DC MOTORS

D C machines are electrical machines which deal with the conversion of one form of energy to
another. The process of conversion is called as electromechanical energy conversion.

D.C Generator:-A D.C machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is
called a d.c generator.

Motor:-A D.C machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy is
known as a d.c motor.

Basic principle of D.C machine: - A D.C machine works on the principle of Faradays laws of
electromagnetic induction.

When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, voltage is induced in the conductor. (Generator
action)

When a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a
mechanical force (Motor action)

Basic principle of D.C machine as a generator: - Conductor is moved in a magnetic field such
that it cuts across lines of flux, dynamically induced e.m.f is produced.

The magnitude of this induced e.m.f in the conductor is given by the equation

E=Blvsinș

Where, l=length of the portion of the conductor in the magnetic field

v= velocity of the conductor

B=magnetic flux density

ș= Angle between direction of movement of the conductor in the magnetic field and the direction
of magnetic flux

The e.m.f induced in the conductor causes a current to flow in the conductor if the circuit is
closed. Thus, electrical power develops in the conductor. If the conductor does not move or if it
is moved parallel to the lines of flux, no e.m.f induced in it, and hence no power is generated.
Hence it is clear that, for generation of e.m.f there should be relative motion between the
conductor and magnetic field.

For the generating action must have the following requirements

i) The conductor or coil

ii) The flux
iii) The relative motion between the conductor and flux
The direction of the induced e.m.f is given by Fleming‟s right hand rule

Fleming's right-hand rule (for generators):- shows the direction of induced e.m.f(current)
when a conductor moves in a magnetic field.

The right hand is held with the thumb, first finger and second finger mutually perpendicular to
each other (at right angles)
The Thumb represents the direction of Motion of the conductor
First finger represents the direction of the Field or Flux. (north to south)
The Second finger represents the direction of the induced or generated Current (the
direction of the induced current or e.m.f will be the direction of conventional current;
from positive to negative).
Classification of Generators:-

Generators are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are excited. The field
windings provide the excitation necessary to set up the magnetic fields in the machine. There are
various types of field windings that can be used in the generator or motor circuit. In addition to
the following field winding types, permanent magnet fields are used on some smaller DC
products. Generators may be divided in to

(a) Separately-excited generators and

(b) Self-excited generators
(a) Separately-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized from an
independent external source of DC current

Fig: Separately-excited generator

Armature current Ia=IL\

Terminal voltage V=Eg-IaRa volts

Power developed P=EgIa watts

Power delivered to the load =EgIa-Ia2Ra=Ia(Eg-IaRa)=VIa watt

(b) Self-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized by the current produced
by the generators themselves. Due to residual magnetism, there is always present someflux in the
poles. When the armature is rotated, some e.m.f and hence some induced current is produced
which is partly or fully passed through the field coils thereby strengthening the residual pole
flux.

Self-excited generators are classed according to the type of field connection they use.
Fig: Self-excited generators

There are three general types of field connections.

(a)Series-Wound,

(b)Shunt- Wound (parallel),

(c)Compound- Wound

Compound-wound generators are further classified as cumulative-compound and differential-

compound.

Series-wound generator: - In the series-wound generator, shown in figure, the field windings
are connected in series with the armature. Current that flows in the armature flows through the
external circuit and through the field windings. The external circuit connected to the generator is
called load circuit.

A series-wound generator uses very low resistance field coils, which consist of a few turns of
large diameter wire.
Fig: Series-wound generator

The voltage output increases as the load circuit starts drawing more current. Under low-load
current conditions, the current that flows in the load and through the generator is small. Since
small current means that a small magnetic field is set up by the field poles, only a small voltage
is induced in the armature. If the resistance of the load decreases, the load current increases.
Under this condition, more current flows through the field. This increases the magnetic field and
increases the output voltage. A series-wound dc generator has the characteristic that the output
voltage varies with load current. This is undesirable in most applications. For this reason, this
type of generator is rarely used in everyday practice.

Armature current Ia=Ise=IL=I

Terminal voltage V=Eg-I(Ra+Rse)

Power developed P=EgIa

Power delivered to the load= EgIa-I2(Ra+Rse)=I[Eg-I(Ra+Rse)]=VI

Shunt wound: - In this field winding is connected in parallel with the armature conductors and
have the full voltage of the generator applied across them.The field coils consist of many turns of
small wire. They are connected in parallel with the load. In other words, they are connected
across the output voltage of the armature.
Fig: Shunt wound

Current in the field windings of a shunt-wound generator is independent of the load current
(currents in parallel branches are independent of each other). Since field current, and therefore
field strength, is not affected by load current, the output voltage remains more nearly constant
than does the output voltage of the series-wound generator.

In actual use, the output voltage in a dc shunt-wound generator varies inversely as load current
varies. The output voltage decreases as load current increases because the voltage drop across the
armature resistance increases (E = IR).

In a series-wound generator, output voltage varies directly with load current. In the shunt-wound
generator, output voltage varies inversely with load current. A combination of the two types can
overcome the disadvantages of both. This combination of windings is called the compound-
wound dc generator.

Armature current Ia=IL+Ish

Shunt field current Ish=(V/Rsh)

Terminal voltage V=Ish Rsh

Power delivered P=Eg Ia

Power given to the load =VIL

Compound-wound generator:-

Compound-wound generators have a series-field winding in addition to a shunt-field winding, as

shown in fig. The shunt and series windings are wound on the same pole pieces. They can be
either short-shunt or long shunt as shown in figures. In a compound generator, the shunt field is
stronger than the series field. When series field aids the shunt field, generator is said to be
commutatively-compounded. On the other hand if series field opposes the shunt field, the
generator is said to be differentially compounded.

In the compound-wound generator when load current increases, the armature voltage decreases
just as in the shunt-wound generator. This causes the voltage applied to the shunt-field winding
to decrease, which results in a decrease in the magnetic field. This same increase in load current,
since it flows through the series winding, causes an increase inthe magnetic field produced by
that winding.

By proportioning the two fields so that the decrease in the shunt field is just compensated by the
increase in the series field, the output voltage remains constant. This is shown in figure, which
shows the voltage characteristics of the series-, shunt-, and compound-wound generators. As you
can see, by proportioning the effects of the two fields (series and shunt), a compound-wound
generator provides a constant output voltage under varying load conditions. Actual curves are
seldom, if ever, as perfect as shown.
Short shunt compound wound generator:-

Series field current Ise=IL

Shunt field current Ish=(V+Ise Rse)/Rsh

Terminal voltage V=Eg-Ia Ra-Ise Rse

Power delivered P=Eg Ig

Power given to the load =VIL

Long shunt compound wound generator:-

Series field current Ise=IL=Ia=Ish+IL

Shunt field current Ish=(V/Rsh)

Terminal voltage V=Eg-Ia(Ra+Rse)

Power delivered P=Eg Ig

Power given to the load =VIL

Construction
Fig: DC Generator

Yoke: The outer frame or yoke serves double purpose: (i) It provides mechanical support for the
poles and acts as a protecting cover for the whole machine. (ii) It carries the magnetic flux
produced by the poles. In small generators where cheapness rather than weight is the main
consideration, yokes are made of cast iron. But for large machines usually cast steel or rolled
steel is employed.

Pole Cores and Pole Shoes: The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. The pole
shoes serve two purposes: (i) They spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger
cross-section, reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path. (ii) They support the exciting coils (or
field coils) as shown below.

Pole Coils: The field coils or pole coils, which consist of copper wire or strip, are former-wound
for the correct dimension. Then, the former is removed and wound coil is put into place over the
core. When current is passed through these coils, they electro magnetize the poles which produce
the necessary flux that is cut by revolving armature conductors.
Armature Core: It houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and hence
cut the magnetic flux of the field magnets. In addition to this, its most important function is to
provide a path of very low reluctance to the flux through the armature from a N-pole to a S-pole.
It is cylindrical or drum-shaped and is built up of usually circular sheet steel discs or laminations
approximately 0.5 mm thick. The slots are either die-cut or punched on the outer periphery of the
disc and the keyway is located on the inner diameter as shown. In small machines, the armature
stampings are keyed directly to the shaft. Usually, these laminations are perforated for air ducts
which permit axial flow of air through the armature for cooling purposes. The purpose of using
laminations is to reduce the loss due to eddy currents. Thinner the laminations, greater is the
resistance offered to the induced emf, smaller the current and hence lesser the I2 R loss in the
core.

Armature Windings: The armature windings are usually former-wound. These are first wound in
the form of flat rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller.
Various conductors of the coils are insulated from each other. The conductors are placed in the
armature slots which are lined with tough insulatingmaterial. This slot insulation is folded over
above the armature conductors placed in the slot and is secured in place by special hard wooden
or fiber wedges.

Commutator: The functions of the commutator are to facilitate collection of current from the
armature conductors, and to convert the alternating current induced in the armature conductors
into unidirectional current in the external load circuit. It is of cylindrical structure and is built up
of wedge-shaped segments of high-conductivity hard-drawn or drop forged copper. These
segments are insulated from each other by thin layers of mica. The number of segments is equal
to the number of armature coils. Each commutator segment is connected to the armature
conductor by means of a copper lug or riser. To prevent them from flying out under the action of
centrifugal forces, the segments have V-grooves, these grooves being insulated by conical
micanite rings.

Brushes and Bearings: The brushes, whose function is to collect current from commutator, are
usually made of carbon or graphite and are in the shape of a rectangular block. These brushes are
housed in brush-holders, the brush-holder is mounted on a spindle and the brushes can slide in
the rectangular box open at both ends. The brushes are made to bear down on the commutator by
a spring. A flexible copper pigtail mounted at the top of the brush conveys current from the
brushes to the holder. The number of brushes per spindle depends on the magnitude of the
current to be collected from the commutator.

Because of their reliability, ball-bearings are frequently employed, though for heavy duties,
roller bearings are preferable. The ball and rollers are generally packed in hard oil for quieter
operation and for reduced bearing wear, sleeve bearings are used which are lubricated by ring
oilers fed from oil reservoir in the bearing bracket.

E.M.F Equation of DC Generator:

Let, f = Flux / pole in webers

Change in flux d ϕ = P ϕ webers
Z = Total number armature conductors

= Number of slots x Number of conductors per slot

P = Number of poles

A = Number of parallel paths in the armature.

N = Rotational speed of armature in revolutions per minute (r.p.m)

Time taken to complete one revolution = 60/N sec.

E = e.m.f induced / parallel path in armature.

By Faraday‟s law
For a Simplex Wave-Wound Generator

Number of parallel paths A = 2

For Simplex Lap-Wound Generator:

Number of parallel paths, A = P

Equation (i) becomes

Armature Reaction

The action of magnetic field set up by armature current on the distribution of flux under main
poles of a DC machine is called the armature reaction.

When the armature of a DC machines carries current, the distributed armature winding produces
its own mmf. The machine air gap is now acted upon by the resultant mmf distribution caused by
the interaction of field ampere turns (ATf) and armature ampere turns (ATa). As a result the air
gap flux density gets distorted.
Figure (a) Figure (b)

Figure (c) Figure (d)

Figure (a) shows a two pole machine with single equivalent conductor in each slot and the main
field mmf (Fm) acting alone. The axis of the main poles is called the direct axis (d-axis) and the
inter polar axis is called quadrature axis (q-axis). It can be seen from the Figure (b) that ATa is
along the inter polar axis as shown. ATa which is at 900 to the main field axis is known as cross
magnetizing mmf. Figure (b) shows the armature mmf (FA) acting alone.
Figure (c) shows the practical condition in which a DC machine operates. Both the main flux i.e.,
ATf (Field mmf) and ATa (armature mmf) are existing. Because of both mmf acting
simultaneously, there is a shift in brush axis and crowding of flux lines at the trailing pole tip and
flux lines are weakened or thinned at the leading pole tip. (The pole tip which is first met in the
direction of rotation by the armature conductor is leading pole tip. (The pole tip which is first
met in the direction of rotation by the armature conductor is leading pole tip and the other is
trailing pole tip)

If the iron in the magnetic circuit is assumed unsaturated, the net flux/pole remains unaffected by
the armature reaction though the air gap flux density distribution gets distorted. If the main pole
excitation is such that the iron is in the saturated region of magnetization (practical case) the
increase in flux density at one end of the poles caused by armature reaction is less than the
decrease at the other end, so that there is a net reduction in the flux/pole. This is called the
demagnetizing effect. Thus it can be summarized that the nature of armature reaction in a DC
machine is

(i) Cross magnetizing with its axis along the q-axis.

(ii) It causes no change in flux/pole if the iron is unsaturated but causes reduction in
flux/pole in the presence of iron saturation. This is termed as demagnetizing effect.
The resultant mmf „F‟ is shown in figure (d)
The cross magnetizing effect of the armature reaction can be reduced by making the main field
ampere-turns larger compared to the armature ampere-turns such that the main field mmf exerts
predominant control over the air gap. This is achieved by

(i) Introducing saturation in the teeth and pole shoe.

(ii) By chamfering the pole shoes which increases the air gap at the pole tips. This increases the
reluctance to the path of main flux but its influence on the cross-flux is much greater.

(iii) The best and most expensive method is to compensate the armature reaction mmf by a
compensating winding located in the pole-shoes and carrying a suitable current.
Commutation

The process of reversal of current in the short circuited armature coil is called „Commutation‟.
This process of reversal takes place when coil is passing through the interpolar axis (q-axis), the
coil is short circuited through commutator segments. Commutation takes place simultaneously
for „P‟ coils in a lap-wound machine and two coil sets of P/2 coils each in a wave-wound
machine.

The process of commutation of coil „B‟ is shown below. In figure (a) coil „B‟ carries current
from left to right and is about to be short circuited in figure (b) brush has moved by 1/3 rd of its
width and the brush current supplied by the coil are as shown. In figure (c)coil „B‟ carries no
current as the brush is at the middle of the short circuit period and the brush current in supplied
by coil C and coil A. In figure (d) the coil B which was carrying current from left to right carries
current from right to left. In fig (e) spark is shown which is due to the reactance voltage. As the
coil is embedded in the armature slots, which has high permeability, the coil possess appreciable
amount of self-inductance. The current is changed from +I to –I. So due to self-inductance and
variation in the current from +I to –I, a voltage is induced in the coil which is given by L dI/dt.
Fig (f) shows the variation of current plotted on the time axis. Sparking can be avoided by the
use of interpoles or commutating-poles.
Fig (a)

Fig (b)
Fig(c)

Fig (d)
Fig (e)

Fig (f)
INTERPOLES OR COMPOLES

These are small poles fixed to the yoke and placed in

between the main poles as shown in figure,they are wound
with few turns of heavy gauge copper wire and are
connected in series with the armature so that they carry full
armature current. Their polarity in case of generator is that
of the main pole ahead in the direction of rotation. The
function of interpoles is (i) to induce an emf which is equal
and opposite to that of reactance emf thereby making
commutation sparkles. (ii) Interpoles neutralize the cross
magnetizing effect of armature reaction in fig. „OF‟ represents mmf due to main poles and „OA‟
represents the cross magnetizing mmf due to armature. „BC‟ represents mmf due to Interpoles
and is in opposite to that of „OA‟ resulting in the cancellation of cross magnetization.

Basic principle of D.C machine as a motor:-For clear understanding the principle of DC

motor we have to determine the magnitude of the force, by considering the diagram below.

We know that when an infinitely small charge dq is made to flow at a velocity „v‟ under the
influence of an electric field E, and a magnetic field B, then the Lorentz Force dF experienced by
the charge is given by

Fig1
dF=dq(E+vB)

For the operation of dc motor, considering E = 0

dF=dq(v×B)

Where dL is the length of the conductor carrying charge q.

dF=dq(v×B)

F=IL×B=ILBsinș

F=BILsinș

From the 1st diagram we can see that the construction of a DC motor is such that the direction of
current through the armature conductor at all instance is perpendicular to the field. Hence the
force acts on the armature conductor in the direction perpendicular to the both uniform field and
current is constant.

i.e. ș=900

So if we take the current in the left hand side of the armature conductor to be I, and current at
right hand side of the armature conductor to be − I, because they are flowing in the opposite
direction with respect to each other.

Then the force on the left hand side armature conductor,

Fi=BILsin900=BIL

Similarly force on the right hand side conductor

FT=B(-I)Lsin900= -BIL

where, F = Force in Newtons

B = Flux density in Weber/ meter2

 I = Current in amperes flowing through the conductor

L = Length of the conductor in meters

By Fleming’s left hand rule:-It states that “when the thumb, fore finger and middle finger are
held mutually perpendicular to each other, with the fore finger in the direction of magnetic field,
middle finger in the direction of the current, then the direction of thumb indicates the direction of
force experienced by the conductor”.

Types of DC Motors: -Separately Excited DC Motor: - As the name suggests, in case of a

separately excited DC motor the supply is given separately to the field and armature windings.
The main distinguishing fact in these types of dc motor is that, the armature current does not
flow through the field windings, the field winding is energized from a separate external source.

From the torque equation of dc motor we know Tg = Ka φ Ia So the torque in this case can be
varied by varying field flux φ, independent of the armature current Ia.

Self-Excited DC Motor:-In case of self-excited dc motor, the field winding is connected either
in series or in parallel or partly in series, partly in parallel to the armature winding, and on this
basis its further classified as

(1) DC Shunt Motor

(2) DC Series Motor
(3) DC Compound Motor

(i) Cumulative Compound Motor

(a) Long shunt

(b) Short shunt

(ii) Differential Compound Motor

(a) Long shunt

 (b) Short shunt

DC Shunt Motor: -In this type of motor, the field winding is connected in parallel with
armature as shown in Figure (a). There are as many number of field coils as there are poles.
When connected to supply, constant voltage appears across the field windings (as they are
connected in parallel with armature). The field current is therefore constant and is independent of
the load current.

Shunt field winding usually are designed to have large number of turns of fine wire. Its
resistance, therefore, is high enough to limit the shunt field current to about 1 to 4 percent of the
rated motor current

Ish = V/Rsh and

Ia= I – Ish.

where I is the line current

Eb = V – Ia Ra – B.C.D – A.R.D

where B.C.D is brush contact drop(1 V/brush, A.R.D is the armature reaction drop
DC Series Motor: -A series motor receives its excitation from a winding which is connected in
series with the armature and carries load current. As the series field has to carry high load
current, it is made of a thick wire and a few turns. As the resistance is low, the voltage drop
across the series winding is small.

This motor has excellent starting and over-load torque characteristics. The disadvantages are that
the motor attains dangerously high speed at no-load. Speed adjustment of the motor is somewhat
difficult.

Ia = I = Ise

Eb = V – Ia (Ra +Rse) – B.C.D – A.R.D.

DC Compound Motor: -In compound motors excitation results from combined action of both
shunt field winding and series field winding. In the short-shunt connection, which is sometimes
used, the shunt field is directly connected in parallel with the armature, in which case, the series
field current is the same as the line current. Excitation of a compound motor is a combination of
series and shunt excitation. The motor, therefore, has mixed characteristic between that of a
series motor and a shunt motor. These motors behaves somewhat better than a shunt motor from
the point of view of starting and overload torque; and has definite stable no-load speed like a
shunt motor. Speed of this motor is adjustable as easily as that of a shunt motor. It‟s speed,
however, tends to change as much as 25 percent between full-load and no-load due to the effect
of series winding.

Differential compound motor

Cumulative compound motor

Back EMF (Eb):When the voltage V is applied to the motor, current Ia will flow through the
armature and Ish will flow through the field of the motor which will set the flux causing EMF.
The EMF developed in the armature opposes the applied voltage and hence it is called the back
e.m.f (Eb).
The applied voltage V has to drive current through the armature conductors against the
opposition of the back E.M.F and hence work has to be done. It is in the form of mechanical
power developed by the armature. The armature current Ia is given by eq(1)

(1)

Torque Equation:-

Torque is the turning moment about its axis. It is also equal to Force x Distance

Consider the armature of the DC Motor of radius r and let F be the force acting tangential to its
surface as shown in figure.

Therefore, Torque = Ta = F x r in Newton meter--------------------- (1)

The work done by this force F in one revolution

W = F x distance covered in revolution.

\W = F x 2πr watt second.

The power developed by the armature = work done in one second.

= F x r x 2π N / 60 where N = No of revolutions / minute

= (2πN / 60) x Ta watts

But power developed in the armature =Eb Ia

The actual torque or shaft torque (torque available at the shaft) or Useful torque = Tsh = Ta – TL

whereTsh = shaft torque

Ta = armature torque

TL = lost torque due to iron losses and mechanical losses

Output = 2πNTsh/60

Tsh = output x 60 / 2πN

If output is in Horse Power,

Tsh = output in H.P x 735.5/(2πN/60) N-M

Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor:

(a) Ta/Ia characteristics (electrical characteristics):- As assumed that flux ϕ is constant in the
shunt machine

Ta𝖺Ia
This implies that the characteristic is a straight line. Larger armature current is required to start a
heavy load. Therefore a shunt motor should not be started on heavy load.

(b) N/Ia characteristics:-

N𝖺 (Eb/ϕ), As ϕ is assumed to be constant, N𝖺Eb. As Ebis also practically constant, the speed is
constant.

The characteristic does not have a point of zero armature current, because a small current is
necessary to maintain the rotation of motor at no-load.

As there is no change in the speed of shunt motor, during the transition from no load to full load,
it may be connected to loads which can be suddenly disconnected without fear of excessive
speeding.

(c) N/Ta characteristics or mechanical characteristics:-

The values of N and Ta for various armature currents Ia is shown. The speed falls as the load
torque increases.

The N/Ta characteristic is of great importance in determining which type of motor is best suited
to drive a given load.
Characteristics of series motor

(a) Torque vs. armature current characteristic

Since T α Ia 2 in the linear zone and Tα Ia in the saturation zone, the T vs. Ia characteristic is as
shown in fig.

At light loads, Ia and hence ϕ is small, but as Ia increases, Ta increases as the square of the
current in a parabolic manner till the point of saturation A is reached.
After saturation ϕ is practically independent of Ia, hence Ta α Ia and so that the characteristic
becomes straight line.

(b) Speed vs. armature current

The changes in speed can be determined from the formula

Nα (Eb/ϕ)
variation of Eb for different load currents is negligible that Eb may be treated as a constant. If Ia is
increased, flux ϕ too increases. So speed is inversely proportional to the armature current.
When there is heavy load Ia is large. But when the load and consequently Ia decreases to a low
value, the speed becomes dangerously high. Hence, a series motor should invariably be started
with some mechanical load on it, to prevent excessive speed and damage due to heavy
centrifugal forces produced.

(c) )Speed vs. Torque characteristic

The speed vs torque characteristic of a series motor is shown. From the curve, it is apparent that
the series motor develops a high torque at low speed and vice versa. This is because an increase
in torque requires an increase in armature current, which is also the field current. The result is
that the flux is strengthened and hence speed drops. Similarly, at low torque, the motor speed is
high.

Characteristics of DC Compound Motor:

In the cumulative compound motor as Ia increases, flux Фse increases but the shunt field current

Ish and ϕsh remain constant and total flux increases.

 Ta𝖺ϕIa

Fig(A)

As the armature current is increased, the series flux increases, thus increasing the total flux of the
motor. As a result of this, the torque is increased. The increase of torque Ta with armature current
is shown by a Ta/Ia characteristic curve OA. This increase of Ta with Ia is greater than what it is
in the case of shunt motor (dotted curve OB) less than what it is in the case of series motor
develops a high torque with sudden increase in load.

Fig (B) Fig (C)

We have just discussed that, with the increase of Ia, the series flux and hence total flux increases.
This leads to decrease in motor speed, starting from a particular value given by the point A at no-
load. The variation of N with Ia is given by the characteristic AB in fig (B). Again, the decrease
in speed is greater than what it would be in the case of a shunt motor (given by the dotted curve
AC), but less than what it would be in the case of a series motor.

As series excitation assists shunt excitation, the N/Ta characteristic curve AB will lie between
that of a shunt motor(dotted line AC) and of a series motor(dotted line AD)

Applications of DC Motors:

(1) DC Shunt Motor: When constant speed is required DC shunt motors are used.

Example: Lathes, Centrifugal pumps, fans, drilling machines. etc.

(2) DC Series Motor: For high starting torque we prefer DC series motor. Example: Electric
traction, electric locomotive, cranes, hoists, conveyors etc.

(3) DC Compound Motor: When we require constant speed and high starting torque Cumulative
compound motors are preferred. Example: shears, punches, coal cutting machine, elevators,
conveyors, printing presses etc. Differential compound motors have no practical applications
(being unstable).

Necessity of Starter

We know armature current in a d.c motor is given by

Ia = (V – Eb) / Ra, at starting, Eb= 0, therefore Ia = V/Ra

At the instant of starting, rotor speed n = 0, hence starting armature current is (Ia)st= (V/Ra)
Since, armature resistance is quite small, starting current may be quite high (many times larger
than the rated current). A large machine, characterized by large rotor inertia (J), will pick up
speed rather slowly. Thus the level of high starting current may be maintained for quite some
time so as to cause serious damage to the brush/commutator and to the armature winding. Also
the source should be capable of supplying this burst of large current. The other loads already
connected to the same source, would experience a dip in the terminal voltage, every time a D.C
motor is attempted to start with full voltage. This dip in supply voltage is caused due to sudden
rise in voltage drop in the source's internal resistance. The duration for which this drop in voltage
will persist once again depends on inertia (size) of the motor.

Hence, for small D.C motors extra precaution may not be necessary during starting as large
starting current will very quickly die down because of fast rise in the back emf. However, for
large motor, a starter is to be used during starting.

3- POINT STARTER

Fig: 3 point starter

• L, F, A are the three terminals of the starter, to which external connections are made.

• R is the starting resistance, which is divided into various studs.

• To start the motor, close the supply switch and the brass arm L is moved to the right to touch
stud no.1 of R.

• It also touches the brass arc, thus current will flow through shunt field winding as well as the
armature.

• The motor starts rotating, the starting arm is moved gradually and completely when the speed is
above 50% of its rated speed.
• Speed can be increased by field rheostat Rh if required.

• As long as motor is running and the supply is on, the brass arm L is held in the ON position by
the electromagnet E.

There are two protective devices in the starter; one is the electromagnet, (hold on coil).

• Under running condition when the power fails electromagnet E de-energizes and the spring S
attached to the brass arm pulls back to OFF position.

• The electromagnet E also prevents the motor from reaching dangerously high speed, when the
field circuit is opened under running condition. The second protective device is an electromagnet
M which, is known as the “over load release” (Over load protection).

• When the current increases beyond the rated value, M attracts D; thereby short circuiting the
electromagnet E. The electromagnet E gets de- energized and hence the arm L is pulled back to
OFF position.

• This starter is normally used for starting D.C shunt motors.

Problems

1) A 6 pole lap wound dc generator has 51 slots, each slot has 18 conductors. The useful
flux per pole is 35 mwb. Find the generated emf in the armature, if it is driven at a speed
of 750 rpm.

Given: P = 6
A = P (lap wound)
Number of slots = 51
Conductors/slot = 18
Total No. of conductors = 51* 18 = Z
ϕ= 35mwb; N = 750 rpm,
emf generated
 = 401.6 volts.
2) An 8 pole d.c. generator has 650 armature conductors. The flux per pole is 20 mWb. Find
the value of emf generated when the armature is wave wound and is rotating at a speed of
1200 rpm. What must be speed at which the armature is to be driven to generate the same
emf, if the armature is lap wound.
generate the same emf, if the armature is lap wound.
Given: P = 8;
A = 2 (wave wound)
No. of conductors = 650
ϕ = 20 mWb; N = 1200 rpm,
emf generated

To find the speed of armature, when it is lap wound,

3) A d.c series motor is running with a speed 800 rpm while taking a current of 20 A from
the supply. If the load is changed such that the current drawn by the motor is increased to
50A, calculate the speed of the motor on new load. The armature and series field winding
resistances are 0.2 ohm and 0.3 ohm respectively. Assume that the flux produced is
proportional to the current. Assume the supply voltage as 250 V.
For load 1, N1 = 800 rpm, I1 = Ia1 = 20 A
For load 2, I1 = Ia2 = 50 A
Eb1 = 240 V .......................... (Eb1 = V – Ia1 (Ra + Rse))
Eb2 = 225 V .......................... (Eb2 = V – Ia2 (Ra + Rse))
 N2 = 300 rpm.
4) The armature current of a series motor is 60 A when on full load. If the load is adjusted
so that this current decreases to 40 A, find the new torque expressed as a percentage of
full load torque. The flux for a current of 40 A is 70% of that when the current is 60 A.

T𝖺ϕIa,
i) Full load torque = Tfl = ϕ x 60
ii) T40 = 0.7 ϕ x 40

Tfl/ T40 = 60 ϕ/ (0.7 ϕx 40)

T40 = 0.4667 Tfl
Torque at 40 A is 46.67% of full load torque
5) A 4 pole 250 V d.c. shunt motor has a back emf of 240.8 V and takes a current of 20 A.
Calculate the power developed. Take the resistance of the field winding as 250 ohms.
P=4
V = 250 V
Eb= 240.8 V
IL = 20A
Rsh= 250 ohms
Power developed = EbIa
Ia = IL – Ish and
Ish = V/Rsh
Ish = 250/250 =1 A
Ia = 20 – 1 = 19 A.
Power developed =240.8 x 19 = 4572.8 W.
6) A 230 V dc series motor takes 12 A and runs at 800 rpm. At what speed will it run, when
10 ohm resistance is connected in series with the armature the motor taking the same
current at the same supply voltage. Take Ra and Rse of the motor as 0.5 ohm each.
 V = 230 V
IL = Ia = Ise = 12 A
Ra = Rse =
0.5 ohms Eb1
= V – IseRse-IaRa.
= 230 - 12 x 0.5 - 12 x 0.5 = 218.
When 10-ohm resistance is connected in series with the
armature, then Eb2 = V – Ise (Rse + Ra + 10)
= 230 - 12(0.5 + 10 + 0.5) = 98 V.
Let N2 be the corresponding
speed then Eb2/Eb1=(N2/N1) x
(f1/f2)
Sin
ce f1 = f2
N2 = (Eb2/Eb1) xN1
N2 = 98 x 800/218 =359.6 rpm.

Note:-Figures are taken from Basic electrical science Dayananda SagarCollege

of Engineering and Different generators from internet.

Introduction to BLDC Motors ( Brushless DC Motors)

 Definition : A brushless DC motor consists of a rotor in form of a permanent magnet and stator in form of
polyphase armature windings. It differs from conventional dc motor in such that it doesn’t contains brushes
and the commutation is done using electrically, using a electronic drive to feed the stator windings.

Basically a BLDC motor can be constructed in two ways- by placing the rotor outside the core and the
windings in the core and another by placing the windings outside the core. In the former arrangement, the
rotor magnets act as a insulator and reduce the rate of heat dissipation from the motor and operates at low
current. It is typically used in fans. In the latter arrangement, the motor dissipates more heat, thus causing an
increase in its torque. It is used in hard disk drives.

Figure below represents the outer and inner rotor of BLDC

BLDC Motor

Principle of Working
The principles for the working of a BLDC motors are the same as for a brushed DC motor, i.e., the internal
shaft position feedback. In case of a brushed DC motor, feedback is implemented using a mechanical
commutator and brushes. Within BLDC motor, it is achieved using multiple feedback sensors. In BLDC motors
we mostly use Hall-effect sensor, whenever rotor magnetic poles pass near the hall sensor, they generate a
HIGH or LOW level signal, which can be used to determine the position of the shaft. If the direction of the
magnetic field is reversed, the voltage developed will reverse too.

Control unit is implemented by microelectronic has several high-tech choices. This may be implemented using
a micro-controller, a dedicated micro-controller, a hard-wired microelectronic unit, a PLC or similar other unit.

Advantages of Brushless DC Motors

• Better speed versus torque characteristics

• High dynamic response
• High efficiency
• Long operating life due to a lack of electrical and friction losses
• Noiseless operation
• Higher speed ranges

Applications of Brushless DC Motors

• Consumer electronics
• Transport
• Heating and ventilation
• Industrial engineering
• Model engineering
 Problems

1) A d.c series motor is running with a speed 800 rpm while taking a current of 20 A from the
supply. If the load is changed such that the current drawn by the motor is increased to 50A,
calculate the speed of the motor on new load. The armature and series field winding resistances
are 0.2 ohm and 0.3 ohm respectively. Assume that the flux produced is proportional to the
current. Assume the supply voltage as 250 V.
For load 1, N1 = 800 rpm, I1 = Ia1 = 20 A For
load 2, I1 = Ia2 = 50 A
Eb1 = 240 V ………………(Eb1 = V – Ia1 (Ra + Rse))
Eb2 = 225 V ..........................(Eb2 = V – Ia2 (Ra + Rse))

N2 = 300 rpm.
2) The armature current of a series motor is 60 A when on full load. If the load is adjusted so that
this current decreases to 40 A, find the new torque expressed as a percentage of full load
torque. The flux for a current of 40 A is 70% of that when the current is 60 A.

T∝ϕIa,

i) Full load torque = Tfl = ϕ x 60

ii) T40 = 0.7 ϕ x 40

Tfl/ T40 = 60 ϕ/ (0.7 ϕx 40)

T40 = 0.4667 Tfl
Torque at 40 A is 46.67% of full load torque
3) A 4 pole 250 V d.c. shunt motor has a back emf of 240.8 V and takes a current of 20 A.
Calculate the power developed. Take the resistance of the field winding as 250 ohms.
P=4
V = 250 V
Eb= 240.8 V
IL = 20A
 Rsh= 250 ohms
Power developed = EbIa Ia
= IL – Ish and
Ish = V/Rsh
Ish = 250/250 =1 A Ia
= 20 – 1 = 19 A.
Power developed =240.8 x 19 = 4572.8 W.
4) A 230 V dc series motor takes 12 A and runs at 800 rpm. At what speed will it run, when 10
ohm resistance is connected in series with the armature the motor taking the same current at the
same supply voltage. Take Ra and Rse of the motor as 0.5 ohm each.

V = 230 V
IL = Ia = Ise = 12 A
Ra = Rse = 0.5 ohms
Eb1 = V – IseRse- IaRa.
= 230 - 12 x 0.5 - 12 x 0.5 = 218.
When 10-ohm resistance is connected in series with the armature, then Eb2 =
V – Ise (Rse + Ra + 10)
= 230 - 12(0.5 + 10 + 0.5) = 98 V.
Let N2 be the corresponding speed then
Eb2/Eb1=(N2/N1) x (f1/f2) Since f1 = f2
N2 = (Eb2/Eb1) xN1
N2 = 98 x 800/218 =359.6 rpm.
 STEPPER MOTOR
The stepper motor is a special type of motor which is designed to rotate through a specific angle (called a step)
for each electrical pulse received by its control unit. Typical step sizes are 7.5⁰,15⁰ or larger. The stepper motor
is used in digitally controlled position control systems in open loop mode.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

A stepper motor works under the principle of electromagnetism. A permanent magnet or soft iron is used as
the rotor and is surrounded by electromagnetic stators. The poles of the rotor and stator may be teethed. When
voltage is applied at the terminals, the rotor aligns itself with the stator or moves to have a minimum gap with
the stator due to the magnetic effect. The stators are energized in a sequence and the rotor moves accordingly,
giving a full rotation that is divided into a discrete number of steps with a particular step angle.

CONSTRUCTION OF STEPPER MOTOR:

Stepper motor construction is quite similar to DC motor. It also has a permanent magnet as Rotor. Rotor will
be in the center and will rotate when force is acts on it. This rotor is surrounded by a number of stator which is
wound by magnetic coil all over it.

STEPPER MOTOR STATES FOR MOTION

The above figure is the cross-section view of a single-stack variable-reluctance motor [type of stepper motor].
The stator core is the outer structure and has six poles or teeth. The inner device is called the rotor and has four
poles. Both the stator and rotor are made of soft steel. The stator has three sets of windings as shown in the
figure. Each set has two coils connected in series. A set of windings is called a “phase”. The motor above, using
this designation, is a three-phase motor. Current is supplied from the DC power source to the windings via the
switches I, II, and, III.
Starting with state (1) in the upper left diagram, note that in state (1), the winding of Phase I is supplied with
current through switch I. This is called in technical terms, “phase I is excited”. Arrows on the coil windings
indicate the magnetic flux, which occurs in the air-gap due to the excitation. In state I, the two stator poles on
phase I being excited are in alignment with two of the four rotor teeth. This is an equilibrium state.
Next, switch II is closed to excite phase II in addition to phase I. Magnetic flux is built up at the stator poles of
phase II in the manner shown in state (2), the upper right diagram. A counter-clockwise torque is created due to
the “tension” in the inclined magnetic flux lines. The rotor will begin to move and achieve state (3), the lower
left diagram. In state (3) the rotor has moved 15°.
When switch I is opened to de-energize phase I, the rotor will travel another 15° and reach state (4). The
angular position of the rotor can thus be controlled in units of the step angle by a switching process. If the
switching is carried out in sequence, the rotor will rotate with a stepped motion; the switching process can also
control the average speed.

STEP ANGLE
The step angle, the number of degrees a rotor will turn per step, is calculated as follows:

Advantages of Stepper Motor

The various benefits of the Stepping Motor are as follows:

• The motor is simple in construction, reliable.

• At the standstill condition, the motor has full torque.
• The motors are less costly.
• They require little maintenance.
• The stepper motor has an excellent and accurate starting, stopping, and reversing response.
• It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly coupled to the
shaft.
 • A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional to the frequency of the input
pulses.

Disadvantages of Stepper Motor

The various disadvantages of the stepping motor are as follows:

• The motor uses more current as compared to the DC motor.

• At a higher speed, the value of torque reduces.
• Lower efficiency.
• It has low Accuracy.
• The resonance condition arises and requires micro-stepping.
• At the high speed, control is not possible.
• Resonances can occur if not properly controlled..
• It has low torque to inertia ratio means it can’t accelerate the load very quickly.
• They are noisy

APPLICATIONS

• Stepper motors are used in automated production equipments and automotive gauges and industrial
machines like packaging, labeling, filling and cutting etc.
• It is widely used in security devices such as security & surveillance cameras.
• In medical industry, stepper motors are widely used in samples, digital dental photography, respirators, fluid
pumps, blood analysis machinery and medical scanners etc.
• They are used in consumer electronics in image scanners, photo copier and printing machines and in digital
camera for automatic zoom and focus functions and positions.
• Stepper motors also used in elevators, conveyor belts and lane diverters.

DC MOTORS V/S STEPPER MOTORS

• Stepper motors are operated open loop, while most DC motors are operated closed loop.
• Stepper motors are easily controlled with microprocessors; however logic and drive electronics are more
complex.
• Stepper motors are brushless and brushes contribute several problems,
e.g., wear, sparks, electrical transients.
• DC motors have a continuous displacement and can be accurately Positioned, whereas stepper motor motion
is incremental and its resolution is limited to the step size.
• Stepper motors can slip if overloaded and the error can go undetected. (A few stepper motors use closed-loop
control.)
• Feedback control with DC motors gives a much faster response time compared to stepper motors.
STEPPER MOTOR V/S BLDC MOTORS

SL.NO STEPPER MOTOR BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

1 Stepper motor much Brushless DC motor much higher in
lower in cost cost [compared to stepper motor]
2 Very common Less common
3 Noisy Low Noise
4 Low Efficiency High Efficiency
5 Low power density High power density
6 Low torque inertia High torque inertia ratio
ratio
7 Don’t require sensor Require sensor
[to detect the motor
opposition]
BEE LAB SESSION:

Experimental demonstration of torque speed characteristics of DC motors.

Procedure:

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram

2. Keeping the rheostat R1 in the field circuit of motor in cut-out position, the rheostat R2 in
the armature circuit in cut in position of the motor , the supply switch is closed.
3. The motor is brought to its rated speed by cutting out the rheostat R2 and then by cutting in
the rheostat R1, if necessary.
4. No load readings of all meters and speed are noted down.
5. The motor is loaded by gradually applying the loads. At each load, readings of all the
meters and the speed are noted down.
6. The load on the motor is completely removed; all the rheostats are brought back to their
respective initial positions and the supply switch is opened.

Circuit Diagram:
Tabular column:

Sl.NO Curren Voltag N(Speed S1(i S2(i T=

. t (I) in e ) n n 9.81*r*(S1~S2
amps (V)in in rpm KG) Kg) )
volts Hint: r=10.5cm
in Nm

Expected Graph of torque(T) and Speed (N)

 Result: Speed and Torque characteristics of DC motor is plotted by performing Load test on DC
motor.

SYNCHRONOUSGENERATOR
Introduction:

The machines generating ac emf are called as alternators. Theses work at specific constant speed
called synchronous speed and hence in general called synchronous generators. The main
difference b/w DC generators and alternators is that in alternators the field is rotating while
armature is stationary and the commutator absent.

Principle of Operation:

• Alternator (A.C generator) operates on the basic principle of electromagnetic induction

ie., when a conductor moves across a magnetic field or vice versa, an emf is induced in
the conductor (Dynamically induced emf).

• The magnetic poles are excited by D.C. supply with a source of 125 V or 250 V.

• The exciting current is obtained from small DC Generator which is mounted on the shaft
of the synchronous machine.

• When the rotor is rotated by means of any prime mover the stator conductors are cut by
magnetic field, hence an emf is induced in the stator conductor.

• The frequency of the induced emf is given by f = PN/120 Hz where P is the number of
poles and N is the speed in rpm.

Advantages of Stationary Armature:

1. It is simpler to insulate a stationary armature winding.

2. It is easier to brace armature winding against any deformation.

3. Only two slip rings are required for D.C supply for the rotor circuit.

4. Higher speed of the rotating field is possible.

 5. It is easy to take power out from the stationary armature.

Construction of Alternator:

The alternator consists of two parts: Stator and Rotor. Most of the alternators has stator as
armature and rotor as field.
Stator:

Fig: 4.2.1. Stator of alternator [Ref: www.google.com]

It is stationary part of an alternator and it is built up of sheet steel of thin laminations having slots
on its inner periphery (shown in figure). A three phase star connected winding is placed in the
slots. The neutral of the winding is grounded. Steel is chosen to reduce hysteresis loss and
laminated to reduce eddy current loss.

Rotor: There are two types rotors namely: Salient pole rotor and. Smooth cylindrical rotor

Salient pole rotor:

Fig:4.2.2(a) Salient pole Rotor Fig:4.2.2(b) Smooth cylindrical Rotor

[Ref: DSI ppt]

Salient pole Rotor:

This is known as projected pole type as all the poles are projected out from the surface of the
surface. Poles are made of thick steel laminations and bolted to rotor. These rotors have large
diameter and small axial lengths. Mechanical strength is less, preferred for low speed
alternators(125rpm-500rpm)

Smooth cylindrical rotor: This is known as non-salient type of rotor. The un slotted portions
are the poles and surface is smooth which maintains uniform air gap b/w stator and rotor. These
have small diameters and large axial lengths. Mechanically strong and can be used for high speed
alternators (1500rpm-3000rpm)

Frequency of generated EMF:

If a conductor passes through a pair of poles, a complete cycle of emf will be induced. Let

f = frequency of generated emf, P = no of poles, N = speed in rpm.

Therefore, in one revolution, (P/2) pair of poles sweep past every armature conductor hence (P/2)
emf cycles in one revolution. In one second there are N/60 revolutions of rotor. Therefore,
number of cycles of the induced emf /sec = number of cycles/revolution x No. of revolutions/sec.

(P/2) x (N/60) = PN/120

i.e., f = PN/120 Hz.

EMF Equation of Synchronous Generator:

Let Z = number of conductors in series per phase

P = number of poles

= Flux per pole in webers

f = frequency of induced emf in Hertz.

N = Speed of rotor in rpm

Average emf induced per conductor = d / dt = P / (60 / N) = P N / 60 volts --------- (1)

Frequency f = NP / 120 or N = 120f / P

Average emf induced per conductor = (P / 60) * (120f / P) = 2f volts. For

Z conductors in series per phase we have,

 Average emf induced per phase = 2f Z volts -------- (2)

If T = number of turns per phase, then Z = 2T

Substituting Z in equation (2) we get,

Average emf induced per phase = 4f T volts

R.M.S value of emf induced = 4.44f T volts …(Kf = RMS Value /Average Value = 1.11)

R.M.S value of actual emf induced per phase = 4.44*Kc*Kd*f T volts.

Winding Factor:

The armature winding (conductor) of an alternator is distributed over the entire armature.
Generally we use short pitched, distributed windings, due to which voltage induced in the
armature will reduce. Short pitched windings are used to get better waveform and to reduce
unwanted harmonics.

Kw = Kp.Kd 0.95

Pitch Factor:

Pitch factor (Kp) = (vector sum of emf / arithmetic sum of emf)

Kp = cos( /2)

Kp = 1 for full pitched winding.

Distribution factor (Kd) = emf with distributed winding / emf with concentrated winding

Kd = sin (m /2) /(msin /2)

Kd = 1 for concentrated winding.

where and are short pitch angle, distribution angle respectively.

m is no. of slots/pole/phase

= 1800 / no. of slots per pole.

Problems:

1. The stator of an ac machine is wound for six poles, three phase. If the supply frequency is 25
Hz, what is the value of the synchronous speed?
Solution: Ns= 120f/P = 500 rpm

2. Calculate the phase emf induced in a 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz, star connected alternator with 36
slots and 30 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.05 Webers. Assume factor of 0.95.

Solution:

Total number of slots = 36, Frequency f = NP / 120 = 375 x 16 / 120 = 50 Hz

No. of slots per phase = 36 / 3 = 12

No. of conductors per slot = 30

No. of conductors per phase = 12 x 30 = 360

No. of turns per phase = T = 360 / 2 = 180

Assuming full pitch winding, pitch factor Kc = 1

Phase emf = Eph = 4KfKcKd f T volts

Eph = 4 x 1.11 x 1 x 0.95 x 50 x 0.05 x 180=1898V

3.A 3-phase, 16 pole alternator has a star connected winding having 144 slots and 10 conductors
per slot. The flux per pole is 0.03 Webers and speed is 375 rpm. Find the frequency and phase
and line voltage. Winding Factor Kd = 0.96, Pitch factor Kc = 1.

Solution:

Flux per pole, = 0.03 Webers

Frequency f = NP / 120 = 375 x 16 / 120 = 50 Hz

No. of slots per phase = 144 / 3 = 48

No. of conductors per slot = 10

No. of conductors per phase = 48 x 10 = 480

Turns per phase T = conductors per phase / 2 = 480/2 = 240

Form factor = Kf = 1.11

E.M.F generated per phase = Eph = 4KfKcKd f T volts

= 4 x 1.11 x 1 x 0.96 x 50 x 0.03 x 240

 = 1534 volts.

Line emf = 3 x 1534 = 2657 volts.

4.A 3-phase star connected alternator with 12 poles generates 1100 volts on open circuit at a
speed of 500 rpm. Assuming 180 turns per phase, a distribution factor of 0.96 and full pitched
coils, find the useful flux per pole.

Solution:

Given line emf = 1100 volts

E.M.F per phase, Eph = 1100 / 3 = 635 volts

f = NP / 120 = 500x12 / 120 = 50 Hz

Eph = 4KfKcKd f T volts ----------------------- (1)

Kf = 1.11

For full-pitched winding,

Pitch Factor = Kc = 1

Distribution factor = Kd = 0.96

T = No. of turns per phase = 180

= Flux per pole (in Webers)

Substituting in expression (1) above,

Eph = 4KfKcKd f T volts

635 = 4 x 1.11 x 1 x 0.96 x 50 x x 180

Flux per pole = = 635 / 4.44 x 0.96 x 50 x 180

Flux per pole = = 0.0165 Webers

 THREE PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

There are two types of system available in electric AC circuit, single phase and three phase
system. In single phase circuit, there will be only one phase, i.e the current will flow through
only one wire and there will be one return path called neutral line to complete the circuit.

A poly phase system is a combination of several single-phase voltages having the same
magnitude and frequency but displaced from one another by equal angle (electrical), which
depends on the number of phases and determined from the following relation:

Electrical displacement = 3600 electrical degree/ number of phases

There fore for three phase system = 360/3 = 1200

Three phase circuit is the polyphase system where three

phases are send together from the generator to the load. Each
phase are having a phase difference of 120°, i.e 120° angle
electrically. So from the total of 360°, three phases are equally
divided into 120° each. The power in three phase system is
continuous as all the three phases are involved in generating
the total power. The sinusoidal waves for 3 phase system is shown below fig 1

Fig :2.2.1. Wave forms of 3 phase voltages [Ref : Wikipedia.]

The three phases can be used as single phase each. So if the load is single phase, then one phase
can be taken from the three phase circuit and the neutral can be used as ground to complete the
circuit.

Advantages of Three-Phase Systems:

The output of a three-phase machine is always greater than that of a single-phase machine
of the same size and less cost.
 For transmission and distribution of a power over a given distance, a three-phase
transmission line requires less copper than a single-phase line.
Three phase motors have uniform torque compared to 1-phase motors.
Single-phase motors are not self-starting. Three phase motors are self-starting.
Three phase generators work in parallel without difficulty.
In the case of three-phase star system, two different voltages can be obtained whereas in
the case of a single-phase system only one voltage can be obtained.
Overall performance of 3- phase motors is better compared to 1-phase motor.

Generation of three phase voltage:

Fig: 2.2.2 Generation of 3 phase voltage [Ref : threephasepower.org]

Consider three electrical coils a1 a2, b1 b2 and c1 c2 as shown in the fig 2 mounted on the same
axis but displaced from each other by 120 electrical. Let the three coils be rotated in
anticlockwise direction in a magnetic field with an angular velocity of radians/sec, as shown.

When the coil a1 a2 is moved with the position AB shown in figure, the magnitude and direction
of the emf‟s induced in the various coils is as under;

a) E.M.F induced in coil a1 a2 is zero and is increasing in the positive direction. This is
indicated by ea1a2 wave in figure
ea1 a2 = Em . sin t = e r
b) The coil b1 b2 is 1200 electrically behind coil a1 a2.. The emf induced in this coil is
negative and is approaching maximum negative value. This is shown by the eb1 b2 wave
eb1 b2 = Em. sin [ t 2 /3] = e y
 c) The coil c1 c2 is 2400 electrically behind a1 a2 or 1200 electrically behind coil b1b2. The
emf induced in this coil is positive and is decreasing. This is indicated by ec1 c2 wave
ec1 c2 = Em sin [ t 4 /3] = e b

If the three voltages are added vectorially , it can be observed that the sum of the three voltages at
any instant is zero.

That is e r + e y + e b = 0.

Important definitions related to three phase system.

Symmetrical system : a three phase system in which the three voltages are of same
magnitude and frequency and displaced from each other by 120 degree phase angle is
called as symmetrical system.
Phase sequence : The order in which the voltages in the phases reach their maximum
positive values is called the phase sequence. Three phases are usually represented by R-
Y-B and should be connected in this order called phase sequence. (Red, Yellow, Blue).
Three phase supply connections:
In single phase system, two wires are sufficient for transmitting voltage to the load that is
phase and neutral. But in case of three phase, two ends of each phase are available to
supply voltage to the load.
Using these connections two different three phase connections can be obtained which are
called as Star connection and Delta connection.

Star connection:

The star connection is formed by connecting starting ends of all the three windings
together. The common point is known as Neutral point. The remaining three ends are
brought out for connection to load. Star connected circuit is illustrated in the fig
 Delta connection:

The delta is formed by connecting one end of winding to starting end of other which
forms a closed loop.
The supply terminals are taken out from three junction points.
Delta connection always forms a closed loop. Delta connected circuit is illustrated in fig

Concept of Line and Phase values of Voltages and Currents.

The potential different between any two lines of supply is called line voltage and current
passing through any line is called line current. Line voltages are denoted as E L
Line current are denoted by I L .
The voltage across any branch of the three phase load is called phase voltage and the
current passing through any branch of the three phase load is called phase current.

Balanced Supply

A supply is said to be balanced if all three voltages are equal in magnitude and displaced by 120
degree. A three phase supply can be connected in two ways - Either in Delta connection or in
Star connection as shown in the figure 3.

Fig:2.2.3 Balanced supply [Ref : Wikipedia.]

Balanced Load

A load is said to be balanced if the impedances in all three phases are equal in magnitude and
phase A three phase load can be connected in two ways – Either in Delta connection or in Star
connection as shown in the fig
 Fig:2.2.4 Balanced load [ Ref : Wikipedia].

Star Connection: Relationship between line and phase values.

Fig:2.2.5 Star connected circuit [Ref: threephasepower.org]

The common point N at which similar ends are connected is called the neutral point.

The voltage between any line and the neutral point is called phase voltage; while the voltage
between any two lines is called line voltage.

For example, the potential difference between outers R and Y or line voltage ERY, is the vector
difference of phase emf‟s ER and EY or vector sum of phase emf‟s ER and ( EY).

i.e., ERY = ER EY

As phase angle between vectors ER and ( EY) is 60 ,

Therefore, from vector diagram shown in figure.

ERY = ER2 + E Y2 + 2ER EY cos 60

Let ER = EY = EB = EP (phase voltage)

Then line voltage

ERY = EP2 + E P2 +(2 EP EP x 0.5)

3 EP

Similarly, potential difference between Y and B is

EYB = EY EB = 3 EP

In a balanced star system, ERY, EYB and EBR are equal in magnitude and are called line voltages.

EL = 3 EP

Since, in a star connected system, each line conductor is connected to a separate phase, the
current flowing through the lines and phases are the same.

i.e., Line current IL = Phase current IP

If the phase current has a phase difference of with the phase voltage.

Power output per phase = EPIP cos

Total power output,

P = 3EPIP cos
= 3(EL/ 3) IP cos
= 3 EL IL cos
 Mesh or Delta Connected System: Relationship between line and phase values.

Fig:2.2.6 Delta connected circuit[Ref: threephasepower.org]

IR, IY and IB are line currents and IRB, IBY and IYR are phase currents .

Line current, IR = IYR IRB

2
IR = IYR 2 + IRB +2 IYRIRB cos 60

For a balanced load, the phase current in each winding is equal and let it be IP

Line current, IR = I 2 P + IP2 +2 IP IP x 0.5

3IP

Similarly, line current, IY = IBY IYR = 3 IP

and line current, IB = IRB IBY = 3 IP

In a delta network, there is only one phase between any pair of lines, so the potential difference
between the lines (line voltage) is equal to phase voltage.

EL = EP

Power output per phase = EP IP cos ,

 Where cos is the power factor of the load.

Total power output,

P = 3EP IP cos
= 3 EL(IL/ 3) cos
= 3 ELIL cos

The Power Triangle:

Fig:2.2.7 Power triangle [Ref: PMC]

In the figure,

AB = √3 ELIL cos , represents the real power in watts or kW.

BC = √3 ELIL sin , represents the reactive power in VAR or kVAR.

AC = 3EI, represents the apparent power in VA or kVA.

i) (kVA)2 = (kW)2 + (kVAR)2

ii) Circuit power factor, cos = True power / Apparent power

iii) kVAR = kVA sin

= ( kW / cos ) x sin

= kW tan

Dept.of EEE,DSCE Page 60

 Measurement of Power in 3-Phase Circuits:

In three circuits total three phase power is given by 3 EL IL cos , in practice the problems in
measuring three phase power occur as power factor for different type of load. And the power
factor of induction motor and synchronous generators may vary with the load conditions, there
fore it is difficult to calculate power. Hence it is necessary to use wattmeter which can sense the
power factor and will give power in watts.

Wattmeter is a device which gives power reading , when connected in single phase or three
phase system in watts.

Fig:2.2.8 Single phase wattmeter[Ref: electrical basic projects.com]

It consists of two coils as shown in the circuit diagram fig 8.

Current coil: Senses the current and always to be connected in series with the
load.
Potential coil: This is also called as pressure coil. This senses the voltage and
always to be connected across the supply terminals.
The terminologies used to denote current coil and pressure coil are ML – CV.
M – From Mains for current coil
L – To Load for current coil
C – Common for voltage coil
V- Voltage for voltage coil

Three phase power can be measured by using two single phase watt meter connected to any of
the two phases, irrespective of the type (star or delta). Consider a balanced load of star type to
which two watt meters are connected W1 and W2 as shown in the circuit diagram fig 10.
Two Wattmeter Method – Balanced Load:

In the case of balanced load, (where impedances of all the 3 phases are equal) we can find the
power factor of the load from the two-wattmeter readings. Consider star-connected inductive
load (figure 9) the vector diagram for which is given in figure10.

Fig:2.2.9 Two watt meter connected to star connected load.[Ref: threephasepower.org]

Fig:2.2.10 Vector diagram of line current and line voltage[Ref: threephasepower.org]

Current through wattmeter W1 is = IR

The potential difference across the voltage coil of W1 is

ERB = ER – EB - vectorially

Reading of W1 = IR ERB cos(30 - )

Similarly, current through W2 = IY and potential difference across W2 = EYB = EY – EB

The angle between IY and EYB is (30 + ).

Reading of W2 = IY EYB cos (30 +

) ERB = EYB = Line voltage EL and

IY = IR = Line current IL (Since the load is balanced)

W1 = EL IL cos (30 - ) and W2 = EL IL cos (30 + )

W1 + W2 = 3 EL IL cos

= Total power in the 3-phase load.

Thus, the total power absorbed in the 3-phase load is given by the sum of the two-wattmeter
readings.

Power Factor – Balanced 3-Phase Load:

Case 1: Lagging power factor

W1 + W2 = 3 EL IL cos ------------ (i)

Similarly,

W1 - W2 = EL IL sin ------------ (ii)

Dividing equation (ii) by (i), we get

tan = 3 (W1 – W2 ) / (W1+W2) --------------------------- (iii)

Once tan is known, and hence power factor, cos can be found.

Power Factor – Balanced 3-Phase Load:

Case 2: Leading power factor

 W1 = EL IL cos (300 + ) and

W2 = EL IL cos (300 - )

W1 + W2 = 3 EL IL cos

W1 - W2 = - EL IL sin

tan = - 3 (W1 – W2 ) / (W1 + W2)

Effect of power factor on wattmeter reading:

Case 1: at cos =0

= 900
W1 = ½ EL IL
W2 = -½ EL IL

Case 2 : at cos = 0.5

= 600
W1 = EL IL cos 300
W2 = 0

Case 3 : at cos = 1

= 00
W1 = EL IL cos 300
W2 = EL IL cos 300

Numericals:

1. The power in a three-phase system is measured by two watt meters. If the input power is
100kW and power factor is 0.66 (lag)

a) What will be the reading of each wattmeter?

 b) For what power factor will one of the wattmeter read zero?

Solution:

a) P = 100 kW = W1 + W2
cos = 0.66
= 48.70
tan = 3 x (W1 - W2 ) / (W1 + W2)
Substituting the values in the above equation,
W1 - W2 = 65.7 kW
W1 + W2 = 100 kW
2 W1 = 165.7 kW
or W1 = 82.85 kW
W2 = 17.15 kW
b) If W2 = 0,
tan = 3
= 600
cos = 0.5

2. Two watt meters are connected to measure the input of a 15 HP, 50Hz, 3-phase induction
motor at full load. The full load efficiency and power factor are 0.9 and 0.8 lag respectively. Find
the readings of the watt meters.

Solution:

Efficiency = Output / Input

0.9 = (15 x 735.5) / Input

Input = 12258.3 = W1 + W2 -----------------------------------------------(1)

cos = 0.8
= 36.86
tan = 3 x (W1 - W2 ) / (W1 + W2)
 0.75 = 3 x (W1 - W2) /12258.3
W1-W2 = 5308 W---------------------------------------------- (2)
From (1) and (2)
W1 = 8783 W
W2 = 3476 W

3. Three identical impedances are connected in delta to a 3- phase supply of 400v. The line
current is 35A, and the total power taken from the supply is 15kW. Calculate the resistance and
inductance values of each impedances.

Solution:

Delta connection
VL = 400 V = VPh
P = 15kW
IL = 35A
IPh = IL/ 3
= 35/ 3 = 20.2A
ZPh = VPh/ IPh
= 400/20.2
=19.8 ohms
We know that for 3- phase power
P = 3VL IL cos
15000 = 3 x 400 x 35 x cos
cos = 0.62
= 51.68
sin = 0.78
RPh = Z cos = 19.8 x 0.62 = 12.3 ohms
XPh = Z sin = 19.8 x 0.785 = 15.54 ohms
 A. Balanced star connected load of (3 + j4) impedance is connected to 400V,
three phase supply. What is the real power consumed by the load?

Solution:

VL = 400 V
impedance / phase = Z = 3 + j4
= 5 53 In a star connected
system,
Phase voltage
Current in each phase = 46.02 -53 A
Line current =
46.02 A Total power
consumed in the load
= 3VL IL cos
=3 X 400 X 46.02 X cos (− 53 )
= 19188 W