Maharaja Education Trust (R), Mysuru

Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore

Belawadi, Srirangapatna Taluk, Mandya – 571 477
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi,
Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi & Recognized by Government of Karnataka

Lecture Notes on
Design of Machine Elements-2 (18ME62)

Prepared by

Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Maharaja Education Trust (R), Mysuru
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore
Belawadi, Srirangapatna Taluk, Mandya – 571 477

Vision/ ಆಶಯ

“To be recognized as a premier technical and management institution promoting extensive

education fostering research, innovation and entrepreneurial attitude"
,

Mission/

 To empower students with indispensable knowledge through dedicated teaching and

collaborative learning.

 To advance extensive research in science, engineering and management disciplines.

,

 To facilitate entrepreneurial skills through effective institute - industry collaboration and

interaction with alumni.
,

 To instill the need to uphold ethics in every aspect.

.

 To mould holistic individuals capable of contributing to the advancement of the society.

.
 Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vision / ಆಶಯ

“To excel in technical education by producing Mechanical Engineers who are

competitive, contributing and sustainable in the global socio technological front.”

“ ,

ಮೂಲಕ ”

Mission /

1. To enrich teaching-learning experience through distinguished practices

and ever improving infrastructure
ಮೂಲಕ -

2. To enhance student performance through consistent guidance, motivation

and mentoring
, ಮೂಲಕ

3. To develop distinct skills, leadership qualities and creative thinking among

the learners through sensible endeavors
ಗಳ ಮೂಲಕ ,
 Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Program Outcomes

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
 Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Course Overview

Subject: Design of Machine Elements-2 Subject Code: 18ME62

The course covers the fundamental concepts, description, terminology, force analysis and
methods of analysis and design of various machine elements like Curved Beams, springs, Spur,
Helical, Bevel and Worm Gears, Clutches, Brakes, Belts, Ropes, Chains, Ball Bearings and Journal
Bearings. The emphasis in treating the machine elements is on the methods and procedures that
give the student enough competence in applying these methods and procedures to mechanical
components in general. This course offers the students to learn to use the best available design
knowledge together with empirical information, logical judgment, and often a degree of ingenuity
in mechanical engineering design.
Following are the salient features of the courses:
 Compatible with the Machine Design Data Books (of various publishers)
 Step by step procedure for design of machine elements large solution techniques are
spelled out in detail
 Thorough and in depth treatment of design of the requisite machine elements
 Balance between analysis and design Emphasis on the materials, properties and analysis of
the machine elements
 Selection of Material and factor of safety are given for each machine element.
Course Objectives
The objectives of this course is to make students to learn
1. To understand various elements involved in a mechanical system.
2. To analyze various forces acting on the elements of a mechanical system and design them
using appropriate techniques, codes, and standards.
3. To select transmission elements like gears, belts, pulleys, bearings from the
manufacturers’ catalogue.
4. To design completely a mechanical system integrating machine elements.
5. To produce assembly and working drawings of various mechanical systems involving
machine elements like belts, pulleys, gears, springs, bearings, clutches and brakes.
COs Description
C312.1 Understand various machine elements involved in a mechanical system.
C312.2 Apply engineering design tools to product design.
Asses various parameters of transmission elements for selection from the
C312.3
manufacturer’s catalogue.
Design the machine elements. Develop proficiency to generate production drawing of a
C312.4 mechanical system using CAD software and become a good design engineers through
learning the art of working in a team with morality and ethics by reporting the work.

Prof. Santhosh K G Prof. Abhilash M Prof. Yogesh Kumar K J

Faculty Faculty Course Coordinator

Facilitator NBA Coordinator HOD

 Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Syllabus
Subject: Design of Machine Elements-2 Subject Code: 18ME62
Module 1: Curved Beams: Stresses in curved beams of standard cross sections used in crane
hook, punching presses & clamps, closed rings and links. Cylinders & Cylinder Heads: Review of 10
Lame's equations; compound cylinders, stresses due to different types of fit on cylinders; cylinder Hours
heads and flats.
MODULE 2: Belts: Materials of construction of flat and V belts, power rating of belts, concept of
slip and creep, initial tension, effect of centrifugal tension, maximum power condition. Selection of
flat and V belts- length & cross section from manufacturers' catalogues. Construction and
application of timing belts. Wire ropes: Construction of wire ropes, stresses in wire ropes, and
selection of wire ropes. (Only theoretical treatment)
10
Chain drive: Types of power transmission chains, modes of failure for chain, and lubrication of
Hours
chains. (Only theoretical treatment)
Springs: Types of springs, spring materials, stresses in helical coil springs of circular and non-
circular cross sections. Tension and compression springs, concentric springs; springs under
fluctuating loads. Leaf Springs: Stresses in leaf springs, equalized stresses, and nipping of leaf
springs. Introduction to torsion and Belleville springs.
Module 3: Gear drives: Classification of gears, materials for gears, standard systems of gear
tooth, gear tooth failure modes and lubrication of gears. Spur Gears: Definitions, stresses in gear
tooth: Lewis equation and form factor, design for strength, dynamic load and wear. Helical Gears: 10
Definitions, transverse and normal module, formative number of teeth, design based on strength, Hours
dynamic load and wear. Bevel Gears: Definitions, formative number of teeth, design based on
strength, dynamic load and wear.
Module 4: Worm Gears: Definitions, types of worm and worm gears, and materials for worm and
worm wheel. Design based on strength, dynamic, wear loads and efficiency of worm gear drives.
10
Design of Clutches: Types of clutches and their applications, single plate and multi-plate clutches.
Hours
(Numerical examples only on single and multi-plate clutches) Design of Brakes: Types of Brakes,
Block and Band brakes, self- locking of brakes, and heat generation in brakes.
Module 5: Lubrication and Bearings: Lubricants and their properties, bearing materials and
properties; mechanisms of lubrication, hydrodynamic lubrication, pressure development in oil
film, bearing modulus, coefficient of friction, minimum oil film thickness, heat generated, and heat
dissipated. Numerical examples on hydrodynamic journal and thrust bearing design. Anti-friction 10
bearings: Types of rolling contact bearings and their applications, static and dynamic load Hours
carrying capacities, equivalent bearing load, load life relationship; selection of deep grove ball
bearings from the manufacturers’ catalogue; selection of bearings subjected to cyclic loads and
speeds; probability of survival.
Textbooks:
[1] Richard G. Budynas, and J. Keith Nisbett, "Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design", McGraw-Hill
Education, 10th Edition, 2015.
[2] Juvinall R.C, and Marshek K.M, "Fundamentals of Machine Component Design", John Wiley & Sons, Third Edition,
Wiley student edition, 2007.
[3] V. B. Bhandari, "Design of Machine Elements", 4th Ed., Tata Mcgraw Hill, 2016.
References:
[1] Robert L. Norton "Machine Design- an integrated approach", Pearson Education, 2nd edition.
[2] Spotts M.F., Shoup T.E "Design and Machine Elements", Pearson Education, 8th edition, 2006.
[3] Orthwein W, "Machine Component Design", Jaico Publishing Co, 2003.
[4] Hall, Holowenko, Laughlin (Schaum's Outline Series), "Machine design" adapted by S.K.Somani, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Company Ltd., Special Indian Edition, 2008.
[5] G. M. Maithra and L.V.Prasad, "Hand book of Mechanical Design", Tata McGraw Hill, 2nd edition, 2004.
Design Data Hand Book:
[1] Design Data Hand Book, K.Lingaiah, McGraw Hill, 2nd edition, 2003.
[2] Design Data Hand Book, K.Mahadevan and Balaveera Reddy, CBS publication.
[3] Design Data Hand Book, H.G.Patil, I.K.International Publisher, 2010
[4] PSG Design Data Hand Book, PSG College of technology, Coimbatore.
 Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Index
Subject: Design of Machine Elements-2 Subject Code: 18ME62

SL. No. Contents Page No.

1-18
1 Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads

19-54
2 MODULE 2: Belts, Chain Drives, Rope Drives and Springs

55-104
3 Module 3: Gear drives: Spur Gears, Helical Gears & Bevel Gears

105-143
4 Module 4: Worm Gears, Brakes & Clutches
144-180
5 Module 5: Lubrication & Bearings
 Module 1:
Curved Beams,
Cylinders & Cylinder
Heads
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering

Curved Beams
1.1 Introduction
A beam is a structural member whose length is large (longer than the width and
the thickness) compared to its cross-sectional area which is loaded and
supported in the direction transverse to its axis.
Curved beams in the form of C-clamps, press frames, chain links and brackets
are used as machine elements. As the name indicates the beam is initially curved
before the bending moment is applied. When such members are subjected to
bending moment, the stress distribution is not linear since the stress increases
more rapidly on the inner side.
1.2 Difference between a straight beam and a curved beam
Straight Beam:
 A beam is a structural member subjected to a system of external forces
acting at right angles to its axis.
 In a straight beam, there are infinite number of layers of equal length and
parallel to each other.
 The neutral axis coincides with the centroidal axis.
 The stress distribution is linear.

Fig. 1.1: Straight Beam

The expression for straight beam is

Where,
- is the bending stress
M = applied bending moment
I - moment of inertia
y-distance of layer from neutral axis

Curved Beam:
 Here the beam is initially curved before the bending moment is applied.
 The neutral axis does not coincide with the centroidal axis but is shifted
towards the center of curvature of the beam.
 Stress distribution is not linear but is hyperbolic since neutral axis is
initially curved.
 Fibres on one side of the neutral axis are in tension while on the other side
the layers are in compression.

Design of Machine Elements-II, Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads 1
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig. 1.2: Curved Beam

Where,
= bending stress
M = applied bending moment
ci = distance from centroidal axis to the inner fiber
c0 = distance from centroidal axis to the outer fiber
e = distance from centroidal axis to neutral axis
y = distance of layer from neutral axis
R{ = radius of curvature of inner fiber
R0 - radius of curvature of outer fiber
1.3 STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS
Assumptions:
 The material of the beam is perfectly homogeneous and isotropic.
 The material of the beam obeys Hooke's law.
 Young's modulus is same in tension and compression.
 Each layer of the beam is free to expand -or- contract independent of the
layer above -or- below it.
 The transverse sections of the beam which are plane before bending
remain plane even after bending.
 Stresses induced are within the elastic limit.

Fig. 1.3: Stress analysis in curved beam (Fig. 10.2/pg 137 DHB)
Let,
F = applied load
M = applied bending moment
A = cross-sectional area
e - distance from centroidal axis to neutral axis
R = radius of curvature of centroidal axis

Design of Machine Elements-II, Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads 2
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering
Rn = radius of curvature of neutral axis
Ri — radius of curvature of inside fiber
R0 - radius of curvature of outside fiber
ci — distance from neutral axis to inner fiber (c1 - e)
c0 = distance from neutral axis to outer fiber (c1 + e) or (h - ci)
c1 = distance from centroidal axis to inner fiber
c2 — distance from centroidal axis to outer fiber
h = depth of cross-section (c1+ c2) or (ci + c0)
y = distance from neutral axis to fiber under consideration
Consider a segment abed subtending an angle θ at the center of curvature. When
the beam is subjected to a bending moment as shown in Fig. 1.3, the side bc
undergoes rotation through an angle dø about neutral axis and takes a new
position c'b'. Due to rotation, the outer fibers are stretched while the inner fibers
are compressed.
Consider a strip of thickness dy at a distance y from neutral axis and having an
area dA.
The original length of strip = (Rn+y)dθ (Eq. 1.1)
And the elongation experienced by the strip = y dø (Eq. 1.2)
Therefore the strain experienced by the strip, ( )
(Eq. 1.3)
According to Hooke’s Law,

( )
* +( )
(Eq. 1.4)
Now Force Responsible for strain in the strip, dF =σdA
* +( )
(Eq. 1.5)
For the Beam to be in equilibrium, ∑
∫

∫ [ ]
( )
[ ]∫
( )
But, * +

Therefore, ∫( )
(Eq. 1.6)
Taking moments about the neutral axis (NA) for the strip,
dM = dFy
* +∫( )
(Eq. 1.7)

Thus the total bending moment is ∫ ∫ * +( )

[ ]∫[ ]
( )

Design of Machine Elements-II, Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads 3
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering

[ ]∫[ ( )]
( )
[ ] {∫ ∫( ) }
( )
Since, ∫
( )

* + *∫ +
But ∫ is the moment of inertia, which may be replaced with Ae, i.e. the
product of total area and distance e from centroidal axis to neutral axis.
Therefore,
[ ]

* + (Eq. 1.8)
Substituting Eq. (1.8) in Eq. (1.4) we get,
(( )
)
(Eq. 1.9)
Equation (1.9) gives the stress induced in any fibre at a distance y from the
neutral axis.
y is negative, when measured towards center of curvature (-ci)
y is positive, when measured away from center of curvature (c0)
at inner fiber, y = -ci
Eq. (1.9) becomes,
( )
( )
(Eq. 1.10)
Where, ( )
At Outer fiber, y=+c0
( )
( )
Eq. (1.9) Becomes,
(Eq. 1.11)
Where, ( )
Based on the applied bending moment, outer fibers are subjected to
compression (negative) and inner fibers are subjected to tension (positive).
Eq. (1.9) becomes
(Eq. 1.12)
Eq. (1.11) becomes
(Eq. 1.13)

Direct stress (tensile/compressive),

This couple C = Fx produces bending stress in the cross-section and hence is a
bending moment with respect to centroidal axis.

Design of Machine Elements-II, Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads 4
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering
STEPS TO SOLVE CURVED BEAM PROBLEMS
1. Locate the position of Cg of cross-section with respect to the innermost fiber.
∑ ∑
̅ ∑
or ̅ ∑
2. Replace the eccentric load by an equal and parallel force through Cg of the
cross-section together with a couple in opposite direction.
3. Evaluate the direct stresses (σ) produced.
4. Evaluate the extreme fiber ending stress due to couple.
5. Evaluate the resultant stresses in the extreme fibers as
Resultant stress in the inner most fiber, ( )
Resultant stress in the outer most fiber, ( )
Problems:
1. Determine the maximum stress induced in a punch press as shown in Figure

Solution: F = 120 kN, σi, σ0=?

To find x:
a1 = 30 x 10 = 300 mm2, a2 = 8 x 20 = 160 mm2, a3 = 16x4 = 64 mm2,
x1 = 10/2 = 5 mm, x2 = (20/2) +10 = 20 mm, x3 = (4/2) + 30 = 32 mm,
A = ∑ = a1 +a2 +a3 = 524 mm2
∑ ( ) ( ) ( )
̅
∑ ( )

Direct Stress:

Bending Stress:
Bending Moment, M=F * Perpendicular Distance
M=Fx

Design of Machine Elements-II, Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads 5
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering
Note: x is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of force to the
centroidal axis of the cross section
M= ( ), M=133.5x106N-mm
From Fig.10, Table 10.1, Page No. 136 in DHB for I-Section
e=R-Rn

( ) ( ) ( )
Here, B = 30 mm, b1 =16 mm, d = 10 mm, d1 = 4 mm, d2 = S mm,
H= 10+ 20+ 4 = 34 mm,
Also Ri = 200mm, Ro = Ri + H= 200 + 34 = 234mm,c1 = ̅ = 12.87mm,
R = c1+Ri = 12.87 + 200 = 212.87 mm, C2 = H-c1=34-12.87 = 21.13 mm

( ) ( ) ( )
e=0.496mm
Now, ci=c1-e=12.87-0.496=12.37mm
c0=c2+e=21.13+0.496=21.63mm

Bending stress at inner fiber,

( )

Bending stress at outer fiber,

( )

Resultant Stresses
Inner most fiber, ( )
Outer most fiber, ( )

2. A crane hook has a trapezoidal cross-section as: Inside width=87.5mm,

Outside width=25mm, Depth=112.5mm.The line of action of load passes
through the center of curvature. The radius of curvature of inner side = 62.5
mm. Calculate the maximum stresses developed under a load of 90 kN.

Solution: F = 120kN, σi, σ0=?

Design of Machine Elements-II, Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads 6
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering
To find x:
From Table 1.3, Page No. 9, DHB for trapezoidal section
b=25mm, b1=87.5mm, h=112.5mm, therefore, b0=b1-b=87.5-25=62.5mm
( )
( )
( )
( )
̅
Direct Stress:
Area of trapezoidal section is given by
( )
( )

Bending Stress:
Bending Moment, M=F * Perpendicular Distance
M=Fx = F( ̅)
Note: x is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of force to the
centroidal axis of the cross section
M= ( ),
6
M=9.75x10 N-mm
From Fig.10, Table 10.1, Page No. 135 in DHB for Trapezoidal-Section
e=R-Rn

( ) ( )
*( ) ( ) ( )+
Here,
b1 = 87.5 mm, b - 25 mm, h = 112.5 mm, Ri = 62.5 mm, c1 = ̅ = 45.83 mm
R = Ri + c1 = 62.5 + 45.83 = 108.33 mm, R0 = Ri + h = 62.5 + 112.5 = 175 mm,
c2 = h – c1 = 112.5 - 45.83 = 66.67 mm

( ) ( )
*( ) ( ) ( )+
e=8.43mm
Now, c0 = c2 + e = 66.67 + 8.43 = 75.1 mm, ci=c1 - e = 45.83 - 8.43 = 37.4 mm
Bending stress at inner fiber,
( )

Bending stress at outer fiber,

( )

Resultant Stresses
Inner most fiber, ( )
Outer most fiber, ( )
Thus the inner most fiber is subjected to a maximum bending stress of 123.6 N/mm2

Design of Machine Elements-II, Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads 7
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering

3. Determine: (i) location of neutral axis, (ii) maximum and minimum stress, and
(iii) ratio of maximum and minimum stress, when a curved beam of
rectangular cross-section of width 20 mm and of depth 40 mm is subjected to
pure bending of moment + 600 Nm. The beam is curved in a plane parallel to
depth. The mean radius of curvature is 50 mm. Also plot the variation of the
stresses across the section

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Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design of Machine Elements-II, Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads 9
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering
4. Determine: (i) position of neutral axis, and (ii) maximum and minimum
stresses when a curved beam of circular section of diameter 100 mm is
subjected to pure bending moment of + 11.5 kN m. The radius of curvature is
100 mm

Design of Machine Elements-II, Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads 10
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering
5. A hook carries a load of 7.5 kN and the load line is at a distance of 20 mm from
the inner edge of the section which is trapezoidal. The load line also passes
through the centre of curvature of the hook. The dimensions of the central
horizontal trapezoidal section are: inner width =30 mm ; outer width = 15 mm ;
depth =30 mm. Calculate the maximum and minimum stresses. Also plot the
variation of stress across the section

Design of Machine Elements-II, Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads 11
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering

Thick and Thin Cylinders

When a cylinder is subjected to pressure, three mutually perpendicular
principal stresses will be set up within the walls of the cylinder:
 Hoop or circumferential stress
 Longitudinal or axial stress
 Radial stress
Thin cylinders subjected to internal pressure
A cylinder is considered to be ‘thin’ if the ratio of the inner diameter to the
thickness of the walls is > 20: This being the case, we can assume for the
following analysis (with a reasonable level of accuracy) that both the hoop
and longitudinal stresses are constant across the wall thickness and that the
radial stress is so small in magnitude compared to the hoop and longitudinal
stresses that it can be neglected in our analysis. This is clearly an
approximation and in practice the radial stress will vary between the
pressures at the inner and outer diameters. i.e. for internal pressure only, the
radial stress will vary from zero at the outside surface to a value equal to the
internal pressure at the inside surface.
Hoop Stress
This describes the stress which is set up to resist the force, due to the applied
pressure, tending to separate the top and bottom halves of the cylinder

Stresses in thin cylinders

If the wall thickness is less than about 7% of the inner diameter then the
cylinder may be treated as a thin one. Thin walled cylinders are used as boiler
shells, pressure tanks, pipes and in other low pressure processing
equipment’s.

Design of Machine Elements-II, Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads 13
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering
A thin cylinder is also defined as one in which the thickness of the metal is
less than 1/20 of the diameter of the cylinder. In thin cylinders, it can be
assumed that the variation of stress within the metal is negligible, and that the
mean diameter, dm is approximately equal to the internal diameter, d.
In general three types of stresses are developed in pressure cylinders viz.
circumferential or hoop stress, longitudinal stress in closed end cylinders and
radial stresses. These stresses are demonstrated in figure 2.1.

Radial stress in thin cylindrical shells can be neglected as the radial pressure is
not generally high and that the radial pressure acts on a larger area.
The internal pressure, p tends to increase the diameter of the cylinder and this
produces a hoop or circumferential stress (tensile). If the stress becomes
excessive, failure in the form of a longitudinal burst would occur.
Consider the half cylinder shown. Force due to internal pressure, p is balanced
by the force due to hoop stress, s
i.e. hoop stress x area = pressure x projected area

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Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering

Longitudinal stress in a cylinder

The internal pressure p also produces a tensile stress in the longitudinal direction
as shown in figure 1.2.

Since hoop stress is twice longitudinal stress, the cylinder would fail by tearing
along a line parallel to the axis, rather than on a section perpendicular to the axis.
The equation for hoop stress is therefore used to determine the cylinder
thickness.
Autofrettage
Pressure vessels are now widely used in nuclear power plants for steam and
power generation. Other pressure vessel applications may involve pressures as
high as 1380 MPa and temperatures of up to 300 °C, resulting in the pressure
vessel material holding immense potential energy exerted by the working fluid.
The process fluid may also be a source of hydrogen embrittlement and/or stress
corrosion cracking. Such high-pressure vessels require proper understanding of
the stress levels and their distributions in order to have fail-safe designs or even
to minimize the probability of disruptive failures. Past pressure vessel
catastrophic failures, arising from lack of understanding of stress levels, material
properties and fluid/structure environmental interactions, particularly early in
the last century, were very expensive in terms of losses in materials and human
life, and they were the main impetus for the early studies of stresses in cylinders
of various materials. High-pressure vessels are now of great importance in many
industries and their economic use often depends upon the occurrence of small,

Design of Machine Elements-II, Module 1: Curved Beams, Cylinders & Cylinder Heads 15
 Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering
controlled, permanent deformations. Before commissioning, pressure vessels are
normally pressure tested at an overstrain pressure of 1.25–1.5 times the design
pressure in order to test for leakages. This process results in yielding of the bore
and may also advantageously lead to catastrophic failure for poorly designed or
fabricated vessels. Vessels with brittle characteristics may also fail at this stage.
After overstraining, residual stresses are left in the cylinder and the nature of
these residual stresses is now widely known. However, the residual stress levels
are not documented for use in service or during de-rating after periodic
inspections. In service, the vessels are able to carry a much higher load before
re-yielding than would be the case without the leak test.
Overstraining beyond the leak test pressure is usually carried out during
manufacture and this technique is called Autofrettage or self-hooping.
Problems:
1. A thin cylinder 60mm internal diameter, 225mm long with walls 2.7mm thick is
subjected to an internal pressure of 6MN/m2. You may assume that E=200GPA
and ƞ=0.3 . Calculate:
i. The hoop stress
ii. The longitudinal stress
iii. The change in length
iv. The change in diameter

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Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering

2. A 1m long thin cylinder has an internal diameter of 200mm with a wall

thickness of 3mm. If it found to undergo a change to its internal volume of
when subject to an internal pressure. You may assume that E=200GPA and
ƞ=0.3.. Calculate the hoop and longitudinal stresses.

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Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering
3. A tube has 100mm inner diameter and the walls are 20mm thick. It is
subjected to an internal pressure of 20MPa. Calculate the maximum error in
hoop stress at the surface if a thin tube criterion based on the inner
diameter is used.

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4. A thick steel pressure vessel, 200mm inside diameter and 300mm outside
diameter, is subjected to an internal pressure of 30MPa and an external
pressure of 10MPa. Calculate the maximum hoop stress and the longitudinal
stress in the material. Assume E=200GPA and ƞ=0.3

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Belts, Chain Drives,
Rope Drives and
Springs
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering

Design of springs
A spring is defined as an elastic body, whose function is to distort when loaded
and to recover its original shape when the load is removed. A spring is a
mechanical device which is used for efficient storage and release of energy.
Application of springs
 To absorb or control energy due to either shock or vibration as in
automotive, railways, aircrafts, landing gears and vibration dampers etc.
 To apply forces, as in brakes, clutches and spring loaded valves , spring
watches.
 It is used to return the mechanical part to its orginal position , when it has
temporarily displaced like springs used in valves, clutches and linkages.
 To control motion by maintaining control between two elements as in
CAMS & followers.
 To measure forces as in spring balances and engine indicators.
 To store energy as in watches, toys movie cameras.

TYPES OF SPRINGS
1. Tension/extension spring – the spring is designed to operate with a tension
load, so the spring stretches as the load is applied to it.
2. Compression spring – is designed to operate with a compression load, so
the spring gets shorter as the load is applied to it.
3. Torsion spring – unlike the above types in which the load is an axial force,
the load applied to a torsion spring is a torque or twisting force, and the
end of the spring rotates through an angle as the load is applied.
4. Constant spring – supported load remains the same throughout deflection
cycle
5. Variable spring – resistance of the coil to load varies during compression
6. Variable stiffness spring – resistance of the coil to load can be dynamically
varied for example by the control system, some types of these springs also
vary their length thereby providing actuation capability as well

They can also be classified based on their shape:

 Flat spring – this type is made of a flat spring steel.

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 Machined spring – this type of spring is manufactured by machining bar
stock with a lathe and/or milling operation rather than a coiling operation.
Since it is machined, the spring may incorporate features in addition to the
elastic element. Machined springs can be made in the typical load cases of
compression/extension, torsion, etc.
 Serpentine spring – a zig-zag of thick wire – often used in modern
upholstery/furniture.
 Garter spring – A coiled steel spring that is connected at each end to
create a circular shape
 Volute spring – a compression coil spring in the form of a cone so
that under compression the coils are not forced against each other, thus
permitting longer travel.
 Hairspring or balance spring – a delicate spiral spring used in watches,
galvanometers, and places where electricity must be carried to partially
rotating devices such as steering wheels without hindering the rotation.
 Leaf spring – a flat spring used in vehicle suspensions, electrical switches,
and bows.
 V-spring – used in antique firearm mechanisms such as
the wheel lock, flintlock and percussion cap locks. Also door-lock spring,
as used in antique door latch mechanisms
 Belleville washer or Belleville spring – a disc shaped spring commonly
used to apply tension to a bolt (and also in the initiation mechanism of
pressure-activated landmines)
 Constant-force spring — a tightly rolled ribbon that exerts a nearly
constant force as it is unrolled
 Gas spring – a volume of compressed gas
 Ideal Spring – a notional spring used in physics—it has no weight, mass, or
damping losses. The force exerted by the spring is proportional to the
distance the spring is stretched or compressed from its relaxed position.
 Mainspring – a spiral ribbon shaped spring used as a power
store of clockwork mechanisms: watches, clocks, music boxes, windup
toys, and mechanically powered flashlights
 Negator spring – a thin metal band slightly concave in cross-section. When
coiled it adopts a flat cross-section but when unrolled it returns to its
former curve, thus producing a constant force throughout the displacement

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and negating any tendency to re-wind. The most common application is the
retracting steel tape rule
 Progressive rate coil springs – A coil spring with a variable rate, usually
achieved by having unequal pitch so that as the spring is compressed one
or more coils rests against its neighbor.
 Rubber band – a tension spring where energy is stored by stretching the
material.
 Spring washer – used to apply a constant tensile force along the axis of a
fastener.
 Torsion spring – any spring designed to be twisted rather than
compressed or extended.

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Design of Belts, Ropes and Chains

INTRODUCTION
Power is transmitted from the prime mover to a machine by means of
intermediate mechanism called drives. This intermediate mechanism known as
drives may be belt or chain or gears. Belt is used to transmit motion from one
shaft to another shaft with the help of pulleys, preferably if the centre distance
is long. It is not positive drive since there is slip in belt drive.
Three types of belt drives are commonly used. They are:
• Flat belt drive
• V-belt drive
• Rope or circular belt drive
FLAT BELT DRIVE
When the distance between two pulleys is around 10 meters and moderate
power is required then flat belt drive is preferred. This may be arranged in
two ways
• Open belt drive
• Cross belt drive
When the direction of rotation of both the pulleys are required in the same
direction, then we can use open belt drive; if direction of rotation of pulleys
are required in opposite direction then cross belt is used. The pulleys which
drives the belt is known as driver and the pulley which follows driver is
known as driven or follower.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF FLAT BELT

DRIVE Merits:
• Simplicity, low cost, smoothness of operation, ability to absorb shocks,
flexibility and efficiency at high speeds.
• Protect the driven mechanism against breakage in case of sudden
overloads owing to belt slipping.
• Simplicity of care, low maintenance and service.
• Possibility to transmit power over a moderately long distance
Demerits:
• It is not a positive drive.
• Comparatively large size.
• Not suitable for short centre distance.
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• Belt joints reduce the life of the belt.
• High bearing loads and belt stresses.
• Less efficiency due to slip and creep.

Creep in Belts
Consider an open belt drive rotating in clockwise direction as shown in figure.
The portion of the belt leaving the driven and entering the driver is known as
tight side and portion of belt leaving the driver and entering the driven is
known as slack side.
During rotation there is an expansion of belt on tight side and contraction of
belt on the slack side. Due to this uneven expansion and contraction of the belt
over the pulleys, there will be a relative movement of the belt over the pulleys,
this phenomenon is known as creep in belts.

Velocity Ratio
The ratio of angular velocity of the driver pulley to the angular velocity of the
driven pulley is known as velocity ratio or speed ratio or transmission ratio.
Let
d1 = Speed of driver
pulley d2 = Speed of

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driver pulley n1 =
Speed of driver
pulley n2 = Speed of
driver pulley
Neglecting slip and thickness of belt,
Linear speed of belt on driver = Linear speed of
belt on driven i.e., pd1 n1 = pd2 n2

Slip in Belts
Consider an open belt drive rotating in clockwise direction, this rotation of belt
over the pulleys is assumed to be due to firm frictional grip between the belt
and pulleys. When this frictional grip becomes in sufficient, there is a
possibility of forward motion of driver without carrying belt with it and there
is also possibility of belt rotating without carrying the driver pulley with it,
this is known as slip in belt. Therefore slip may be defined as the relative
motion between the pulley and the belt in it. This reduces velocity ratio and
usually expressed as a percentage.
Effect of Slip on Velocity Ratio
Let
s1 = Percentage of slip between driver pulley rim and the belt.
s2 = Percentage of slip between the belt and the
driven pulley rim. Linear speed of driver = pd1 n1

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Material Used for Belt

Belts used for power transmission must be strong, flexible, and durable
and must have a coefficient of friction. The most common belt materials are
leather, fabric, rubber, balata, Camel’s hair and woven cotton.
Length of Open Belt
Consider an open belt drive as shown
in Figure. Let, D = diameter of larger
pulley
d = diameter of smaller pulley
C = distance between centers of pulley
L = length of belt

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Where _L and _s are in radians.

For equal diameter pulleys _L = _s = _ radians.
For unequal diameters pulleys, since slip will occur first on the smaller
diameter pulley, it is necessary to consider _s while designing the belt.

Length of Cross Belt

Consider a cross-belt drive as shown in Figure
Let, D = diameter of larger
pulley d = diameter of
smaller pulley
L = Length of belt

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Ratio of Belt Tensions

Consider a driven pulley rotating in clockwise direction as
shown in Figure. Let, T1 = Tension on tight side
T2 = Tension on slack side
θ = Angle of lap
RN = Normal Reaction
F = Frictional force = _ RN
Now consider a small elemental portion of the belt PQ subtending an angle
at the centre. The portion of the belt PQ is in equilibrium under the action of
the following forces, (i) Tension T at P (ii) Tension T + _T at Q (iii) Normal
reaction RN (iv) Frictional force F =RN

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Initial Tension
The motion of the belt with the pulleys is assumed to be due to firm frictional
grip between the belt and pulleys surface. To increase this grip the belt is
mounted on the pulleys with some tension when the pulleys are stationary.
The tension provided in the belt while mounting on the pulley is ―Initial
tension’’ and is represented by T0. Since in actual practice the belt is not
perfectly elastic, C.G.Barth has given the relation as

Design Procedure for Flat Belt Drive

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Problem
1. A belt is required to transmit 18.5 kW from a pulley of 1.2 m diameter
running at 250 rpm to another pulley which runs at 500 rpm. The distance
between the centers of pulleys is 2.7 m. The following data refer to an open
belt drive, _ = 0.25. Safe working stress for leather is 1.75 N/mm2. Thickness
of belt = 10mm. Determine the width and length of belt taking centrifugal
tension into account. Also find the initial tension in the belt and absolute
power that can be transmitted by this belt and the speed at which this can be
transmitted.

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V- BELT DRIVE
When the distance between the shafts is less, then V-belts are preferred.
These are endless and of trapezoidal cross section as shown in Figure. It
consists of central layer of fabric and moulded in rubber or rubber like
compound. This assembly is enclosed in an elastic wearing cover. The belt will
have contact at the two sides of the groove in the pulley. The wedging action
between the belt and groove will increase the coefficient of friction making the
drive a positive one

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ROPE DRIVES
When power is to be transmitted over long distances then belts cannot be used
due to the heavy losses in power. In such cases ropes can be used. Ropes are
used in elevators, mine hoists, cranes, oil well drilling, aerial conveyors,
tramways, haulage devices, lifts and suspension bridges etc. two types of ropes
are commonly used. They are fiber ropes and metallic ropes. Fiber ropes are
made of Manila, hemp, cotton, jute, nylon, coir etc., and are normally used for
transmitting power. Metallic ropes are made of steel, aluminium. alloys, copper,
bronze or stainless steel and are mainly used in elevator, mine hoists, cranes, oil
well drilling, aerial conveyors, haulage devices and suspension bridges.
Hoisting tackle (Block and Tackle Mechanism)
It consists of two pulley blocks one above the other. Each block has a series of
sheaves mounted side by side on the same axle. The ropes used in hoisting tackle
are
• Cotton ropes
• Hemp ropes and
• Manila ropes.
Pulley system
A pulley system is a combination of several movable and fixed pulleys or
sheaves.
The system can be used for a gain in force or for a gain in speed. Hoisting devices
employ pulleys for a gain in force predominantly. Pulley systems for a gain in
forces are designed with the rope running off a fixed pulley and with the rope
running off a movable pulley. Consider a hoisting tackle (block and tackle
mechanism) as shown in fig.

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STEEL WIRE ROPES

A wire rope is made up of stands and a strand is made up of one or more
layers of wires as shown in fig. the number of strands in a rope denotes the
number of groups of wires that are laid over the central core. For example
a 6× 19 construction means that the rope has 6 strands and each strand is
composed of 19(12/6/1) wires. The central part of the wire rope is called
the core and may be of fiber, wire, plastic, paper or asbestos. The fiber
core is very flexible and very suitable for all conditions.
The points to be considered while selecting a wire rope are
• Strength
• Abrasion resistance
• Flexibility
• Resistance of crushing
• Fatigue strength
• Corrosion resistance.
Ropes having wire core are stronger than those having fiber core. Flexibility in
rope is more desirable when the number of bends in the rope is too many.

DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR WIRE ROPE

Let d=Diameter of rope
D=Diameter of sheave
H= Depth of mine or height of building
W= total load
WR= Weight of rope dw= Diameter of wire A= Area of c/s of rope
Pb= Bending load in the rope
Fa= allowable pull in the rope

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Fu= Ultimate of breaking load of rope
n= Factor of safety
Ws= Starting load

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 Module 3:
Gear drives: Spur
Gears, Helical Gears &
Bevel Gears
Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Department of Mechanical Engineering

Gear Drives
A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth or, in the case of a
cogwheel, inserted teeth (called cogs), which mesh with another toothed part to
transmit torque. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a
power source. Gears almost always produce a change in torque, creating a
mechanical advantage, through their gear ratio, and thus may be considered a
simple machine. The teeth on the two meshing gears all have the same shape.
Two or more meshing gears, working in a sequence, are called a gear train or a
transmission. A gear can mesh with a linear toothed part, called a
rack, producing translation instead of rotation.

Gears are mounted on rotatable shafts and the teeth are made to mesh (engage)
with a gear on another shaft. Gears deliver force (torque) and motion (rpm) from
one part of a machine to another. Two gears with the driven gear having twice the
number of teeth of the driving gear will rotate at one-half the speed of the driving
gear and deliver twice the torque. Being able to control speed and torque by
varying the number of teeth in one gear with respect to another makes gears a
valuable design tool. An automobile transmission is an excellent example of how
this principle is put to use to control vehicle motion.

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CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS

Gears are classified according to the shape of the tooth pair and disposition into

1. Spur Gears
2. Internal Spur Gears
3. Helical Gears
4. Rack Gears
5. Bevel Gears
6. Worm Wheel Gears
7. Worm Gears
8. Ratchet & Pawl Gears
9. A Herringbone Gear
SPUR GEARS

Fig. 1.1: Spur Gear

Spur Gear Defined: a gear having straight teeth cut on the rim, parallel to the axis
of rotation.

 Designed to transmit motion & power between parallel shafts, which

rotates in the opposite direction.
 Plastic, brass, steel, & aluminum are the materials generally used for
manufacturing electric screwdrivers, oscillating sprinklers, windup alarm
clocks, washing machines, clothe dryers & conveyors are just a few
everyday machines where spur gears are used.
 Spur gears are also used in construction equipment, machine tools, marine
hoists, turbine drives, multi-spindle drives, indexing equipment& roller
feeds.

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INTERNAL SPUR GEARS

Fig. 1.2: Internal Spur Gears

Internal Spur Gears Defined: a gear having straight teeth cut on the inner rim,
parallel to the axis of rotation

 Spur gear turned “inside out”, teeth are cut into the inside diameter
 Designed to transmit motion & power between parallel shafts, which
rotates in the same direction
 Plastic, brass, steel, & aluminium are the materials generally used for
manufacturing
 Internal gears are also used in positioning equipment, roller tools,
indexing equipment & timing systems

HELICAL GEARS

Fig. 1.3: Helical Gears

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Helical Gears Defined: a bar or rectangular gear (flat, no curvature) having
straight teeth cut on the face, perpendicular to the axis of motion

 Spur gear teeth “curved”, teeth are cut at an angle

 Designed to transmit motion & power between either parallel or right
angle shafts (90°, non-intersecting), which rotates in the opposite direction
machines where helical gears are used
 Helical gears are also used in machine tools, turbine drives, feed drives,
sand millers, rolling mills & marine applications

RACK GEARS

Fig. 1.4: Rack Gears

Rack Gears Defined: a bar or rectangular gear (flat, no curvature) having straight
teeth cut on the face, perpendicular to the axis of motion
 Spur gear “opened” & “laid flat” on bore, teeth are cut on the face
 Designed to translate rotational into linear motion or vice versa
 Automobiles, scales, lift mechanisms, shakers & guide mechanisms are just
a few everyday machines where rack gears are used
BEVEL GEARS

Fig. 1.5: Bevel Gears

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Bevel & Miter Gears Defined: a gear having teeth cut on the body, perpendicular
to the axis of rotation
 Designed to transmit motion & power between right angle shafts (90°,
intersecting), which rotates in the opposite direction
 Bevel gears are also used in machine tools, material handlers, conveyors,
cooling towers, power plants, rotorcrafts & marine applications
WORM WHEEL GEARS

Fig. 1.6: Worm Wheel Gears

Worm Wheel Gears Defined: a shaft having helical cuts (threads) on the surface,
perpendicular to the axis of rotation
 Designed to transmit motion & power between right angle shafts (90°, non-
intersecting), which rotates in the opposite direction
 Worm wheels are also used in machine tools, torsen differentials, indexing
equipment, packaging & food processing machinery
WORM GEARS

Fig. 1.7: Worm gears

Definition: a gear whose teeth are cut at a slant on the rim, parallel to the axis of
rotation
 Designed to transmit motion & power between right angle shafts (90°, non-
intersecting), which rotates in the opposite direction

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 Musical instruments, mechanical gates & conveyors are just a few
everyday machines where worms are used
 Worms are also used in machine tools, torsen differentials, indexing
equipment, packaging & food processing machinery
RATCHET & PAWL GEARS

Fig. 1.8: Ratchet & pawl

 Ratchet is a spur gear with slanted teeth; pawl, its counterpart, is a claw
like structure which locks the ratchet in position.
 Designed to prevent reverse rotation (single-direction device)
Clocks, cable ties, jacks, screwdrivers, wrench & turnstiles are just a few
everyday machines where ratchets are used
A HERRINGBONE GEAR

Fig. 1.9: Herringbone gear

A herringbone gear, a specific type of double helical gear, is a special
type of gear that is a side to side (not face to face) combination of two helical
gears of opposite hands. From the top, each helical groove of this gear looks like
the letter V, and many together form herringbone pattern (resembling the bones

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of a fish such as a herring). Unlike helical gears, herringbone gears do not
produce an additional axial load.
Like helical gears, they have the advantage of transferring power smoothly
because more than two teeth will be in mesh at any moment in time. Their
advantage over the helical gears is that the side-thrust of one half is balanced by
that of the other half. This means that herringbone gears can be used in torque
gearboxes without requiring a substantial thrust bearing. Because of this
herringbone gears were an important step in the introduction of the steam
turbine to marine propulsion.
TERMINOLOGY OF SPUR GEAR

Fig. 1.10: Gear Terminology

Pitch surface: the surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder that replaces the
toothed gear.
Pitch circle: a normal section of the pitch surface.
Addendum circle: a circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a normal section of
the gear.
Dedendum circle or root circle: the circle bounding the spaces between the
teeth, in a normal section of the gear. Addendum: the radial distance between the
pitch circle and the addendum circle.
Dedendum: the radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.
Clearance: the difference between the Dedendum of one gear and the
addendum of the mating gear.
Face of a tooth: that part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch surface.
Flank of a tooth: the part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface.
Top land: the top surface of a gear tooth.

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Bottom land: the bottom surface of the tooth space.
Circular thickness (tooth thickness): the thickness of the tooth measured on the
pitch circle. It is the length of an arc and not the length of a straight line.
Tooth space: the space between successive teeth.
Width of space: the distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch
circle.
Backlash: the difference between the tooth thickness of one gear and the tooth
space of the mating gear.

Material
Gears are made from steel, iron, bronze, and plastic. Steel is the most widely
used gear material. Iron is good because of its castability and wear
characteristics. Bronze is good for gears where friction is a concern. Plastic gears
have good moldability properties but have limited load carrying capability.
Many different kinds of steel can be used for gears. They range from low carbon,
low alloy to high carbon, high alloy. The type used depends on load, size, and
cost considerations. Low carbon, low alloy steels are used when low cost is of
prime importance. High carbon, high alloy steels are used when high load and
small size are the major design objectives.
Steel gears can be heat treated to improve performance by increasing strength
and wear properties. Some alloys are through-hardened to the Rockwell C42
level. Others are carburized and hardened to the Rockwell C60 level on the outer
shell leaving the inner core softer. This hardening technique imparts good
strength and wear properties to the outer layer while the inner core gives good
shock absorbing characteristics.
Gear steel comes in grades 1, 2, and 3. Higher grade numbers represent higher
quality steels for higher performing gears. Some of the items controlled are
material composition, residual stress, and microstructure. American Gear
Manufacturers Association (AGMA) standard ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04 defines the
grades of steel for gears.

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Bevel Gears

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 Module 4:
Worm Gears, Brakes &
Clutches
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Clutches and Breaks

A clutch is a mechanical device which engages and disengages power
transmission especially from driving shaft to driven shaft.
In the simplest application, clutches connect and disconnect two rotating shafts
(drive shafts or line shafts). In these devices, one shaft is typically attached to an
engine or other power unit (the driving member) while the other shaft (the driven
member) provides output power for work. While typically the motions involved
are rotary, linear clutches are also possible.
In a torque-controlled drill, for instance, one shaft is driven by a motor and the
other drives a drill chuck. The clutch connects the two shafts so they may be
locked together and spin at the same speed (engaged), locked together but
spinning at different speeds (slipping), or unlocked and spinning at different
speeds (disengaged).

Material
Various materials have been used for the disc-friction facings, including asbestos
in the past. Modern clutches typically use a compound organic resin with
copper wire facing or a ceramic material. Ceramic materials are typically
used in heavy applications such as racing or heavy-duty hauling, though the
harder ceramic materials increase flywheel and pressure plate wear.
In the case of "wet" clutches, composite paper materials are very common. Since
these "wet" clutches typically use an oil bath or flow-through cooling method for
keeping the disc pack lubricated and cooled, very little wear is seen when using
composite paper materials.
Push/pull
Friction-disc clutches generally are classified as push type or pull type
depending on the location of the pressure plate fulcrum points. In a pull-type
clutch, the action of pressing the pedal pulls the release bearing, pulling on the
diaphragm spring and disengaging the vehicle drive. The opposite is true with a
push type, the release bearing is pushed into the clutch disengaging the vehicle

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drive. In this instance, the release bearing can be known as a thrust bearing (as
per the image above).
Dampers
A clutch damper is a device that softens the response of the clutch
engagement/disengagement. In automotive applications, this is often provided
by a mechanism in the clutch disc centres. In addition to the damped disc
centres, which reduce driveline vibration, pre-dampers may be used to reduce
gear rattle at idle by changing the natural frequency of the disc. These weaker
springs are compressed solely by the radial vibrations of an idling engine. They
are fully compressed and no longer in use once the main damper springs take up
drive.
Load
Mercedes truck examples: A clamp load of 33 kN is normal for a single plate 430.
The 400 Twin application offers a clamp load of a mere 23 kN. Bursts speeds are
typically around 5,000 rpm with the weakest point being the facing rivet.
Manufacturing
Modern clutch development focuses its attention on the simplification of the
overall assembly and/or manufacturing method. For example, drive straps
are now commonly employed to transfer torque as well as lift the pressure
plate upon disengagement of vehicle drive. With regard to the manufacture of
diaphragm springs, heat treatment is crucial. Laser welding is becoming more
common as a method of attaching the drive plate to the disc ring with the laser
typically being between 2-3KW and a feed rate 1m/minute.
Multiple plate clutch
This type of clutch has several driving members interleaved or "stacked" with
several driven members. It is used in racing cars including Formula 1, IndyCar,
World Rally and even most club racing. Multiplate clutches see much use in drag
racing, which requires the best acceleration possible, and is notorious for the
abuse the clutch is subjected to. Thus, they can be found in motorcycles, in
automatic transmissions and in some diesel locomotives with mechanical
transmissions. It is also used in some electronically controlled all-wheel drive
systems as well as in some transfer cases. They can also be found in
some heavy machinery such as tanks and AFVs (T-54) and earthmoving
equipment (front-end loaders, bulldozers), as well as components in certain types
of limited slip differentials. The benefit in the case of motorsports is that it is
possible to achieve the same total friction force with a much smaller overall
diameter (or conversely, a much greater friction force for the same diameter,
important in cases where a vehicle is modified with greater power, yet the
maximum physical size of the clutch unit is constrained by the clutch housing).
In motorsports vehicles that run at high engine/drivetrain speeds, the smaller
diameter reduces rotational inertia, making the drivetrain components accelerate
more rapidly, as well as reducing the velocity of the outer areas of the clutch
unit, which could become highly stressed and fail at the extremely high
drivetrain rotational rates achieved in sports such as Formula 1 or drag racing. In
the case of heavy equipment, which often deal with very high torque forces and
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drivetrain loads, a single plate clutch of the necessary strength would be too
large to easily package as a component of the driveline.
Another, different theme on the multiplate clutch is the clutches used in the fastest
classes of drag racing, highly specialized, purpose-built cars such as Top Fuel
dragsters or Funny Cars. These cars are so powerful that to attempt a start with a
simple clutch would result in complete loss of traction. To avoid this problem, Top
Fuel cars actually use a single, fixed gear ratio, and a series of clutches that are
engaged one at a time, rather than in unison, progressively allowing more power
to the wheels. A single one of these clutch plates (as designed) cannot hold more
than a fraction of the power of the engine, so the driver starts with only the first
clutch engaged. This clutch is overwhelmed by the power of the engine, allowing
only a fraction of the power to the wheels, much like "slipping the clutch" in a
slower car, but working without requiring concentration from the driver. As
speed builds, the driver pulls a lever, which engages a second clutch, sending a
bit more of the engine power to the wheels, and so on. This continues through
several clutches until the car has reached a speed where the last clutch can be
engaged. With all clutches engaged, the engine is now sending all of its power to
the rear wheels. This is far more predictable and repeatable than the driver
manually slipping the clutch himself and then shifting through the gears, given
the extreme violence of the run and the speed at which it all unfolds. Another
benefit is that there is no need to break the power flow in order to swap gears (a
conventional manual cannot transmit power while between gears, which is
important because 1/100ths of a second are important in Top Fuel races). A
traditional multiplate clutch would be more prone to overheating and failure, as
all the plates must be subjected to heat and friction together until the clutch is
fully engaged, while a Top Fuel car keeps its last clutches in "reserve" until the
cars speed allows full engagement. It is relatively easy to design the last stages to
be much more powerful than the first, in order to ensure they can absorb the
power of the engine even if the first clutches burn out or overheat from the
extreme friction.
Brake
A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy
from a moving system. It is used for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle,
wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion, most often accomplished by means of
friction.

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Types of Brake in Automobiles
1) Mechanical Brake
2) Disc Brake
3) Hydraulic Brake
4) Air Brake
5) Hand Brake
1) Mechanical brakes are assemblies consisting of mechanical elements for the
slowing or stopping of shafts in equipment drives. They use levers or linkages
to transmit force from one point to another. Braking slows or stops the
movement of the coupled shafts.

2) Disc brake is a type of brake that uses the calipers to squeeze pairs of pads
against a disc or "rotor" to create friction. This action slows the rotation of a
shaft, such as a vehicle axle, either to reduce its rotational speed or to hold it
stationary.

3) Hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake

fluid, typically containing glycol ethers or diethylene glycol, to transfer
pressure from the controlling mechanism to the braking mechanism.

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4) An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of
friction brake for vehicles in which compressed air pressing on a piston is used to
apply the pressure to the brake pad needed to stop the vehicle.

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Clutches
A Clutch is a mechanical device which is used to connect or disconnect the
source of power from the remaining parts so the power transmission
system at the will of the operator. The flow of mechanical power is
controlled by the clutch.
Types of Clutches
(i) Positive Clutches (ii) Friction clutches
Positive Clutches: In this type of clutch, the engaging clutch surfaces
interlock to produce rigid joint they are suitable for situations requiring
simple and rapid disconnection, although they must be connected while
shafts are stationery and unloaded, the engaging surfaces are usually of
jaw type. The jaws may be square jaw type or spiral jaw type. They are
designed empirically by considering compressive strength of the material
used.
The merits of the positive clutches are
. (i) Simple (ii) No slip (iii) No heat generated compact and low cost.

Friction Clutches: Friction Clutches work on the basis of the frictional

forces developed between the two or more surfaces in contact. Friction
clutches are usually – over the jaw clutches due to their better
performance. There is a slip in friction clutch. The merits are
(i) They friction surfaces can slip during engagement which enables the
driver to pickup and accelerate the load with minimum shock.
(ii) They can be used at high engagement speeds since they do not have
jaw or teeth
(iii) Smooth engagement due to the gradual increase in normal force.

The major types of friction clutches are

(i) Plate clutch (Single plate) (multiple plate)
(ii) Cone clutch
(iii) Centrifugal clutch
(iv) Dry
(v) Magnetic current clutches
(vi) Eddy current clutches
We will be studying about single plate multi-plate and cone clutches.
Single plate clutch:
A single plate friction clutch consisting of two flanges shown in fig 2. One
flange is rigidly keyed in to the driving shaft, while the other is free to

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move along the driven shaft due to spliced connection. The actuating force
is provided by a spring, which forces the driven flange to move towards
the driving flange. The face of the drive flange is linked with friction
material such as cork, leather or ferodo

A friction disk of a single plate clutch is shown in above fig

The following notations are used in the derivation
D = Outer diameter of friction disc (mm)
Do = Inna diameter of friction disc (mm)
Pi = pressure of intensity N/mm2
F = Total operating force (N) (Axial force)
T = torque transmitted by friction (N-mm)
Consider an elemental ring of radius r and radial thickness dr
Area of elemental length = 2πr. dr
Axial force length = 2πr r. P

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Uniform Wear Theory:

According to this theory, it is assumed that the wear is uniformly
distributed over the entire surface --- of the friction disc. This assumption
is used for workout clutches. The axial wear of the friction disc is
importonal to the frictional work. The work done by the frictional force (µ

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P) and subbing velocity (2πrN) where ‘N’ is speed in rpm. Assuming
speed N and coefficient of friction ‘µ’ is constant for given configuration

When clutch plate is new and rigid. The wear at the outer radius will be
more, which will release the pressure at the outer edge due to the rigid
pressure plate this will change the pressure distribution. During running
condition, the pressure distribution is adjusted in such a manner that the
product pressure is constant, C.

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Problems:
1. A single plate friction clutch of both sides effective has 300 mm outer diameter
and 160 mm inner diameter. The coefficient of friction o.2 and it runs at 1000
rpm. Find the power transmitted for uniform wear and uniform pressure
distributions cases if allowable maximum pressure is 0.08 Mpa

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2. A car engine develops maximum power of 15 kW at 1000 rpm. The clutch
used is single plate clutch both side effective having external diameter 1.25
times internal diameter µ = 0.3. Mean axial pressure is not to exceed 0.085 N/
mm2. Determine the dimension of the friction surface and the force necessary
to engage the plates. Assume uniform pressure condition.

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3. Design a single plate clutch consists of two pairs of contacting surfaces for a
torque capacity of 200 N-m. Due to space limitation the outside diameter of
the clutch is to be 250mm
Given:
Single plate clutch, Torque = 2 x 105N-mm, D0 = 250mm I = 2 (since two
pairs of contacting surfaces)
Solution:
Assume suitable friction material – leather µ = 0.3 to 0.5 P = varies from
0.07 to 0.29 Mpa select µ = 0.4, P = 0.135 Mpa – N /mm
1. Torque = 2 x 105N-mm
2. Mean diameter
Assuming uniform wear theory

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BRAKES
A brake is defined as a machine element used to control the motion by
absorbing kinetic energy of a moving body or by absorbing potential
energy of the objects being lowered by hoists, elevators, etc. The
absorbed energy appears as heat energy which should be transferred to
cooling fluid such as water or surrounding air. The difference between a
clutch and a brake is that whereas in the former both the members to be
engaged are in motion, the brake connects a moving member to a
stationary member.

Block or shoe brake

A single-block brake is shown in fig. It consists of a short shoe which may
be rigidly mounted or pivoted to a lever. The block is pressed against the
rotating wheel by an effort Fat one end of the lever. The other end of the
lever is pivoted on a fixed fulcrum O. The frictional force produced by the
block on the wheel will retard the rotation of the wheel. This type of brake
is commonly used in railway trains. When the brake is applied, the lever
with the block can be considered as a free body in equilibrium under the
action of the following forces.
1. Applied force F at the end of the lever.
2. Normal reaction F between the shoe and the wheel.
3. Frictional or tangential braking force Fn between the shoe and the
wheel.
4. Pin reaction.

Consider the following three cases;

(i) Line of action of tangential force F passes through fulcrum

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Note: If the direction of F is towards the fulcrum, use the clockwise rotation
formula and if the direction of F & 0 is away from the fulcrum, use counter
clockwise formula from the data handbook.
When the angle of contact between the block and the wheel is less than 60°, we
assume that the normal pressure is uniform between them. But when the angle of
contact 2θ is more than 60°, we assume that the unit pressure normal to the
surface of contact is less at the ends than at the center and the wear in the
direction of applied force is uniform. In such case we employ the equivalent
coefficient of friction µ', which is given by.

Problems:

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1. The block type hand brake shown in fig. 3.1 la has a face width of 45 mm. The
friction material permits a maximum pressure of 0.6 MPa and a coefficient of
friction of 0.24. Determine; 1. Effort F, 2. Maximum torque, 3. Heat generated if
the speed of the drum is 100 rpm and the brake is applied for 5 sec. at full
capacity to bring the shaft to stop.

Heat generated during 5 sec = 5 x 2.375 = 11.875 kJ

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2. A 400 mm radius brake drum contacts a single shoe as shown in fjg.3.12a, and
sustains 200 N-m torque at 500 rpm. For a coefficient of friction 0.25, determine:
1. Normal force on the shoe.
2. Required force F to apply the brake for clockwise rotation.
3. Required force F to apply the brake for counter clockwise rotation.
4. The dimension c required to make the brake self-locking, assuming the other
dimension remains the same.
5. Heat generated.

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3. A simple band brake operates on a drum 0.6 m in diameter rotating at 200 rpm.
The coefficient of friction is 0.25 and the angle of contact of the band is 270°. One
end of the band is fastened to a fixed pin and the other end to 125 mm from the
fixed pin. The brake arm is 750 mm long.
(i) What is the minimum pull necessary at the end of the brake arm to .stop the
wheel if 35 kW is being absorbed? What is the direction of rotation for minimum
pull?
(ii) Find the width of 2.4 mm thick steel band if the maximum tensile stress is not
to exceed 55 N/mm2

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4. In a simple band brake, the length of lever is 440 mm. The tight end of the band
is attached to the fulcrum of the lever and the slack end to a pin 50 mm from the
fulcrum. The diameter of the brake drum is 1 m and the arc of contact is 300°. The
coefficient of friction between the band and the drum is 0.35. The brake drum is
attached to a hoisting drum of diameter 0.65 m that sustains a load of 20 kN.
Determine;
1. Force required at the end of lever to just support the load.
2. Required force when the direction of rotation is reversed.
3. Width of stee! band if the tensile stress is limited to 50 N/mnr.

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Lubrication & Bearings
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LUBRICATION AND BEARINGS

Moving parts of every machine is subjected to friction and wear. Friction
consumes and wastes energy. Wear causes changes in dimensions and
eventual breakdown of the machine element and the entire machine. The
loss of just a few milligrams of material in the right place, due to wear can
cause a production machine or an automobile to be ready for replacement. If
we imagine the amount of material rendered useless by way of wear, it is
startling! Lots of materials ranging from Antimony to zinc, including titanium,
vanadium, iron, carbon, copper, aluminium etc., would be lost. It is therefore
essential to conserve the natural resources through reduction in wear.
Lubrication plays a vital role in our great and complex civilization.

LUBRICATION:
Prevention of metal to metal contact by means of an intervening layer of fluid
or fluid like material
Types of sliding lubrication:
• Sliding with Fluid film lubrication.
• Sliding with Boundary lubrication.
• Sliding with Extreme boundary lubrication.
• Sliding with clean surfaces.

Hydrodynamic / Thick Film Lubrication / Fluid Film lubrication

Metal to Metal contact is prevented. This is shown in figure.
Friction in the bearing is due to oil film friction only. Viscosity of the
lubricant plays a vital role in the power loss, temperature rise & flow through
of the lubricant through the bearing. The principle operation is the
Hydrodynamic theory. This lubrication can exist under moderately loaded
bearings running at sufficiently high speeds.

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BOUDARY LUBRICATION (THIN FILM LUBRICATION)

During starting and stopping, when the velocity is too low, the oil
film is not capable of supporting the load. There will be metal to metal contact
at some spots as shown in figure . Boundary lubrication exists also in a
bearing if the load becomes too high or if the viscosity of the lubricant is too
low. Mechanical and chemical properties of the bearing surfaces and the
lubricants play a vital role.

Oiliness of lubricant becomes an important property in boundary

lubrication. Anti-oxidants and Anti-corrosives are added to lubricants to
improve their performance. Additives are added to improve the viscosity
index of the lubricants.
Oiliness Agents

• Increase the oil film’s resistance to rupture, usually made from oils of
animals or vegetables.
• The molecules of these oiliness agents have strong affinity for
petroleum oil and for metal surfaces that are not easily dislodged.
• Oiliness and lubricity (another term for oiliness), not related to
viscosity, manifest itself under boundary lubrication; reduce friction
by preventing the oil film breakdown.
Anti-Wear Agents

Mild EP additives protect against wear under moderate loads for

boundary lubrications Anti-wear agents react chemically with the
metal to form a protective coating that reduces friction, also called as
anti-scuff additives.
Extreme boundary lubrication
Under certain conditions of temperature and load, the boundary film
breaks leading to direct metal to metal contact as shown in figure. Seizure of
the metallic surfaces and destruction of one or both surfaces begins. Strong

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intermolecular forces at the point of contact results in tearing of metallic
particles. “Plowing” of softer surfaces by surface irregularities of the harder
surfaces. Bearing material properties become significant. Proper bearing
materials should be selected.
Extreme-Pressure Agents
Scoring and pitting of metal surfaces might occur as a result of this case,
seizure is the primarily concern. Additives are derivatives of sulphur,
phosphorous, or chlorine. These additives prevent the welding of mating
surfaces under extreme loads and temperatures.
Stick-Slip Lubrication
A special case of boundary lubrication when a slow or reciprocating
action exists. This action is destructive to the full fluid film. Additives are
added to prevent this phenomenon causing more drag force when the
part is in motion relative to static friction. This prevents jumping ahead
phenomenon.
Solid film lubrication
When bearings must be operated at extreme temperatures, a solid
film lubricant such as graphite or molybdenum di-sulphide must be used
because the ordinary mineral oils are not satisfactory at elevated
temperatures. Much research is currently being carried out in an effort to
find composite bearing materials with low wear rates as well as small
frictional coefficients.

Hydrostatic lubrication
Hydrostatic lubrication is obtained by introducing the lubricant, which is
sometimes air or water, into the load-bearing area at a pressure high enough
to separate the surfaces with a relatively thick film of lubricant. So, unlike
hydrodynamic lubrication, this kind of lubrication does not require motion
of one surface relative to another. Useful in designing bearings where the
velocities are small or zero and where the frictional resistance is to be an
absolute minimum

Elasto Hydrodynamic lubrication

Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication is the phenomenon that occurs when a
lubricant is introduced between surfaces that are in rolling contact, such as

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mating gears or rolling bearings. The mathematical explanation requires
the Hertzian theory of contact stress and fluid mechanics.
Types of lubricants
• Vegetable or Animal oils like Castor oil, Rapeseed oil, palm oil, Olive oil
etc.
• Animal oils like lard oil, tallow oil, whale oil,etc.
• Mineral oils-petroleum based- Paraffinic and Naphthenic based oils

Properties of lubricants
• Availability in wide range of viscosities.
• High Viscosity index.
• Should be Chemically stable with bearing material at all temperatures
encountered.
• Oil should have sufficient specific heat to carry away
heat without abnormal rise in temperature.
• Reasonable cost.

Selection Guide for Lubricants

The viscosity of lubricating oil is decisively for the right thickness
of the lubricating film (approx. 3-30µm) under consideration of the
type of lubricant supply

Low sliding speed High Viscosity

High sliding speed Low viscosity

High bearing clearance High Viscosity

High load (Bearing pressures) Higher Viscosity

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BEARINGS
A bearing is machine part, which support a moving element and confines its
motion. The supporting member is usually designated as bearing and the
supporting member may be journal. Since there is a relative motion between the
bearing and the moving element, a certain amount of power must be absorbed in
overcoming friction, and if the surface actually touches, there will be a rapid
wear.
Classification: Bearings are classified as follows:
1. Depending upon the nature of contact between the working surfaces:-
a) Sliding contact bearings
b) Rolling contact bearings.
a) SLIDING BEARINGS:
• Hydro dynamically lubricated bearings
• Bearings with boundary lubrication
• Bearings with Extreme boundary lubrication.
• Bearings with Hydrostatic lubrication.
b) ROLLING ELEMENTBEARINGS:
• Ball bearings
▪ Roller bearings
▪ Needle roller bearings
2. Based on the nature of the load supported:
• Radial bearings – Journal bearings
• Thrust bearings
- Plane thrust bearings
- Thrust bearings with fixed shoes
- Thrust bearings with Pivoted shoes
• Bearings for combined Axial and Radial loads.

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JOURNAL BEARING:
It is one, which forms the sleeve around the shaft and supports a bearing at right
angles to the axis of the bearing. The portion of the shaft resting on the sleeve is
called the journal. Example of journal bearings are- Solid bearing , Bushed
bearing and Pedestal bearing.
Solid bearing:

A cylindrical hole formed in a cast iron machine member to receive the shaft
which makes a running fit is the simplest type of solid journal bearing. Its
rectangular base plate has two holes drilled in it for bolting down the bearing in
its position as shown in the figure1.1. An oil hole is provided at the top to
lubricate the bearing. There is no means of adjustment for wear and the shaft
must be introduced into the bearing endwise. It is therefore used for shafts, which
carry light loads and rotate at moderate speeds.

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