Learning Objectives

The students will:

 be able to explain about classical Greek drama
 understand the relevance of classical Roman drama
 write in detail about Shakespeare and Elizabethian drama
 enlist the various play writers in these era
 write in detail about Shakespeare and other contemporaries

Classical Greek and Roman Drama - Sophocles and Aeschylus

Ancient Greeks from the 7th

Century BC onwards were
fascinated by the question of the
origin of theatre. Sources said
that a great theatrical culture
was ourished in ancient Greece
between 550 BC and 200 BC.
The city state of Athens was its
centre, where it was
institutionalized as part of a
festival called the Dionysia,
which honoured the god
Dionysus. Greek plays were Dionysian festival
performed in an outdoor
theater, used masks and were almost always performed by a chorus and three actors. (No
matter how many speaking characters there were in the play, only three actors were used at a
time; the actors would go back stage after playing one character). Actors had to gesture grandly
so that the entire audience could see and hear the story. The actors were so far away from the
audience that without the aid of exaggerated costumes and masks. Masks were made of linen or
cork, so none have survived. Tragic masks carried painful expressions, while comic masks were
smiling or leering. Tragedy, satyr play and the comedy were the three dramatic genres to
emerge.

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Tragedy
Tragedy was a form of drama based on human suffering that invokes in its audience an
accompanying catharsis or pleasure in the viewing. Tragedy developed out of improvisation by
the leaders of dithyrambs. Originally the dithyramb consisted of an improved story and a
traditional refrain. Arion (625-585 BC) is said to be the first of men who were known to have
composed the Dithyramb and named it. Its beginnings, tragedy was originating in impromptus
by the leader of dithyrambic choruses. The state of Athens instituted a theatrical contest for the
best tragedy in 534 BC and Thespis was the winner of the first contest. Little except of his
tragedy that the choir was still formed by satyr. As of old tragedy, formerly the chorus by it-self
performed the whole drama and later, Thespis invented a single actor to give the chorus a rest.
His name has been immortalized as a common term for performer a 'thespian'.

Little by little, tragedy grew greater as the poets developed whatever they perceived of its
emergent from and after passing through many changes. Later, Aeschylus (523-456) began
competing at the city Dionysia in about 499 BC. He first increased the number of the actors from
one to two and reduced the role of the chorus, giving first place to the dialogue. He is credited
with inventing the trilogy, a series of three tragedies that tell one long story. Sophocles (496-406
BC) defeated Aeschylus in a contest. Sophocles added the third actor and fixed the size of
chorus at fifteen members. Also, he is credited with the first use of scene painting. Aeschylus,
Sophocles and Euripedes were well known Greek tragedy playwrights, whose plays are still
available to read or perform.

Aeschylus (525-456 BC)

Aeschylus was the rst of the three ancient tragedians whose plays are still read or performed.
Our understanding of earlier tragedies is largely based on inferences from his surviving plays.
He was said to have been born in 525 BC in Eleusis, a small town about 27 kilometers northwest
of Athens. His father, Euporion, was a member of the Eupatridae, the ancient nobility of Attika.

Aeschylus' first performance took place in 499 BC, when he was only
26 years old. He won his first victory at the city Dionysia in 484 BC.
He expanded the number of characters in plays to allow for conflict
among them whereas previously characters had interacted only with
the chorus. He was the first dramatist to present plays as a trilogy
and his 'Oresteia' is the only ancient example of the form to have
survived. In the work of Aeschylus, comparing the earlier dramatists
there was an evolution and enrichment of the proper elements of
tragic drama: dialogues, contrasts and theatrical effects. He is often
described as the „Father of Tragedy‟. Aeschylus

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Aeschylus entered many of theatre compilations in his life time, and various ancient sources
attribute between seventy and ninety plays to him. Only seven of his plays have survived to
modern time namely (1) The Persians (2) Seven Against Thebes (3) The Suppliants (4)
Agamemnon (5) The Libation Bearers (6) Eumenides (7) Prometheus Bound. Here
'Agamemnon', 'The Libation Bearer' and 'Eumenides' are part of the trilogy of 'Oresteia'.
Aeschylus died in 456 BC. His work was so respected by the Athenians that after his death, his
were the only tragedies allowed to be staged in subsequent competitions.

Sophocles (496-406 BC)

Sophocles was one of three ancient Greek tragedians whose plays have survived. He was born a
few years before the Battle of Marathon, perhaps in 496 BC. His father Sophilus was an armour
manufacturer and was highly educated. His first artistic triumph was in 468 BC when he won
the first prize in the Dionysia theatre competition over the reigning master of Athenian drama
Aeschylus.
Sophocles influenced the development of drama, most importantly
by adding a third actor, thereby reducing the importance of the
chorus in the presentation of the plot. He is credited with the
introduction of scenography, or scenery painting. His work is also
known for its deeper development of characters than earlier
playwrights.
For almost 50 years, Sophocles was the most-feted playwright in the
dramatic competitions of the city-state of Athens that took place
during the religious festival of the Lenaea and the Dionysia. He
competed in around 30 competitions, won perhaps 24, and was
Sophocles never judged lower than second place. Sophocles wrote 123 plays
during the course of his life, but only seven have survived in a complete form, namely, (1) Ajax
(2) Antigone (3) The Women of Trachis (4) Oedipus the King (5) Electra (6) Philoctetes (7)
Oedipus at Colonus.
Sophocles died at the age of ninety in 406
BC. His reputation was such that foreign
rulers invited him to attend their courts,
although he never accepted any of their
invitations. Artistotle used Sophocle‟s.
„Oedipus the king‟ in his Poetics as an
example of the highest achievement in
tragedy, which suggests the high esteem in
which his work was held by later Greeks. Statues

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Structure of Tragedy
The tragedy usually begins with a prologue (Preliminary speech) in which one or more
characters introduce the drama and explain the background of the ensuing story. The prologue
is followed by the „Parados‟, after which the story unfolds through three or more „Episodes‟.
The episodes are interspersed by stasima, choral interludes explaining or commenting on the
situation developing in the play. The tragedy ends with the exodus, concluding the story.

Satyr Play
The origins of performance culture and the emergence of the satyr play can be traced to ancient
rural celebrations in honor of the god Dionysus. The featured choruses of satyrs were based on
Greek mythology and were alive with mock drunkenness, brazen sensuality, pranks, sight gags
and general merriment. Satyrs have a strong connection with music dance and consider them to
be archetypal musicians and dancers, thus
linking them to Dionysian processions and
the origins of performance culture. The
dramatic festivities at the city Dionysia in
Athens similarly dedicated to Dionysus,
required each playwright to submit three
tragedies and a satyr play, which
functioned as the last piece performed at
the festival.
The satyr play takes its name from the
chorus, which was made up of the half-
beast, half human companion of Dionysus.
Satyr Play
The amusing effect of the play did not
depend so much on the action itself, as was the case in comedy, but rather on the relation of the
chorus to that action. The rst leader of the satiric chorus was Silenus, He is called the father of
the satyrs. Often the story of a satyr play was entirely independent, but sometimes it connected
the play in theme or subject with the tragedies it accompanied. In accordance with the popular
notions about the satyrs, their costume consisted of the skin of a goat, deer or panther, thrown
over the naked body, and besides this a hideous mask and bristling hair. The dance of the
chorus in the satiric drama was called „sicinnis‟ and consisted of a fantastic kind of skipping and
jumping. Some of satyr plays to survive in its entirely are Euripides‟ Cyclops, 'Aeschylus',
'Dictyulci' (The Net shers) and Sophocles' 'Ichneutae' (The Trackers).

Comedy
Comedy was the last of the major dramatic forms to receive official recognition in Greece. The
origin of comedy was first recognized by Athens. Ancient Greek performed competitively in
Athens at two festivals honoring Dionysus, the god of wine and revelry. During each festival,

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five comic poets would stage one play a piece. To participate in a festival, each poet would have
to apply to the archon in-charge. If chosen to participate in the festival, they were awarded a
chore gas, a wealthy man who would pay for the performance as a form of taxation. Comedy is
traditionally divided into three separate periods; old comedy, middle comedy and new comedy.

Old Comedy
The old comedy survives today mainly in the form of the eleven surviving plays of
Aristophanes which was filled with
jokes, mockery and includes strong
abuse and person vilification. There
were no restrictions on what the
dramatists could depict in their
comedies. Dramatists also had their
plays performed with choral dances,
poetic meters, masked actors,
scenery and stage setups and most
importantly the Attic language.
Comedy
Middle Comedy
Although the middle comedy is largely lost, it differed from old comedy in three essential ways.
First, it had no chorus. Secondly, it didn't contain impersonation of public character on stage,
and lastly, the objects that were ridiculed were more general, rather than personal and political.
These objects were made fun of in a more literary sense. Also, middle comedy freely parodied
the most popular tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles and many other writers. The Middle
comedy period lasted from the end of the Peloponnesian war (5th Century BC).

New Comedy
The new comedy period began during the leadership of Macedonian rulers and finally ended
around 260 BC. Menander was the leading writer during the period. One of the only new
comedy works which has in its entirety is Menander's famous play 'Dyskolos'. Love was one of
the main topics in drama during this period for the first time. New comedy contained characters
such as an angry old man and cocky soldiers coming back from war. It represented many
features of the Athenian society and the social morality of the period.

The theatre of ancient Rome was a thriving and diverse art form, ranging from festival
performances of street theatre, nude dancing and acrobatics, to the staging of broadly appealing
situation comedies, to the high style verbally elaborate tragedies. It was dominated by variety
entertainment. The Roman public frequently left one event for another and demanded

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diversions capable of withstanding all competition. From time to time, new forms of
entertainment were introduced to Rome; some of these were retained for several centuries,
whereas other lost their popularity more quickly and were either discarded or relegated to a
minor role. Western theatre developed and expanded considerably under the Romans.
Roman plays were presented in the day time, sometimes before, sometimes after, the noon
meal. During the play,
the Roman people
would talk to each
other. That made it very
noisy. The actors would
sometimes use a
technique it should be
called the pantomime so
that everyone could
follow along with the
story told by the actors,
no matter how noisy the
crowd became.
Pantomime is a play
Roman Drama
without words. The
actors used dance, music, hand gestures, facial expressions, elaborate sets and costumes to
present the play. The actors held up happy face masks and sad faced masks, to help the
audience understand what was going on in the play. Over time, masks became very elaborate.
There was no limit to the number of actors. The chorus was never as important as in Greek
drama and in time it was abandoned altogether. Division into acts was made only when the
actor left the stage or prepare for the next appearance. In both comedies and tragedies, probably
some of the dialogues were sung, as in modern opera.
Romans preferred comedies and pure entertainment. Much Roman dramas were derived from
Greek dramas and were rewritten for the Roman stage. Romans did introduce new aspects into
their plays such as different costumes to represent different characters. Although the best
Roman plays belong to the second century B.C. yet at that time Roman theatres were of the
crudest description. The Roman need for action and entertainment turned theatrics into
something more and more violent. Crude sexual acts would take place on stage as part of
theatrical entertainment; criminals would be executed for the sake of entertainment. Gladiator
would fight lions. Men would fight each other to the death. Actions such as these led the
Christians to rebel against theatre as a whole.
The Roman comic dramatics abolished the role of the chorus in dividing the drama into
episodes and introduced musical accompaniment to its dialogue.

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Although Rome had a native tradition of performance, many cultural influences on Roman
culture in the 3rd century B.C. had a profound and energizing effect on Roman theatre and
encouraged the development of Roman literature of the highest quality for the stage. There
were three major influences on the ancient Roman's perspective of theatre, the Oscan, the
Greeks and the Etruscans
1. Oscan Influence: By 275 BC the Romans had become undisputed masters of the Oscan
region (town of Atella in southern Italy). The Oscans also brought the Romans their ideas
about plays. The Oscans had a type of comedy called „Atellan farce‟. This was a type of
improvised comedy played with stock characters. These stock characters were the idea for
the typical Roman play's stock characters.
2. Greek Influence: Following the first Punic war with Carthage (264-241 BC), Rome
acquired Sicily. As a result of its expansion, Rome took over several Greek territories in
which the theatre had long flourished. Romans borrowed ideas on many things from the
Greeks, things ranging from gods to theatre construction. The layout of the Roman theatre
is very much like that of the Greek theatre. The plots of tragedies were basically the same,
only the character‟s names were changed and some other minor things.
3. Etruscan Influence: By 265
BC Romans controlled the
entire Italian Peninsula
including the Etruscan
areas to the north. The
Etruscans too had a great
Influence on the Romans.
The Etruscans were a more
powerful people and so
they had many battles with
Rome. Because of these
battles many Etruscan
ideals took hold in Roman
Ludi Romani Festival
culture. Etruscan brought
the roman horse racing, boxing contests, gladiatorial contests, chariot races and some other
popular civic activities. Other Etruscan practices also probably influenced Roman theatre.
Among these was the use of music, dance and masks.
Theatre in ancient Rome almost always was associated with festivals. The oldest of the official
festivals was the „ludi Romani‟, given in honour of Jupiter, each September, established in 6th
century B.C. It included theatrical performances beginning in 364 BC and regular comedy or
tragedy beginning in 240 B.C. Eventually five other festivals also were of special importance for
theatrical entertainment:-

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 The Ludi Florales: Instituted in 238 and made annual in 173 BC.

 The Ludi Plebeii: Inaugurated nearly 220 B.C and with plays introduced in
near about 200 B.C.

 The Ludi Apallinares: begun in 212 and with theatrical performance inaugurated in
179 B.C.

 The Ludi Megalenses: Instituted in 204 and theatrical production added by 194

 The Ludi Cereales: Established in 202 B.C.

Festivals were sometimes repeated, since whenever any irregularity in the rituals occurred the
entire festival, including the plays, had to be repeated. Such repetition was labeled instauration.
Although the precise number of performances in any given year cannot be determined, they
increased steadily after 240 BC. Only one day was set aside for theatrical productions in the
beginning but by the beginning of the Christian era, the number had grown to about forty.

Roman drama is usually said to have begun with Livius-

Andronicus (240-204 BC) for the comedies and tragedies that
he wrote, translated or adopted. Little is known of
Andronicus. The first native born dramatist was Gnaeus
Naevius (270-201 BC) who began writing about 235. Naevius
did much to naturalize the drama by introducing many
Roman allusions into the Greek originals and by writing
plays on Roman stories. No plays from either writer have
survived. While both dramatists composed in both genres,
Andronicus was most appreciated for his tragedies and
Naevius for his comedies. The names of many Roman comic
writers has come down to us, but the comedies that have
survived come from two dramatists - Titus Maccius Plautus
(Plantus) and Publius Terentius. After Terence, tragedies,
that have survived come from Lucius Annaeus Seneca.

Titus Maccius Plautus (254-184 B.C.) was the first important

successor to Livius Andronicus and Naevius in comedy. His
popularity was so great that, after his death, as many as 130
Gnaeus Naevius
plays come to be attributed to him. He was much admired
for his Latin dialogue, his varied poetic meters and his witty jokes. Plautus is best known for his
force. His surviving plays are:(1) The Comedy of Asses (2) The Merchant (3) The Braggart
Warrior (4) The Casket (5) Pot of Gold (6) Stichus (7) Pseudolus (8) Curculio (9) The Two
Bacchides (10) Casina (11) Amphitryon (12) The Captives (13) Epidicus (14) The Menaechmi (15)
The Haunted House (16) The Persion (17)The Carthaginian (18) The Rope (19) Trinummus (20)
The Churl (21) Vidularia.

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Publius Terentius After (195-159 BC) is said to have been born in Carthage, brought to Rome as
a slave when a boy, educated and freed. Terence's plots are complex. He combined stories from
more than one Greek original. His sympathetic treatment of characters moves his plays toward
romantic or sentimental comedy. His language was of everyday polite conversation. He wrote
six plays, all of which have survived: (1) Andria (2) Mother-in-law (3) Self Tormetor (4) Eunuch
(5) Phormio (6) The Brothers.

The principle dramatist in the years between Blautus and Terence was Caecilius Statius (219-168
BC). He was considered by many Roman critics one of the greatest comic authors.
Unfortunately, none of his plays survive.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (5BC-65 AD) was the only Roman tragedian whose plays still survive.
Seneca was born in Spain and educated in Rome. He was famous for his works on rhetoric and
philosophy and became one of the most influential men in Rome after his pupil Nero was
named emperor in 54 A.D.

Senekal‟s plays were divided into five episodes by choral interludes. He is known for
innovation of the confidant, his substitution of speech for action soliloquies and his moral
hairsplitting. Seneca's technical devices, such as soliloquies, asides and confidantes were taken over
by later authors. Nine of Seneca‟s plays survive: (1) The Trojan Women (2) Media (3) Oedipus
(4) Phaedra (5) Thyestes (6) Hercules on Oeta (7) The Mad Hercules (8) The Phoenician Women
(9) Agamemnon.

In 354 A.D., one hundred days were devoted in theatrical entertainments and another seventy
ve to such events as chariot races and gladiatorial contests. After 400 AD, as the empire began
to disintegrate, the numbers seem to have varied considerably from one reign to another, but
performances continued into the six centers.

Elizabeth I was a strong, resolute monarch, who returned England to Protestantism, quelled a
great deal of internal turmoil and unified the nation. She was also a strong supporter of the arts
and this sparked a surge of activity in the theatre. The theatre was an expanding industry
during the Elizabethan era. The plays were as popular as the movies and cinemas of the 20th
century. During her reign, some playwrights were able to make a comfortable living by
receiving a royal patronage. The drama was a unified expression as far a social class was
concerned: the court watched the same plays the commoners saw in the public playhouses.
There was a great deal of theatrical activities at court and many public theatres were also built
on the outskirts of London.

Elizabethan theatre and the name William Shakespeare are inextricably bound together, yet
there were others writing plays at the same time. Although it is generally agreed that the
Elizabethan period began at the commencement of Queen Elizabeth – I‟s reign in 1558, but the

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ending date is not as definitive. Some consider the age to have ended at the commencement of
Queen Elizabeth-I‟s reign in 1558, but the ending date is not as definitive. Some consider the age
to have ended at the Queen‟s death in 1603, while others place the end of Elizabethan Drama at
the closing of the theatre in 1642. There were many theatres built during this period and each
one was different from other. Theatres fell into two main types:-

1. Outdoor or Public Theatres: Outdoor theatres were generally „Amphitheatre‟ but later on
many other theatres were introduced as outdoor theatres, such as Curtain Theatre, The
Theatre, The Swan Theatre, The Globe Theatre, Rose Theatre, Red Bull Theatre, Fortune
Theatre, Hope Theatre and Boar‟s Head Inn.

2. Indoor or Private Theatres: Indoor theatres were smaller and roofed such as; Black Friars
Theatre, Cockpit Theatres and White Friars Theatre.

The Globe Theatre was the most famous Elizabethan Theatre, normally six different plays were
performed in the six days week and a particularly successful play might only be repeated once a
month or so. Plays were performed in modern dress, with no scenery and few props, and
without using light, sound or stage effects. The number and type of actors involved in plays
varied from one to the next. Generally, all of the actors in an Elizabethan theatre company were
male. Death brought out a particular ingenuity in Elizabethan actors and they apparently used
copious quantities of animal blood. Fake heads, hands, eyes, tongues and limbs were
dramatically cut off onstage. Hand gestures were used to show emotions or give emphasis in
normal conversation rather than in stage performances.

Emergence of Elizabethan Theatre

Throughout the middle ages the English drama was mainly religious and didactic. Its chief
forms were the Miracle plays and the Moralities. Miracle plays were presented in crude
dialogue and stories from the Bible and the lives of the saints, while Moralities taught lessons
for the guidance of life through the means of allegorical action and the personification of
abstract qualities. It was continued until 15th century when Henry VII came to the throne.

Henry VII founded the Tudor line that ruled England until the death of Elizabeth – I, in 1603.
The Tudors brought political stability and a strong central government to England. Under the
Tudors, the spirit of the Renaissance also began to be felt in England. Henry VII invited Italian
Humanists to England and they encouraged English scholars to study ancient literature and
philosophy. The new interests soon affected dramatic writing. The oldest surviving English
interludes „Fulgons and Lucrece‟ (1497) by Henry Medwall was written under the influence of
Humanism and produced at court. Humanism exerted even greater influence on drama
through schools and universities. The key figure is John Calet (1466-1519), who founded St.
Paul‟s school around 1512. The school came under Calet‟s influence and it soon became the
custom not only to study but to produce plays, either Roman works or new ones written in
invitation of them. Performances seem to have begun at Cambridge University around 1520 and

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soon were common elsewhere; at Eton about 1525, at St. Paul‟s about 1527 and at Oxford about
1535. Two of school dramas are especially well known, „Ralph Roister Doister‟ by Nicholas
Udall and „Gammer Gurton‟s Needle‟ by Mr. S.

Despite classical influence, medieval practices and conventions continued to dominate English
drama. Many other forces eventually shaped the English drama of the late sixteenth century.
Also, religious and political controversies affected drama in several ways, because drama had
been used during the preceding reign as a weapon. In 1559, Elizabeth forbade playwrights to
treat religious or political subjects. Consequently, drama in general was secularized, although it
continued to convey a strong sense of a moral force at work in the universe and in human
affairs. Among the influences on this developing, drama was humanism as represented by
schools, universities and the Inn of court, the Inner temple and the middle temple. The Inns
admitted young men, primarily recent graduates of Oxford and Cambridge for further
education. These students were taught music, dancing and other graces, which were practiced
in past through the presentation of plays.

When Elizabeth I came to the throne in 1558, there was no specially designed theatre building in
England. Companies of actors toured the country and performed in a wide variety of temporary
acting spaces, sometimes building stages and scenery for particular series of performances and
sometimes simply using an unaltered hall or open space. There are records of performances in
churches, the great halls of Royal palaces and other great houses such as Inn Yards, Town Halls,
Town Squares and anywhere else that a large crowd could view a performance.

The first English tragedy, „Gorboduc‟ or „Ferrex and Porrex‟ written by two students, Thomas
Sackville and Thomas Norton, was presented by the Inner Temple in 1561, with Queen
Elizabeth-I in attendance. During Elizabeth‟s reign, interest at universities and schools also
shifted from classical drama to plays based on English history or recent Italian works. By 1580‟s
all the strands of drama began to coalesce, primarily because a group of educated men,
commonly called „the university wits‟ turned to writing for public stage. The most important
those writers were Thomas Kyd, Christopher Marlowe, Johan Lyly, and Robert Greene.

Thomas Kyd (1558-1594) is remembered primarily for „The Spanish Tragedy‟ (1587), the most
popular play of the sixteenth century. He used the Senecan devices as
ghosts, the chorus, soliloquies, confidants and the division in to five
acts.

Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593)

After obtaining a classical education at Cambridge, he wrote a number
of plays for the public theatre, including „Tambur Laine‟, part-1 and 2
in 1587-1588, „Doctor Faustus‟ (1588) and Edward-II (1592). The focus
in Marlowe‟s plays is on the protagonist, around whom an episodic
story is organized to illuminate his complex motivations. Christopher Marlowe

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John Lyly (1554-1606)
He wrote primarily for boys companies catering to aristocratic audiences. Among his most
characteristics works are „Campaspe‟ (1584), „Endimion‟ (1588) and ‟Love‟s Metamorphoses‟.
Lyly‟s plays were written in the carefully balanced, refined and somewhat artificial prose for
which he is famous.

Robert Greene (1588-1592)

He wrote pastoral and romantic comedies, but his works are more varied than Lyly‟s. In his
„‟Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay‟ (1589) and ‟James IV‟ (1591), stories of love and pastoral
adventures are mingled with historical materials. He crowded many diverse elements into a
single play. Greene is especially noted for his charming and resourceful heroines.

William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

„An English playwright and poet, he is regarded as the greatest dramatist in the English
language. He was born and brought up in Stratford upon-Avon. In theatre, he was involved as
a playwright, actor and shareholder in acting troupes and theatre buildings. From 1594,
Shakespeare‟s plays were performed by only the „‟Lord Chamberlain‟s Men‟, a company owned
by a group of players, including Shakespeare, that soon became the leading company in
London. In 1599, a partnership of company members built their won theatre on the south bank
of the River Thames, which they called „‟the Globe”, the partnership also took over the „‟Black
Friars‟ indoor theatre. After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, the company was awarded a
royal patent by the new king, James-I, and changed its name to the „King‟s Men‟ Shakespeare is
credited with 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems and a few other verses.
His plays have been given the following chronology by E.K. Chambers:

 Henry VI (Part-2)  Richard- II

 Henry VI (Part-3)  A Midsummer Night‟s Dream

 Henry VI (Part-1)  King John

 Richard III  The Merchant of Venice

 Comedy of Errors  Henry IV (part-1)

 Titus Andronicus  Henry IV (Part-2)

 Taming of the Shrew  Much ado about Nothing

 Two Gentlemen of Verona  Henry V

 Love‟s Labour‟s Lost  Julius Caesar

 Romeo and Juliet  As you Like it

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 Twelfth Night  Antony and Cleopatra
 Hamlet  Coriolanus
 The Merry Wives of Windsor  Timon of Athens
 Troilus and Cressida  Pericles
 All’s well that Ends well  Cymbeline
 Measure for Measure  A Winter’s Tale
 Othello  The Tempest
 King’s Lear  Henry VIII
 Macbeth  Two Noble Kinsmen

Traditionally, the plays of Shakespeare are divided into the genres of tragedy, history and
comedy but later on they were labelled as: Morality plays, Mystery plays, Miracle plays,
Tragicomedy, Problem Plays etc. Shakespeare borrowed stories from many sources, history,
mythology legend, fiction plays but rewarded them until they became distinctively his own.
The plots are usually interwoven and the action ranges freely in time and space, normally
encompassing months or years and occurring in widely separated places. The language of plays
is very effective. Poetic and figurative dialogue not only arouses specific emotions, moods and
ideas, it creates a network of complex associations and connotations that inks the immediate
dramatic situation with all creation.

Ben Jonson (1572-1637)

Ben Jonson is considered the best after Shakespeare, perhaps the most influential of his time. An
actor turned playwright, he followed „‟the rules‟‟ more, but altered them. He wrote many
„masques‟, more than anyone else. In 1616, he was made England‟s Poet Laureate. His plays
were harshly moralistic than Shakespeare. Ben Johnson wrote mostly comedies, such as „Every
man in his humor‟ (1598). His two tragedies „Volpone‟ (1606), and „The Alchemist‟ (1610) were
also respected.
Less celebrated other contemporaries were George Chapman, John Marston, Thomas Dekker,
Thomas Heywood and Thomas Middleton.

Jacobean and Caroline Dramatists

„Jacobean‟ comes from „James-I‟, King after the death of Elizabeth I, reigned from (1603-1625)
and „Caroline‟ refers to „Charles-I‟, reign (1625-1642). After 1610, a significant change occurred
in English drama, which set the standard for tragedies between 1610 and 1642; there was more
technical proficiency than Shakespeare, but subjects were shocking. Tragicomedy increased in
popularity. Technical skill increased exposition, more adroit, fewer episodes built complications
into startling climaxes, alternated by quiet and tumultuous scenes. John Webster, John Ford and
Inigo Jones were famous playwrights of that time.

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Commedia dell‟arte is a comedy of professional players, playing an improvised text. It emerged
in Northern Italy during the 15th and 16th century and spread out from there. Its improvisations
were set in a firm framework of complex stories, stock situation and masked stock characters
with lots of climax, acrobatic jumps and mellow love scenes. Professional players of „commedia
dell‟arte‟ were specialized in one role and they developed an unmatched comic acting technique
which contributed to the popularity of the itinerant commedia troupes that traveled throughout
Europe.
Most commedia troupes performed outdoors in city and town plazas on stages. They brought
with them in horse-drawn carts, along with their equipment, props, costumes, curtains and
ladders. Performances took place on temporary stages, mostly on city streets, but occasionally
even in court venues. Productions at court and academics were given for aristocratic audience
on special occasion. The development of a public, professional theatre in Italy came from
commedia dell‟arte primarily. Music, dance, witty dialogue and all kinds of chicanery
contributed to the comic effects. Commedia was responsible for the advent of the actresses and
improvised performances based on sketches or scenarios. Commedia dell‟arte was also known
as “Italian Comedy”.

Characteristics of Commedia dell’arte

The two fundamental characteristics of commedia dell‟arte were improvisation and stock
characters; they worked from a plot outline, on the basis of which they improvised dialogue
and action, and performer always played the same character with its fixed attributed and
costume. Each actor usually played the same character throughout his career and this practice
must have encouraged the repetition of lines and business which had been well received by
audience.
The unique talent of commedia players was to improvise comedy around a pre-established
scenario,. Responding to each other or to audience reaction, the actors made use of lazzi (special
rehearsal routines that could be inserted into the plays at convenient points to vary the
happenings on stage). Masks forced actors to project their characters, emotions through the
body. Leaps, tumbles, stock gags (burle and lazzi), obscene gestures and slapstick antics were
incorporated into their acts.
There were no elaborate sets in commedia. Staging, for example, was minimalistic-rarely
anything more than one market or street scene and the stages were frequently temporary
outdoor structures. Instead, great use was made of props including devices, and weapons. The
character Arlecchino bore two sticks tied together, which made a great noise on impact; this
gave birth to the word „slapstick‟. Inspite of its outwardly anarchic spirit, the commedia
dell‟arte was a highly disciplines art requiring both virtuosity and a strong sense of ensemble
playing.

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For elaboration, loose fitting garments alternated with very tight and jarring colour contrasts
opposed monochrome outfits. Expect for the inamorato, males would identify themselves with
character-specific costumes and half masks. All the fixed character types, the figures of fun or
satire were colored leather masks. There opposites, usually pairs of young lovers around whom
the satires revolved, had no need for such devices. Today in Italy hand crafted theatre masks
are still created in the tradition of Carnacialesca. The inclusion of music and dance into
commedia performance required that all actors have these skills. Frequently at the end of a
piece even the audience joined into the merry making.

Characters in commedia dell’arte

The character types in commedia dell‟arte can be divided into two general categories: the
straight and exaggerated. The straight roles were those of the young lovers, who served as a
norm against which the peculiarities of other characters were seen. They were depicted as witty,
handsome, well-educated young men and women; they dressed in the fashionable garments of
the day and were not masked. The young man, the „innamorato‟ was often opposed in his love
affairs by an older man, sometimes even his father, the young woman, or „innamorata‟ was
usually a sophisticated young lady courted by both young and old. The „character‟ roles can be
divided into masters and servants. Of the masters, three types recurred most frequently; the
„Capitano‟, „Pantalone‟ and „Dottore‟. There are many other minor characters associated with
these major characters:
(i) Capitano: The capitano was one of the lovers, a caricature of the professional soldier and
unexaggerated in manners and dress. However, he was transformed into a braggart and
coward who boasted of his great powers in love and battle, only to be completely
discredited in both. The sword, cape and feathered headdress were standard features of
his costume, though the degree of stylization varied considerably.
(ii) Pantalone: Patalone was always a middle aged caricature of the venetian merchant, rich
and retired, mean and miserably with a young wife and adventurous daughter. He spoke
in a Venetian dialect, was fond of proverbs and inspite of his age, often posed as a young
man and courted one of the young women. Typically, his costume included a tight fitting
red vest, red breeches and stockings, soft slippers, a black, ankle-length coat, a soft
brimless cap with trailing wisps of hair, a brown mask with a large hooked nose and a
straggling grey beard.
(iii) Dottore: Dottore was usually Pantalone‟s friend and. a caricature of learning pompous
and fraudulent. He held an established place in society. He was a pedant usually a
Doctor of law or Medicine. He loved to show his spurious learning, but was often tricked
by others because off of his extreme credulousness. His dress was the academic cap and
gown.
(iv) Innamorati: He was young lover and went by many names. He wore no mask and had to
be eloquent in order to speak the love declamations.

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(v) Innamorata: Inamorata was innamorato‟s female counter part. Her servant usually called
„Columbina‟, was the beloved of Harlequin.
(vi) Arlecchino (Harlequin): He was the most famous. He was an acrobat and a wit, childlike
and amorous. He wore a cat-like mask and motley coloured clothes and carried a bat or
wooden sword.
(vii) Brighella: Arlecctinos crony, was more roguish and sophisticated, a cowardly villain
who would do anything for money.
(viii) Pulcinella: Pulcinella was a dwarsh humback, with a crooked nose, the cruel bachelor
who chased pretty girls.
(ix) Scarramuccia: Scarramuccia was the robinhood of his days and dressed in black and
carrying a pointed sword.
(x) Zanni: Servant characters called „Zanni‟ and Innamorati (Innamorato and Innamorata)
seek assistance from zanni. Zanni, with cunning intervention bring the play to happy
conclusion.
(xi) Pedrolino: was a white faced moon struck drummer and forerunner of today‟s clown.
(xii) La Rufana: was an old woman either the mother or a village gossip, who thwarted the
lovers.
In addition to these common types, many other servants and incidental characters are listed in
the scripts, for each troup tended to develop its own variations on the traditional approach.

History of Commedia dell’arte

Although „commedia dell‟arte‟ flourished in Italy during the Mannerist period, there has been a
long-standing tradition of trying to establish historical antecedents in antiquity. Many
influences probably contributed to its development Some date the origins to the period of the
Roman Republic of the empire. The Atellian Farces of the Roman Empire featured crude „types‟
wearing masks with grossly exaggerated features. More recent accounts establish links to the
medieval Jongleurs and prototypes from medieval moralities, such as Hellequin (as the source
of Hellequin).

The first recorded „commedia dell‟arte‟ performances come from Rome as early as 1551.
„Commedia dell‟arte‟ was performed outdoors in temporary venues by professional actors who
were costumed and masked, as opposed to commedia erudite, which were written comedies,
presentable indoors by untrained and unmasked actors. By the mid-16th century, specific
troupes of commedia performers began to coalesce, and by 1568 the Gelosi became a distinct
company. By 1650, Italy had evolved the dramatic types, critical principles, and theatrical
practices that were to dominate the European theatre for the next 150 years.

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In France, during the reign of Louis XIV, the commedia-Italienne created a repertoire and
delineated new masks and characters, while deleting some of the Italian precursors, such as
Pantalone. French playwrights, particularly Moliere, gleaned from the plots and masks in
creating an indigenous treatment. Indeed, Moliere shared the stage with the commedie-
Italienne at Petit-Bourhon and some of his forms. E.g. the tirade, are derivative from the
commedia (tirata). Commedia dell‟arte moved outside the city limits to the theatre de la foire or
fair theatres, in the early 17th century as it evolved towards a more pantomimed style. With the
dispatch of the Italian comedians from France in 1697, the form transmogrield in the 18th
century as genres such as comedie larmoyante gained in attraction in France, particularly
through the plays of Tierre de Marivaux. Marivaux softened the commedia considerable by
bringing in true emotions to the stage. Harlequin achieved more prominence during this period.
The commedia was most vigorous between 1550 and 1650, the period of the most famous
troupes. The commedia continued until about 1775 but never registered the prestige it
commanded prior to 1650.

Although it was always most popular in Italy, France was a second home, and troupes often
traveled in Spain, Germany, Austria and England-wherever they went, they influenced native
actors and writers. The neoclassical ideal classically inspired comedy and tragedy, opera,
commedia dell‟arte, theatre architecture, perspective scenery, indoor lighting techniques,
complex special effects and stage machinery all of these were to find their way to other
countries, where they would be assimilated and adopted to local needs.

Summary
 Elizabeth I, a strong monarch returned England to Protestantism and unified the nation. Her support of the
arts sparked a surge of activity in theatre.
 The plays were as popular as films are now.
 The court watched the same plays the commoners saw in the public places.
 Many theatres were built during this time.
a) Outdoor or public theatres: Curtain Theatre, The Theatre, the Swan Theatre, The Globe Theatre, Rose
Theatre, Red Bull Theatre, Fortune Theatre, Hope Theatre and Boar’s Head Inn.
b) Indoor or private theatres: Black Friars Theatre, Cockpit Theatres and White Friars Theatre.
 Most Popular Globe Theatre:

a) Six different plays were performed, six days a week.

b) Plays performed in modern dress with no scenery, few props, without using light, sound or stage effects.
c) Generally all actors were male
d) Use of copious quantities of animal blood, fake heads, hands eyes, tongues and limbs were dramatically
cut off onstage.
 Emergence of the Elizabethan theatre.

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Complete the crossword with the help of clues given below:
1
c

4
2 3 b
5 6
p a
7
c o

9
w i a e 10 a

11
d e

y s

Down

1. ________ is a comedy of professional players

2. _______ begins with a prologue

3. Middle aged caricature

4. A cowardly villain who would do anything for money

5. _______ who chased pretty girls

6. ________ was an acrobat and a wit

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8. Its emergence can be traced to ancient rural celebrations in honor of God Dionysus
10. His father was an armour manufacturer

Across
7. ________ was one of the lovers
9. An English playwright and poet
11. Pantalone‟s friend

Comprehension Questions
I. Answer the followings in about 15 words.
1. Describe the development of theatre during the Elizabeth era?
2. What were the kinds of theatre during Elizabethan times?
3. How was English drama during the middle ages?
4. What was Dionysia?
5. Give examples of any 3 plays each of Sophocles and Aeschylus.
II. Answer the followings in about 50 words.
1. Give any three features of Greek plays.
2. Describe the concept of the tragedy in the Greek Theatre.
3. What difference did Aeschylus bring to the theatre?
4. Why was the Roman Theatre termed as a thriving and diverse art form?
5. How did English drama evolve during the rule of Henry VII?
III. Answer the followings in about 75 words.
1. Describe the main features of the Satyr play.
2. Who were the main dramatists of classical Roman Drama? What was their
contribution?
3. Why was the Globe Theatre famous? What were its main features?
4. Who was Ben Jonson? What was his role in Elizabethan Drama?
IV. Answer the followings in about 150 words.
1. Distinguish between the works of Sophocles and Aeshylus with reference to tragedy.
2. What were the main features of comedy?

3. Describe the role Elizabeth-I played in supporting arts and theatre?

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 4. Write briefly about the works of Christopher Marlowe, John Lyly, Thomas Kyd and
Robert Green.

5. Why is Shakespeare regarded as the greatest dramatist in the English language?

V. Answer the followings in about 250 words.

1. Describe Roman Theatre in detail, including its inuence.

2. Describe in details the plays and style of William Shakespeare.

Activities
a) Specify the characteristics of the tragedies of Aeschylus or Sophocles

b) Stage a play by either Shakespeare or Ben Jonson.

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