in plastic manufacture, as where the growth of vegetation is very minimal or at times does
well as many high strength, low weight not exist due to the surface conditions. The most important
metal alloys. method used to extract the minerals from the earth is surface
TALC Talc is used in paper manufacture, in paint mining. It is surprising to notice that 70 percent of the minerals
manufacture and in plastics and the extracted from the earth are through this process. The basic
cosmetic industry. material used for construction purposes like crushed rocks, sand
CLAY Used to make cement and concrete, which and gravel is obtained through this method.
is used to build roads, buildings, housing
foundations and even driveways. After the discovery of certain kinds of mineral deposits in a
COAL Used in steel making and to provide particular area a method has to be evaluated to extract these
electricity. For decades it was the lowest minerals. The selection is based on technical and environmental
cost electricity in the world (except for aspects and surface mining is preferred to extract the minerals
hydro generated). However, now natural from the surface area. As compared to underground mining this
gas, solar and wind are less expensive ways method of mining removes soil and rock overlying the mineral
to generate electric power. Slag (the residue deposit. The equipment used for this process is always heavy
left when coal is burned) from coal power such as earth movers, dragline excavators or bucket wheel
plants is used for paving additives, for excavators.
abrasives in sandblasting and to
manufacture roofing materials. Types of surface mining
PHOSPHATE Phosphate is used to produce phosphoric
acid for fertilizers, feed additives for Strip mining:
livestock, chemicals, and used in consumer
home products This process involves the method of extracting the mineral by
removing soil and rock which are deposited on the surface.Coal
and Lignite are the two principle minerals that are extracted

3|Page
through this method. This kind of mining can be done when the animals. They are responsible for much of the world’s electric
mineral to be extracted almost near to the surface.This process power and total energy demands. Since 1900, the world’s
is divided into area stripping and contour stripping. This consumption of fossil fuels has nearly doubled every 20 years.
method of striping is common on flat land to extract the mineral
over a large area. Fossil fuels comprise mainly of coal, oil and gas. These three
were formed millions of years ago beneath the Earth’s surface
Open-pit mining: from the decomposed bodies of dead plants and animals. They
are foreseen to be in short supply in the future as man’s fuel
This type of mining involves the extraction of rock or minerals needs continue to grow at a fast rate.
from the earth by forming an open pit. This process differs from
the other method which requires digging into the earth. This Crude oil is also referred to as petroleum. Compared to coal,
method of mining is carried out where useful minerals or rocks this is easier to extract from the ground through the use of pipes
are found near the surface. When the surface material covering thereby making it less costly to transport from one place to
the valuable material is relatively thin this kind of mining is another.
more suitable.
Natural gas has other uses apart from being burned in power
Open cast mines are dug on benches which are usually four to plants to generate electricity. Many people also use it in their
sixty meter intervals and the machinery used depends on the home heating systems to provide warm air during the cold
size of the area. The flat part of the wall is known as the bench winter season.
whereas the inclined portion of the sections is known as batter.
To prevent the damage from rock falls the walls of the pit has
to be dug on less than vertical angle. A crude, temporary road Advantages of Fossil Fuels
is usually found at the side of the pit for the movement of trucks
carrying ore or waste rocks. The waste rocks are always piled • A major advantage of fossil fuels is their capacity to generate
up on the borders of the open pit. This waste dump is arranged huge amounts of electricity in just a single location.
in rows and stepped to lower the degradation. • Fossil fuels are very easy to find.
• When coal is used in power plants, they are very cost effective.
The next step is rehabilitation. This is the process by which the Coal is also in abundant supply.
land is returned to the original state after the process of mining • Transporting oil and gas to the power stations can be made
is done. Various processes are involved to bring it to the original through the use of pipes making it an easy task.
state. Another way is an adaptive use of mines by which the • Power plants that utilize gas are very efficient.
mines are reused and they develop the closed open pit mines • Power stations that make use of fossil fuel can be constructed
into parks. The reclaimed mine sites are used for small in almost any location. This is possible as long as large
economic activities which may also include dumping of sludge quantities of fuel can be easily brought to the power plants.
waste etc.
Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels
Mountaintop removal:
• Pollution is a major disadvantage of fossil fuels. This is
Another method involved in this category aims at mining the because they give off carbon dioxide when burned thereby
summit or the long and narrow edge of the mountain. The main causing a greenhouse effect. This is also the main contributory
mineral extracted by this method is coal. Coal is mined by factor to the global warming experienced by the earth today.
removing the land above the seams. • Coal also produces carbon dioxide when burned compared to
burning oil or gas. Additionally, it gives off sulphur dioxide, a
The coal cannot be mined using simple machines. Explosives kind of gas that creates acid rain.
are used to mine the coal and the excess coals are dumped in • Environmentally, the mining of coal results in the destruction
the nearby valley. This method is less expensive and requires of wide areas of land. Mining this fossil fuel is also difficult and
only a few employees. There is controversy as to whether the may endanger the lives of miners. Coal mining is considered
coal mining is safe as it is being removed from the mountain one of the most dangerous jobs in the world.
top. But the coal industry asserts that it is safer than the • Power stations that utilize coal need large amounts of fuel. In
underground mining. The environmental studies warn that this other words, they not only need truckloads but trainloads of coal
process can damage the environment and also the health of on a regular basis to continue operating and generating
human beings. Another positive impact of Mountain mining is electricity. This only means that coal-fired power plants should
that the reclaimed area is suitable for many purposes and the have reserves of coal in a large area near the plant?s location.
flat terrain can support rapid development for human • Use of natural gas can cause unpleasant odors and some
population. However, the blasting of mountain top releases problems especially with transportation.
large amount of dust and tiny materials into the air leading to • Use of crude oil causes pollution and poses environmental
the pollution that could be a health hazard. hazards such as oil spills when oil tankers, for instance,
experience leaks or drown deep under the sea. Crude oil
Dredging: contains toxic chemicals which cause air pollutants when
combusted.
This is a method by which underwater minerals are extracted.
It is usually used to make waterways for boats and navigation Petroleum
canals for the passage of container ships to save time. The
mineral can be extracted from under water in cheap and Petroleum, or crude oil, is the most extensively used fossil fuel.
efficient way. Oil refining is done mainly by this method. Due to its value to mankind, it is also known as "black gold."
The word petroleum comes from the Latin words "petro"
(meaning rock) and "leum" (meaning oil).
FOSSIL FUELS
Petroleum mainly is used to fuel jets and automobiles. It also is
Man’s fuel needs, since the olden times, have been met through
used to generate electricity, and its derivatives are utilized in
the use of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels, as its name suggests, were
the medicine and plastic industries. As demand for oil is still
formed from the organic remains of prehistoric plants and
increasing, the average worldwide rate of oil field depletion is
4|Page
believed to be around 2.5 percent per year. The widespread use into pieces called plates. These slabs of continents and ocean
of petroleum also has contributed to air and water pollution. floor drift apart and push against each other at the rate of about
one inch per year in a process called continental drift.
Coal Magma (molten rock) may come quite close to the surface
where the crust has been thinned, faulted, or fractured by plate
Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel resource. It provides about tectonics. When this near-surface heat is transferred to water, a
one-quarter of the total energy the world uses, and 40 percent usable form of geother- energy is created.
of the electricity generated worldwide is powered by coal. The
steel industry also is greatly dependent upon this fossil fuel. Geothermal energy is called a renewable energy source because
Like other depleting sources of global energy, coal reserves are the water is replenished by rainfall, and the heat is continuously
also on a steep decline. Moreover, coal is a greenhouse gas produced by the earth.
nightmare.
How geothermal energy is captured
Natural Gas
Geothermal springs for power plants. Currently, the most
Natural gas is comprised mostly of methane, although it also common way of capturing the energy from geothermal sources
contains ethane, propane and butane. It is a convenient and is to tap into naturally occurring "hydrothermal convection"
efficient energy source. The major consumers of natural gas are systems, where cooler water seeps into Earth's crust, is heated
the residential, commercial and industrial sectors. It is also used up, and then rises to the surface. Once this heated water is
to generate electricity. Unlike other fossil fuels, natural gas is forced to the surface, it is a relatively simple matter to capture
cleaner and causes less pollution. Like other fossil fuels, this that steam and use it to drive electric generators. Geothermal
resource is depleting rapidly. power plants drill their own holes into the rock to more
effectively capture the steam.
Orimulsion
There are three basic designs for geothermal power plants, all
Orimulsion became the “fourth fossil fuel” in the mid-1980s. It of which pull hot water and steam from the ground, use it, and
is derived from the bitumen that occurs naturally in large then return it as warm water to prolong the life of the heat
reserves in the Orinoco oil belt in Venezuela. It is estimated that source. In the simplest design, known as dry steam, the steam
there are more than 1.2 trillion barrels of bitumen available in goes directly through the turbine, then into a condenser where
reserves, an amount greater than 50 percent of the world's the steam is condensed into water. In a second approach, very
estimated oil reserves. hot water is depressurized or "flashed" into steam which can
then be used to drive the turbine.
Orimulsion has achieved growing recognition as an
economically viable fuel for power generation. In countries In the third approach, called a binary cycle system, the hot water
such as Canada, Denmark, Japan, Italy, Lithuania and China, it is passed through a heat exchanger, where it heats a second
is used as a commercial boiler fuel in power plants. Orimulsion liquid—such as isobutane—in a closed loop. Isobutane boils at
is the cost-effective choice when compared to other fossil fuels a lower temperature than water, so it is more easily converted
used to generate electricity. into steam to run the turbine.

Future of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy. As we are

excessively dependent on these, alternative forms of energy
need to be developed in order to deal with the imminent energy
scarcity. These alternate sources of energy also need to be more
eco-friendly.

Source: The three basic designs for geothermal power plants: dry
https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/ steam, flash steam, and binary cycle. Image: U.S. Department
Teacher_PSA_sphere_interactions.pdf of Energy

The hydropower resource

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY On Earth, water is constantly moved around in various states, a
process known as the hydrologic cycle. Water evaporates from
Geothermal energy comes from the heat within the earth. The the oceans, forming into clouds, falling out as rain and snow,
word "geothermal" comes from the Greek words geo, meaning gathering into streams and rivers, and flowing back to the sea.
earth," and therme, meaning "heat." People around the world All this movement provides an enormous opportunity to
use geothermal energy to produce electricity, to heat buildings harness useful energy.
and greenhouses, and for other purposes.
In order to generate electricity from the kinetic energy in
The earth's core lies almost 4,000 miles beneath the earth's moving water, the water has to move with sufficient speed and
surface. The double-layered core is made up of very hot molten volume to spin a propeller-like device called a turbine, which
iron surrounding a solid iron center. Estimates of the in turn rotates a generator to generate electricity. Roughly
temperature of the core range from 5,000 to 11,000 degrees speaking, one gallon of water per second falling one hundred
Fahrenheit (F). Heat is continuously produced within the earth feet can generate one kilowatt of electricity.
by the slow decay of radioactive particles that is natural in all
rocks. To increase the volume of moving water, impoundments or
dams are used to collect the water. An opening in the dam uses
Surrounding the earth's core is the mantle, thought to be partly gravity to drop water down a pipe called a penstock. The
rock and partly magma. The mantle is about 1,800 miles thick. moving water causes the turbine to spin, which causes magnets
The outermost layer of the earth, the insulating crust, is not one inside a generator to rotate and create electricity.
continuous sheet of rock, like the shell of an egg, but is broken
5|Page
There are a variety of types of turbines used at hydropower billions of years, accumulated in the oceans as a result of
facilities, and their use depends on the amount of hydraulic head evaporation returning the fresh water to land as rain and snow.
(vertical distance between the dam and the turbine) at the plant. As a result, the vast bulk of the water on Earth is regarded as
The most common are Kaplan, Francis, and Pelton wheel saline or salt water, with an average salinity of 35‰ (or 3.5%,
designs. Some of these designs, called reaction and impulse roughly equivalent to 34 grams of salts in 1 kg of seawater),
wheels, use not just the kinetic force of the moving water but though this varies slightly according to the amount of runoff
also the water pressure. received from surrounding land. In all, water from oceans and
marginal seas, saline groundwater and water from saline closed
The Kaplan turbine is similar to a boat propeller, with a runner lakes amount to over 97% of the water on Earth, though no
(the turning part of a turbine) that has three to six blades, and closed lake stores a globally significant amount of water. Saline
can provide up to 400 MW of power. The Kaplan turbine is groundwater is seldom considered except when evaluating
differentiated from other kinds of hydropower turbines because water quality in arid regions.
its performance can be improved by changing the pitch of the
blades. The Francis turbine has a runner with nine or more fixed The remainder of the Earth's water constitutes the planet's fresh
vanes. In this turbine design, which can be up to 800 MW in water resource. Typically, fresh water is defined as water with
size, the runner blades direct the water so that it moves in an a salinity of less than 1 percent that of the oceans - i.e. below
axial flow. The Pelton turbine consists of a set of specially around 0.35‰. Water with a salinity between this level and 1‰
shaped buckets that are mounted on the outside of a circular is typically referred to as marginal water because it is marginal
disc, making it look similar to a water wheel. Pelton turbines for many uses by humans and animals. The ratio of salt water
are typically used in high hydraulic head sites and can be as to fresh water on Earth is around 40 to 1.
large as 200 MW.
The planet's fresh water is also very unevenly distributed.
Hydropower can also be generated without a dam, through a Although in warm periods such as the Mesozoic and Paleogene
process known as run-of-the-river. In this case, the volume and when there were no glaciers anywhere on the planet all fresh
speed of water is not augmented by a dam. Instead, a run-of- water was found in rivers and streams, today most fresh water
river project spins the turbine blades by capturing the kinetic exists in the form of ice, snow, groundwater and soil moisture,
energy of the moving water in the river. Hydropower projects with only 0.3% in liquid form on the surface. Of the liquid
that have dams can control when electricity is generated surface fresh water, 87% is contained in lakes, 11% in swamps,
because the dams can control the timing and flow of the water and only 2% in rivers. Small quantities of water also exist in the
reaching the turbines. Therefore these projects can choose to atmosphere and in living beings. Of these sources, only river
generate power when it is most needed and most valuable to the water is generally valuable.
grid. Because run-of-river projects do not store water behind
dams, they have much less ability to control the amount and Most lakes are in very inhospitable regions such as the glacial
timing of when electricity is generated. lakes of Canada, Lake Baikal in Russia, Lake Khövsgöl in
Mongolia, and the African Great Lakes. The North American
Another type of hydropower technology is called pumped Great Lakes, which contain 21% of the world's fresh water by
storage. In a pumped storage plant, water is pumped from a volume, are the exception. They are located in a hospitable
lower reservoir to a higher reservoir during off-peak times when region, which is heavily populated. The Great Lakes Basin is
electricity is relatively cheap, using electricity generated from home to 33 million people. The Canadian cities of Toronto,
other types of energy sources. Pumping the water uphill creates Hamilton, Ontario, St. Catharines, Niagara, Oshawa, Windsor,
the potential to generate hydropower later on. When the and Barrie, and the United States cities of Duluth, Milwaukee,
hydropower power is needed, it is released back into the lower Chicago, Gary, Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, and Rochester, are
reservoir through turbines. Inevitably, some power is lost, but all located on shores of the Great Lakes.
pumped storage systems can be up to 80 percent efficient. There
is currently more than 90 GW of pumped storage capacity Although the total volume of groundwater is known to be much
worldwide. The need to create storage resources to capture and greater than that of river runoff, a large proportion of this
store for later use the generation from high penetrations of groundwater is saline and should therefore be classified with
variable renewable energy (e.g. wind and solar) could increase the saline water above. There is also a lot of fossil groundwater
interest in building new pumped storage projects. in arid regions that has never been renewed for thousands of
years; this must not be seen as renewable water.
However, fresh groundwater is of great value, especially in arid
WATER RESOURCES ON EARTH countries such as India. Its distribution is broadly similar to that
of surface river water, but it is easier to store in hot and dry
The water distribution on earth shows that most water in the climates because groundwater storages are much more shielded
Earth's atmosphere and crust comes from the world ocean's from evaporation than are dams. In countries such as Yemen,
saline seawater, while freshwater accounts for only 2.5% of the groundwater from erratic rainfall during the rainy season is the
total. Because the oceans that cover roughly 71% of the area of major source of irrigation water.
the Earth reflect blue light, the Earth appears blue from space,
and is often referred to as the blue planet and the Pale Blue Dot. Because groundwater recharge is much more difficult to
An estimated 1.5 to 11 times the amount of water in the oceans accurately measure than surface runoff, groundwater is not
may be found hundreds of miles deep within the Earth's interior, generally used in areas where even fairly limited levels of
although not in liquid form. surface water are available. Even today, estimates of total
groundwater recharge vary greatly for the same region
The oceanic crust is young, thin and dense, with none of the depending on what source is used, and cases where fossil
rocks within it dating from any older than the breakup of groundwater is exploited beyond the recharge rate (including
Pangaea. Because water is much denser than any gas, this the Ogallala Aquifer) are very frequent and almost always not
means that water will flow into the "depressions" formed as a seriously considered when they were first developed.
result of the high density of oceanic crust. (On a planet like
Venus, with no water, the depressions appear to form a vast Source: https://www.wikipedia.org.
plain above which rise plateaux). Since the low density rocks of
the continental crust contain large quantities of easily eroded
salts of the alkali and alkaline earth metals, salt has, over

6|Page
HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECT THE QUALITY In mining operations that expose sulfide minerals, the increased
AND QUANTITY OF SOILS chemical weathering causes a type of pollution known as acid
drainage. Abandoned mines can fill with rainwater. Sulfide
Soil helps sustain life on Earth—including your life. You minerals react with the air and the water to produce sulfuric
already know that soil supports the growth of plants, which in acid. Then the acid water drains from the mines, polluting the
turn supply food for animals. Therefore, soil provides you with soil in surrounding areas.
nearly all the food you eat. But that’s not all. Many other items
you use, such as cotton clothing and medicines, come from
plants. Lumber in your home comes from trees. Even the SOIL CONSERVATION
oxygen you breathe comes from plants.
Soil conservation is very important, because soil can be difficult
Besides supporting the growth of plants, soil plays other life- or impossible to replace once it has been lost. Soil takes a very
sustaining roles. Soil helps purify, or clean, water as it drains long time to form. A soil with well-developed horizons may
through the ground and into rivers, lakes, and oceans. take hundreds of thousands of years to form! Most soil
Decomposers in soil also help recycle nutrients by breaking conservation methods are designed to hold soil in place and
down the remains of plants and animals, releasing nutrients that keep it fertile. Below are descriptions of a few of the many soil
living plants use to grow. In addition, soil provides a home for conservation methods that are used by farmers around the
a variety of living things, from tiny one-celled organisms to world.
small mammals.
Crop rotation is the practice of planting different crops on the
Farming same field in different years or growing seasons. Grain crops,
such as wheat, use up a lot of the nitrogen—a necessary plant
Farming is very important to society because almost all of the nutrient—in the soil. The roots of bean crops, such as soybeans,
world’s food is grown on farms. Over the 10,000 years humans contain bacteria that restore nitrogen to the soil. By rotating
have been farming, people have continually improved their these crops, farmers can help maintain soil fertility.
farming methods. However, farming has some harmful effects
and can lead to soil loss. Conservation tillage includes several methods of reducing the
number of times fields are tilled, or plowed, in a year. The less
Farmers often add nutrients to soil in the form of organic or soil is disturbed by plowing, the less likely it is to be washed or
artificial fertilizers to make their crops grow better. However, blown away. In one method of conservation tillage, fields are
some fertilizers can make it difficult for microorganisms in the not plowed at all. The remains of harvested crops are simply
soil to produce nutrients naturally. Fertilizers also add to water left on the fields to cover and protect the soil. New seeds are
pollution when rainwater draining from fields carries the excess planted in narrow bands of soil.
nutrients to rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Terraces are flat, steplike areas built on a hillside to hold
Over time, many farming practices lead to the loss of soil. All rainwater and prevent it from running downhill. Crops are
over the world, farmers clear trees and other plants and plow up planted on the flat tops of the terraces.
the soil to plant crops. Without its natural plant cover, the soil
is more exposed to rain and wind and is therefore more likely Contour plowing is the practice of plowing along the curves, or
to get washed or blown away. American farmers lose about five contours, of a slope. Contour plowing helps channel rainwater
metric tons of soil for each metric ton of grain they produce. In so that it does not run straight downhill, carrying away soil with
many other parts of the world, the losses are even higher. it.

Another problem is overgrazing. Overgrazing occurs when A soil conservation method called strip-cropping is often
farm animals eat large amounts of the land cover. Overgrazing combined with contour plowing. Strips of grasses, shrubs, or
destroys natural vegetation and causes the soil to wash or blow other plants are planted between bands of a grain crop along the
away more easily. In many dry regions of the world, contour of a slope. These strips of plants also help slow the
overgrazing and the clearing of land for farming have led to runoff of water.
desertification. is the expansion of desert conditions in areas
where the natural plant cover has been destroyed. Windbreaks are rows of trees planted between fields to “break,”
or reduce, the force of winds that can carry off soil.
Construction and Development

To make roads, houses, shopping malls, and other buildings, DIFFERENT TYPES OF WASTE
people need to dig up the soil. Some of the soil at construction
sites washes or blows away because its protective plant cover Types of waste
has been removed. The soil that is washed or blown away ends
up in nearby low-lying areas, in rivers and streams, or in Generally, waste could be liquid or solid waste. Both of them
downstream lakes or reservoirs. This soil can cause problems could be hazardous. Liquid and solid waste types can also be
by making rivers and lakes muddy and harming the organisms grouped into organic, re-usable and recyclable waste.
that live in them. The buildup of soil on riverbeds raises the Let us see some details below:
level of the rivers and may cause flooding. The soil can also fill
up lakes and reservoirs. Liquid type:

Mining Waste can come in non-solid form. Some solid waste can also
be converted to a liquid waste form for disposal. It includes
Some methods of mining cause soil loss. For example, the point source and non-point source discharges such as storm
digging of strip mines and open-pit mines involves the removal water and wastewater. Examples of liquid waste include wash
of plants and soil from the surface of the ground. water from homes, liquids used for cleaning in industries and
waste detergents.
By exposing rocks and minerals to the air and to rainwater,
these forms of mining speed up the rate of chemical weathering. Solid type:

7|Page
 When cars are all old and not working again, where do they end
Solid waste predominantly, is any garbage, refuse or rubbish up? Many people just leave them to rust in the fields, but there
that we make in our homes and other places. These include old is a better way to deal with them. In many cities, these vehicles
car tires, old newspapers, broken furniture and even food waste. are sent to the plant, where all the removable parts are taken out
They may include any waste that is non-liquid. for recycling. The rest is flattened up and shredded into peices
for recycling. The last bits that cannot be used again is sent to a
Hazardous type: landfill.

Hazardous or harmful waste are those that potentially threaten Industrial sources of waste:
public health or the environment. Such waste could be
inflammable (can easily catch fire), reactive (can easily Since the industrial revolution, the rise in the number of
explode), corrosive (can easily eat through metal) or toxic industries manufacturing glass, leather, textile, food,
(poisonous to human and animals). In many countries, it is electronics, plastic and metal products has significantly
required by law to involve the appropriate authority to supervise contributed to waste production. Take a look at the things in
the disposal of such hazardous waste. Examples include fire your home, every item there was probably manufactured and
extinguishers, old propane tanks, pesticides, mercury- possibly, waste was produced as a result.
containing equipment (e.g, thermostats) and lamps (e.g.
fluorescent bulbs) and batteries. Construction/demolition sources of waste:

Organic type: Construction waste is that resulting from the construction of

roads and building. Sometimes old buildings and structures are
Organic waste comes from plants or animals sources. pulled down (demolished) to make space for new ones. This is
Commonly, they include food waste, fruit and vegetable peels, particularly common in old cities that are modernizing. This is
flower trimmings and even dog poop can be classified as called demolition waste.
organic waste. They are biodegradable (this means they are
easily broken down by other organisms over time and turned Waste items include concrete debris, wood, earth, huge package
into manure). Many people turn their organic waste into boxes and plastics from the building materials and the like.
compost and use them in their gardens.
Electronic sources of waste:
Recyclable type:
This is waste from electronic and electrical devices. Think of
Recycling is processing used materials (waste) into new, useful DVD and music players, TV, Telephones, computers, vacuum
products. This is done to reduce the use of raw materials that cleaners and all the other electrical stuff in your home. These
would have been used. Waste that can be potentially recycled is are also called e-waste, e-scrap, or waste electrical and
termed "Recyclable waste". Aluminum products (like soda, electronic equipment (WEEE)
milk and tomato cans), Plastics (grocery shopping bags, plastic
bottles), Glass products (like wine and beer bottles, broken Some e-waste (like TV) contains lead, mercury, cadmium, and
glass), Paper products (used envelopes, newspapers and brominated flame retardants. These are harmful to humans and
magazines, cardboard boxes) can be recycled and fall into this the environment. It is therefore important that the right
category. authorities ensure the proper disposal of such waste.

Sources of waste
HEALTH IMPACTS OF SOLID WASTE
Municipal sources of waste:
Modernization and progress have had its share of disadvantages
This includes trash or garbage from households, schools, and one of the main aspects of concern is the pollution it is
offices, market places, restaurants and other public places. causing to the earth – be it land, air, and water. With increase in
They include everyday items like food debris, used plastic bags, the global population and the rising demand for food and other
soda cans and plastic water bottles, broken furniture, grass essentials, there has been a rise in the amount of waste being
clippings, product packaging, broken home appliances and generated daily by each household. This waste is ultimately
clothing. thrown into municipal waste collection centres from where it is
collected by the area municipalities to be further thrown into the
Medical/Clinical sources of waste: landfills and dumps. However, either due to resource crunch or
inefficient infrastructure, not all of this waste gets collected and
Medical/clinical waste, normally refers to waste produced from transported to the final dumpsites. If at this stage the
health care facilities, such as hospitals, clinics, surgical theaters, management and disposal is improperly done, it can cause
veterinary hospitals and labs. They tend to be classified as serious impacts on health and problems to the surrounding
hazard waste rather than general waste. Items in this group environment.
include surgical items, pharmaceuticals, blood, body parts,
wound dressing materials, needles and syringes Waste that is not properly managed, especially excreta and
other liquid and solid waste from households and the
Agricultural sources of waste: community, are a serious health hazard and lead to the spread
of infectious diseases. Unattended waste lying around attracts
Typically, this is waste generated by agricultural activities. flies, rats, and other creatures that in turn spread disease.
These include horticulture, fruit growing, seed growing, Normally it is the wet waste that decomposes and releases a bad
livestock breeding, market gardens and seedling nurseries. odour. This leads to unhygienic conditions and thereby to a rise
Waste items in this group include empty pesticide containers, in the health problems. The plague outbreak in Surat is a good
old silage wrap, out of date medicines and wormers, used tires, example of a city suffering due to the callous attitude of the
surplus milk, cocoa pods and corn husks. local body in maintaining cleanliness in the city. Plastic waste
is another cause for ill health. Thus excessive solid waste that
End-of-life Automobiles: is generated should be controlled by taking certain preventive
measures.

8|Page
The group at risk from the unscientific disposal of solid waste
include – the population in areas where there is no proper waste
disposal method, especially the pre-school children; waste
workers; and workers in facilities producing toxic and
infectious material. Other high-risk group include population
living close to a waste dump and those, whose water supply has
become contaminated either due to waste dumping or leakage
from landfill sites. Uncollected solid waste also increases risk
of injury, and infection.

In particular, organic domestic waste poses a serious threat,

since they ferment, creating conditions favourable to the
survival and growth of microbial pathogens. Direct handling of
solid waste can result in various types of infectious and chronic
diseases with the waste workers and the rag pickers being the
most vulnerable.

Exposure to hazardous waste can affect human health, children

being more vulnerable to these pollutants. In fact, direct
exposure can lead to diseases through chemical exposure as the
release of chemical waste into the environment leads to
chemical poisoning. Many studies have been carried out in
various parts of the world to establish a connection between
health and hazardous waste.

Waste from agriculture and industries can also cause serious

health risks. Other than this, co-disposal of industrial hazardous
waste with municipal waste can expose people to chemical and
radioactive hazards. Uncollected solid waste can also obstruct
storm water runoff, resulting in the forming of stagnant water
bodies that become the breeding ground of disease. Waste
dumped near a water source also causes contamination of the
water body or the ground water source.
Direct dumping of untreated waste in rivers, seas, and lakes
results in the accumulation of toxic substances in the food chain
through the plants and animals that feed on it.

Disposal of hospital and other medical waste requires special

attention since this can create major health hazards. This waste
generated from the hospitals, health care centres, medical
laboratories, and research centres such as discarded syringe
needles, bandages, swabs, plasters, and other types of infectious
waste are often disposed with the regular non-infectious waste.

Waste treatment and disposal sites can also create health

hazards for the neighbourhood. Improperly operated
incineration plants cause air pollution and improperly managed
and designed landfills attract all types of insects and rodents
that spread disease. Ideally these sites should be located at a
safe distance from all human settlement. Landfill sites should
be well lined and walled to ensure that there is no leakage into
the nearby ground water sources.

Recycling too carries health risks if proper precautions are not

taken. Workers working with waste containing chemical and
metals may experience toxic exposure. Disposal of health-care
wastes require special attention since it can create major health
hazards, such as Hepatitis B and C, through wounds caused by
discarded syringes. Rag pickers and others who are involved in
scavenging in the waste dumps for items that can be recycled,
may sustain injuries and come into direct contact with these
infectious items.

9|Page