Accounting Principles

Financial Skills

Team FME
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ISBN 978-1-62620-953-4
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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Table of Contents

Preface 2
Visit Our Website 3
Introduction 4
Basic Accounting Concepts 6
An Income Statement 6
A Sample Simple Income Statement 7
Cash Accounting 9
The Limitations of Cash Accounting 11
Accrual Accounting 15
Basic Financial Terms 16
The Revenue Recognition Principle 19
The Matching Principle 22
A Sample Income Statement—Using the Accrual Method 23
Summary 28
Other Free Resources 29
References 30

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Preface
This eBook explains all of the basic accounting concepts and terminology you will need
to understand the three primary inancial statements that appear in every organization’s
annual report and most internal monthly reports.

You will learn:

● The precise deinition of essential accounting terms

● The purpose of the income statement, balance sheet, and cash low statement
● The differences between cash-based and accrual-based accounting
● The ‘revenue recognition’ principle and the ‘matching’ principle
● How depreciation, prepayments, and bad debt are allowed for

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Visit Our Website

More free management eBooks along with a series of essential templates and check-
lists for managers are all available to download free of charge to your computer, iPad, or
Amazon Kindle.

We are adding new titles every month, so don’t forget to check our website regularly for
the latest releases.

Visit http://www.free-management-ebooks.com

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Introduction
As a manager, you may be asked to produce or contribute towards an income statement
for your own business unit. This provides senior management with an indication of how
your business unit is performing against its targets over a speciic period, for example
quarterly. In addition, you will usually be expected to understand simple inancial reports
and communicate effectively with inancial people in your own organization.

This eBook explains all of the basic accounting concepts and terminology you will need
to understand the three primary inancial statements that appear in every organization’s
annual report and most internal monthly reports as well.

Primary Financial Statements are:

Income Statement of
Balance Sheet
Statement Cash Flow

These are:

● The Income Statement—An accounting of revenue, expenses, and proit for a

given period. This can also be an internal document that can be used to make
management decisions about almost any activity where you have a record of the
money spent and the associated return.
● The Balance Sheet—An itemized statement that summarizes the assets and li-
abilities of the business at a given date.
● The Statement of Cash Flow—A report that shows the effect of all transactions
that involved or inluenced cash but did not appear on the income statement.

If you work in a nonproit sector then do not be put off by words like ‘business’ and
‘proit.’ Even if your organization is not a business that exists to make a proit, it is still
important to understand the basic principles of inance and management reporting so
that you can monitor eficiency and control your budget effectively.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Nonprofit
organizations need
to manage their financial
expenditure and do
so using ‘business’
terminology

Your organization may not be concerned with sales and proit as such, but there will be
some metrics for measuring the service delivered and the costs incurred in delivering it.

Financial reporting requires an understanding of: basic inancial terms, the differences
between cash-based and accrual accounting, and an appreciation of when revenue and
costs are recognized. All of these topics are dealt with in this eBook, which is an ideal
introduction to basic accounting principles.

Key POINT
4 You should make sure that you know the basic concepts and terminology
needed to understand income statements, balance sheets, and statements of
cash low as these are widely used, even by nonproit organizations.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Basic Accounting Concepts

The basic principles of accounting are best understood by considering some simple busi-
nesses and how they might document their inancial activities.

An Income Statement
This is a inancial statement that measures an organization’s inancial performance over
a speciic accounting period by giving a summary of how it incurs its revenues and ex-
penses. It also shows the net proit or loss incurred over that period and is often referred
to as a ‘Proit and Loss’ or ‘Revenue and Expenses’ statement.

Income
Statement

Operating Non-Operating
Revenue & Revenue &
Expenses Expenses

An income statement consists of two sections: operating and non-operating activities.

● The operating section details the revenue and expenses directly associated with
business operations, for example the purchase of raw materials.
● The non-operating section details revenue and expenses that result from activi-
ties outside of normal business operations, for example the sale of an ofice or
land.

This division of revenue and expenses into ‘operating’ and ‘non-operating’ is particular to
each organization and is dealt with in detail in the eBook ‘Understanding Income State-
ments,’ which you can download from www.free-management-ebooks.com.

For the moment we will use a ‘simple’ income statement to illustrate the inancial prin-
ciples you need to be familiar with, since this type of income statement does not distin-
guish between ‘operating’ and ‘non-operating’ revenues and expenses.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

A Sample Simple Income Statement

This sample simple income statement covers a twelve-month period for ‘Suzy’s Signs,’ a
one-person business that designs signage. It details the amount of revenue and expense
that comes in and goes out of the organization without distinguishing between operating
and non-operating items.

Income Net
Statement Revenue Expenses
Income
terms:

The income statement uses three terms that can be deined as:

● Revenue—incoming assets in return for sold goods or services.

● Expenses—outgoing assets or liabilities incurred.
● Net Income—the difference between Revenue and Expenses. This shows wheth-
er you are generating a proit or you are operating at a loss.

In our example, Suzy runs her own design agency called Suzy’s Signs. She works from her
home ofice and offers a design service for customers who need a sign for their business
premises. The design is done according to a brief supplied by the customer.

Once the design has been approved, Suzy obtains quotes for its manufacture from three
suppliers. She then sends the design and the quotes to the customer including her in-
voice for the total number of hours spent on this design, based on an hourly rate of $45.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

The following table gives you an example of what a simple income statement would look
like for Suzy Sign’s.

Suzy’s Signs Income Statement Jan 1—Dec 31

$ $
Revenue (Design) 8,000
Less Expenses:
Travel 420
Stationery 140
Telephone 80
Broadband 120
Miscellaneous 25
Expenses Total 785
Net Proit Before Tax 7,215

The net proit or loss is the difference between the income received and all of the costs
paid out. In this case Suzy has made a proit for the year of $7,215.

Total
All costs Net Profit
income
paid out or Loss
received

She may need this information to give to the tax authorities or she could use it to com-
pare this year’s performance to last year’s, or even to her expectations at the beginning
of the year.

As simple as this document is, there are some practical issues that it raises. For example:

Suzy sends out an invoice in December, but it has not been paid by 31 December.
What does she do?
Should the invoice amount appear on the statement or not, and does it matter?

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

The answer to this question depends on the type of accounting that Suzy is using. There
are two types, known as ‘cash accounting’ and ‘accrual accounting.’

Types of
Accounting Systems

Accrual Cash
Accounting Accounting

The practical implications of each type for your organization are explained in the next
sections using our example of Suzy’s Signs.

Cash Accounting
This is an accounting method where receipts are recorded on the date they are received,
and the expenses on the date that they are actually paid. As a small business, Suzy has the
option of ‘cash accounting,’ which means that she only needs to record transactions at the
point of payment. In other words when the money leaves or is paid into her bank account.

Cash Accounting

Record transactions at the point of payment

Only applicable to very small companies or traders

So referring back to Suzy’s query:

If her December invoice is not paid until the following January, then she does
not need to enter it on the income statement for this period.

Similarly, if she received a bill in December (for example a phone bill) but she
does not pay it until January, then that amount will not appear either.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Accounting rules stipulate that, with few exceptions, businesses should not use this
method but should prepare their accounts on the ‘accrual’ basis. However, it is accept-
able for very small companies to use the cash accounting method. In Suzy’s case, cash
accounting confers two advantages.

1. It relects exactly what she has in her bank account.

2. It helps her cash low.

Whilst the irst point is obvious, the second point needs some explanation.

In November and December Suzy raised invoices for $2,500 worth of work,
which she is awaiting payment for.

Under the cash accounting rules, she does not have to declare this income
during the period and she will not have to pay any tax due on it until the end
of the next accounting period (the period when the money will actually be
paid into her account).

This is counterbalanced by the fact that she cannot include any expenses. For
example, her December telephone bill cannot be included until she has actu-
ally paid it, irrespective of the date on the invoice.

Suzy’s business has relatively low expenses and because her clients can be slow to pay,
cash accounting is probably the best option for her to use. By using cash accounting, she
will only be paying tax on money she has actually received. It is also straightforward: if
she uses a tax adviser, she could simply give him her checkbook and bank statements
and he could calculate her tax liability from those two things alone.

Key POINTS
4 Under cash accounting rules, transactions are recorded at the point of payment.
4 Very small businesses and traders can use cash accounting.
4 It relects exactly what the business has in its bank account and can help with
cash low.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

The Limitations of Cash Accounting

In cash-based accounting, expenses are not recorded until they have been paid, which
means that there is nowhere on the books to show unpaid bills.

Limitations of Cash Accounting method:

Nowhere No allowance is
No accurate
to show an made for major
historical trend
organization’s purchases or
is produced
‘unpaid bills’ asset acquisition

These limitations can create serious problems if the business is much more complex
than Suzy’s Signs. In fact, cash-based accounting can create a situation that leads to
insolvency while reporting that the organization is making a proit.

When an organization is termed ‘Insolvent’ it means:

The inability of a debtor to pay their debt and can result from either cash low
insolvency or balance sheet insolvency.

The deinitions of these two types of insolvency are:

● Cash low insolvency involves a lack of funds to pay debts as they fall due.
● Balance sheet insolvency involves having negative net assets. In other words,
the business owes to others more than it has in assets including the money that
it is owed.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Insolvency

The inability of a debtor

to pay their bills

Cash Flow Balance Sheet

Insolvency Insolvency

Lack of liquidity
Liability exceeds
to pay debts as
assets
they fall due

Many people confuse bankruptcy with insolvency and it is important to understand the
difference.

An organization may be cash low insolvent but balance sheet solvent if it

holds assets that it cannot turn into cash if it needs to do so.

Conversely, an organization can have negative net assets showing on its bal-
ance sheet but still be cash low solvent if ongoing revenue is able to meet
debt obligations, and thus avoid default. (Many large corporations operate
permanently in this state.)

Bankruptcy is not the same as insolvency. It is a determination of insolvency

made by a court of law with resulting legal orders intended to resolve the
insolvency.

To illustrate why cash-based accounting can lead to insolvency, imagine an organization

that receives income prior to completion of the job, but where major costs are not paid
out until after completion. This could lead to a situation where the organization receives
say $100,000 in sales for the period, but most of the associated costs (say $60,000) do
not appear on the income statement for that period.

Consequently, the income statement shows a proit for the period, which is overstated
by the $60,000 in as yet unpaid costs. The organization is then taxed on this notional

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

proit. Several weeks later, the $60,000 expenses need to be paid, but there is no cash
available because it has already been paid out in tax. The organization is now insolvent.

How insolvency can occur:

May—Organization receives $100,000

for a contract

July—the organization has to pay a

50% tax on $100,000

August—the expenses of $60,000 for

this contract are due

RESULT is insolvency—as there is insufficient

cash available to pay the expenses

This is a very simple example, but in many organizations there may be large amounts of
money lowing through the business and proits may appear to be high. As time goes by,
cash deicits accumulate year after year and with the unpaid expenses not recorded, the
cash-based income statement will report that the business is proitable even though it
may be insolvent.

Another problem with cash-based accounting is that it does not create an accurate his-
torical trend of business operations. This is because transactions are recorded only when
cash changes hands. It does not (as a rule) represent the sale date of goods or services.
Major purchases or other asset acquisitions can also distort the picture.

This can be illustrated using the Suzy’s Signs example and looking at her irst three years
income statement igures, shown in the table below. These cash-based net proit igures
appear to show a steady growth year on year. But to fully understand her growth you
need to know more about her costs.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Cash Accounting
Net Proit Before Tax
Year 1 6,500
Year 2 7,000
Year 3 7,300

What these igures are unable to show are:

● Her set-up costs—including ofice furniture, computer, printer, and stationery.

These were allocated to her irst year, even though she is still getting the beneit
of these things in years two and three.
● Her outstanding invoices—by the end of her third year this amounts to $4,000.
This is a substantial amount given the size of her business and yet it does not ap-
pear anywhere in the accounts.

In order to overcome the problems associated with cash-based accounting, most orga-
nizations use an alternative system called accrual accounting and this is dealt with next.

Key POINTS
4 The main limitations of cash accounting are that: there is nowhere to show
‘unpaid bills’; there is no way of seeing any historical trend in the igures; and
no allowance is made for major purchases or asset acquisition.
4 Cash-based accounting can create a situation that leads to insolvency while
reporting that the organization is making a proit.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Accrual Accounting
Accrual accounting is considered to be the standard accounting practice for most orga-
nizations, and is mandated for organizations of any real size.

If Suzy were using this method then she would need to include all of her invoiced amounts
for the period as ‘sales’ even if she had not actually received payment by the period end.
Similarly, if she has a bill with an invoice date within the period she must include it even
though she knows that she won’t be paying it until after the period end.

Accrual Accounting

Revenue is recognized once the customer has

ownership

Costs are incurred in the period in which they arise

Provides a more accurate financial picture, but is more difficult

to administer

The accrual method recognizes a sale at the point at which the customer takes owner-
ship of the goods or the point when the service is delivered, even though the cash isn’t
yet in the bank. Similarly, costs may be recognized before an invoice is received if the
organization accepts that the cost has been incurred during the accounting period.

This method provides a more accurate picture of the organization’s current condition,
but it is more complex to administer when payments received are less than the amount
invoiced. This can happen if the customer disputes the amount or simply refuses to pay.
The need for the accrual method arose out of the increasing complexity of an organiza-
tion’s transactions and a desire for more accurate inancial information.

Selling on credit and projects that provide revenue streams over a long period of time
affect the organization’s inancial circumstances at the point of the transaction. It makes
sense that this is relected on the inancial statements during the same reporting period
that these transactions occurred.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Before looking at an example of an income statement using the accrual method, there
are some inancial terms that you need to know. You will also need to appreciate some
accounting principles like the ‘revenue recognition principle’ and the ‘matching principle.’

Key POINTS
4 Accrual accounting is considered to be the standard accounting practice for
most organizations, and is mandated for organizations of any real size.
4 Revenue is recognized once the customer has ownership.
4 Costs are incurred in the period in which they arise.
4 It provides a more accurate inancial picture, but is more dificult to administer.

Basic Financial Terms

All of the following terms have precise deinitions when used in business accounting:

● Sales or revenue
● Cost of goods sold
● Expenses
● Gross proit
● Fixed assets
● Current assets
● Current liabilities
● Working capital
● Liquidity
● Debtor
● Creditor
● Bad Debt
● Depreciation
● Accrual Accounting

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Even though you may be familiar with some of them, it is important to know their exact
meanings otherwise you may ind the rest of this eBook and the others in this series
dificult to follow. For example, you may hear the terms ‘revenues’ and ‘receipts’ used
interchangeably in casual ofice conversation. However, as far as business accounting is
concerned they are different things and you will ind yourself becoming confused if you
don’t appreciate the difference.

Read the following deinitions carefully and make sure that you understand exactly what
is meant by each of these accounting terms.

Sales or Revenue
Revenue is the income that lows into an organization, and it is often used almost synony-
mously with sales. In government and nonproit organizations it includes taxes and grants.

Don’t confuse revenues with receipts. Under the accrual basis of accounting, revenues
are shown in the period they are earned, not in the period when the cash is collected.
Revenues occur when money is earned; receipts occur when cash is received.

Cost of Goods Sold

This is the purchase cost of the merchandise that was subsequently sold to customers.

Expenses
Refers to the other costs that are not matched with sales as part of the cost of goods
sold. They may be matched with a speciic time, usually monthly, quarterly, or annually
or they may also be one-off payments. Expenses include: staff wages, rent, utility bills,
insurance, equipment, etc.

Gross Proit
Refers to what is left after you subtract the cost of goods sold from the sales. It is also
called gross margin. For example, if an organization buys in an item for $50 and sells it
for $75 (plus sales tax), then the gross proit will be $25.

Fixed Assets
This refers to all of those things that the business owns which will have a value to the busi-
ness over a long period. This is usually understood to be any time longer than one year. It
includes freehold property, plant, machinery, computers, motor vehicles, and so on.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Current Assets
This refers to assets with the value available entirely in the short term. This is usually
understood to be a period of less than a year. This is either because they are what the
business sells or because they are money or can quickly be turned into money. Examples
include inventory/stock, money owing by customers, money in the bank, or other short-
term investments.

Current Liabilities
This refers to those things that the business could be called upon to pay in the short
term—within the year. Examples include bank overdrafts and money owing to suppliers.

Working Capital
This is the difference between current assets and current liabilities. An organization
without suficient working capital cannot pay its debts as they fall due. In this situation it
may have to stop trading even if it is proitable.

Liquidity
This is the ability to meet current obligations with cash or other assets that can be quick-
ly converted into cash in order to pay bills as they become due. In other words the orga-
nization has enough cash or assets that will become cash so that it is able to write checks
without running out of money.

Debtor
A debtor is a person owing money to the business, for example a customer for goods
delivered.

Creditor
A creditor is a person to whom the business owes money, for example a supplier, land-
lord, or utility organization.

Bad Debt
All reasonable means to collect a debt have been tried and have failed so the amount
owed is written off as a loss and becomes categorized as an expense on an income state-
ment. This results in net income being reduced.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Depreciation
Assets have a certain length of time in which they operate eficiently, referred to as ‘an
asset’s useful life.’ During this period the value of that asset depreciates due to age, wear
and tear, or obsolescence. The loss in value is recorded in accounts as a non-cash ex-
pense, which reduces earnings whilst raising cash low.

Accrual Accounting
Accrual accounting relies on two principles, which have already been alluded to:

The revenue recognition principle states that revenues are recognized when
they are realized or realizable, and are earned (usually when goods are
transferred or services rendered), no matter when the payment is received.

The matching principle states that expenses are recognized when goods are
transferred or services rendered, and offset against recognized revenues,
which were generated from those expenses, no matter when the cash is paid
out.

These two principles are absolutely central to understanding how accrual accounting
works and are described in detail in the next sections.

Key POINTS
4 Terms like ‘revenue,’ ‘expenses,’ ‘gross proit,’ ‘depreciation,’ ‘bad debt,’ and
‘ixed assets’ have precise deinitions when used in business accounting.
4 You need to understand exactly what is meant by accounting terms like these.

The Revenue Recognition Principle

Organizations all have primary activities and it is the revenue or incomes generated by
these activities that are referred to as ‘sales’ or ‘sales revenue.’ For example, a retailer will
buy goods, which they then sell on. It is the sale of these products that creates their revenue.

For service organizations the primary activities are the acquisition of and selling of skills
and expertise. These revenues are often referred to as fees earned, income, or service
revenues.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Revenue is recorded in
your accounts at the time
it occurs

Receipts is the recording

of when your organization
receives payment for a
good or service

Under accrual accounting, revenues are reported as they occur—that is ‘when they are
recognized’—and not when the payment is received. For instance, your organization sells
its service to a customer for $5,000 in December, offering them 60 days to pay. Your ac-
counts would show a revenue igure of this amount in December.

When at the end of February the invoice is paid your accounts would show a receipt of
cash for that amount. It would also show a reduction in your accounts receivable (some
organizations refer to this as ‘collection’). It is important to appreciate the distinction be-
tween receipts and revenues so that the latter are only recorded once when the primary
activity has been performed.

You also need to appreciate how the following will be represented in your organization’s
accounts:

● When a pre-payment or deposit is taken

● When payment is made in cash
● When funds are received in the form of a loan (e.g. from a bank)

Where your organization requests a payment (or deposit) for a service or product in ad-
vance of any work being performed this is known as a ‘receipt.’ Only once the customer’s
work begins will it be shown in your accounts as a ‘revenue’ item. For example:

Your organization sells a product for $800 in May and requests a $200 par-
tial payment at the time of sale, prior to delivery in June. This $200 appears
in your accounts as a liability in May and only when the product has been
delivered to the client will the accounts show $800 revenue.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

In circumstances where organizations are concerned about a customer’s ability to pay or

their creditworthiness a deposit can be requested prior to the work starting. This deposit
would be recorded in the same way as a pre-payment in your accounts, i.e. as a receipt.

In the event that your organization receives cash in direct exchange for its product or ser-
vice this will be recorded in the accounts as both a ‘receipt’ and ‘revenue.’ This is because
it has been given the cash ‘receipt’ on the same day the actual service or product (the
‘revenue’) occurred. For example:

A dealership sells a car on April 23 for $650 cash. This sale would be repre-
sented in the dealer’s accounts as both a ‘receipt of $650’ and ‘revenue of
$650’ on that date.

In a situation where your organization needs to extend its mortgage or seeks a short-
term loan, such funds are shown in your accounts as a ‘receipt’ and referred to as a cur-
rent liability. There would not be ‘revenue’ for this amount within your accounts because
no goods or services have been exchanged or performed. For example:

The $12,500 extension to your organization’s overdraft would be shown in

your accounts only as a ‘receipt’ of $12,500 on the date such funds became
available. It cannot be recorded as ‘revenue’ because it was not earned as a
result of delivering a product a service.

Key POINTS
4 Revenue is something that is generated by the business in exchange for goods
or services.
4 It does not include things like bank loans or overdraft facilities.
4 Any payment for a service or product in advance of any work being performed
is a ‘receipt.’
4 It only becomes a ‘revenue’ item once work (on behalf of the customer) actu-
ally begins.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

The Matching Principle

Your organization may prefer to use the matching principle when deciding how to record
its inancial performance. This is because it enables your inancial accounts to show a
better evaluation of actual proitability and performance.

This principle achieves this by minimizing, wherever possible, the mismatch in timing
between when your organization incurs costs and when it realizes its revenue. This still
has to be attained whilst adhering to the accounting standards of recording costs as they
occur and revenue when it is earned.

The degree to which this can be achieved will be inluenced by how complex your opera-
tions are. The more complicated they are, the more dificulty your organization will have
in ‘matching’ the date costs occur with the date revenue or income is received.

This is especially true in the case of provisions for bad debt and depreciation. It is dificult
to be exact in such cases because they are inluenced by numerous factors, and many,
such as changes within the economic climate, are outside of an organization’s control.
The way in which an organization can interpret an item of high-value capital equipment
designed for longevity is open to interpretation, and a new model or changes in technol-
ogy can drastically alter its life span.

The accounting standards and regulations of your operating country will dictate how
such items are represented in your organization’s published accounts. If you are required
to produce such igures for internal use then you need to adhere to its internal deinitions.

Key POINT
4 The matching principle aims to minimize any mismatch in timing between
when an organization incurs costs and when it realizes any associated revenue.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

A Sample Income Statement—Using the Accru-

al Method
This example is based on a small organization that buys washing machines directly from
the manufacturers, which it then sells online and through a network of retail distributors.
Even though this organization has a straightforward business model it provides a good
illustration of the issues you will need to consider when interpreting or compiling an in-
come statement.

Here is the income statement for ‘Wendy’s Wholesale’ for the irst quarter of the year.
The organization uses the accrual method of accounting.

Wendy’s Wholesale Income Statement

January 1—March 31
$ $
Revenue (Sales) 55,000
Stock at March 31 34,000
Purchases 12,000
SUB TOTAL 46,000
Less Stock at January 1 (20,000)
Costs to deduct from Revenue (26,000)
GROSS PROFIT 29,000
Less Overheads:
Wages 8,000
Rent 1,500
Electricity 700
Insurance 500
Distribution 800
Other Expenses 1,800
Reserve for Bad Debts 2,750
Depreciation 200
Less Total Overheads (16,250)
NET PROFIT Before Tax 12,750

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

This income statement looks similar to that for Suzy’s Signs except that there are some
additional entries and considerations.

● Stock
● Gross Proit
● Net Proit
● Accruals (Costs not yet entered)
● Prepayments (Costs entered in advance)
● Bad Debt Reserve
● Depreciation

Each of these items is described below.

Stock
Wendy’s must hold a stock of washing machines, so that they can be dispatched on the
same day as they are ordered. An inaccurate net proit igure will result if costs include
washing machines purchased but still in stock at the end of the period. This is allowed for
by counting stock at the beginning and end of the period.

Counting stock can be done manually, if little stock is carried, but larger organizations
will have these igures supplied by their computerized stock control system. A physical
stock take is usually conducted periodically to avoid discrepancies accumulating and
causing problems.

Gross Proit
An organization’s gross proit is calculated by taking away the cost of producing and sell-
ing its goods sold from revenues earned.

Net Proit
Net proit or ‘net income’ is calculated by subtracting all other overhead expenses from
the gross proit.

Proit Margin
An organization’s proit margin can be expressed as a ratio or by product as a percent-
age. The ratio is calculated as net proits (or net income) divided by revenue (sales). It

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

measures how much out of every dollar of sales an organization actually keeps in earn-
ings. For Wendy’s this ratio would be:

Net Profit
Revenue
Profit Margin Ratio
$55,000
$12,750 0.23:1

When referring to the proit margin of an individual product it is the difference between
the selling price and the cost price of the product. For example:

Profit
Sales Price Cost Price
Margin
$750 $500
$250

This is often expressed as a percentage where the difference between the selling price
and the cost price is divided by the selling price. This answer is then multiplied by 100 to
become a percentage. For example:

Profit Profit
Sales Price
Margin 100 Margin
$750
$250 33%

Accruals (Costs not yet entered)

An accrual is an allowance for costs that have not yet been invoiced. For example, Wen-
dy’s have not yet received their electricity bill for this quarter. Since the purpose of the
income statement is to present an accurate picture of the inances for the period it needs
to recognize this liability even though no invoice has been received. In this instance Wen-
dy’s would look at last year’s bill for the same period, which was $667, and then enter a
igure of $700 as a realistic estimate for the quarter.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Prepayments (Costs entered in advance)

A prepayment is the opposite of an accrual. Wendy’s received an invoice from its insur-
ers for $2,000 in January, which is their insurance premium for the year. In the income
statement they would apportion this invoice into equal amounts for each quarter. So a
igure of $500 is entered this quarter’s expense on the income statement.

Bad Debt Reserve

Even though Wendy’s has a carefully controlled policy of extending credit, sometimes
one of its retailers becomes insolvent or bankrupt before the invoice is paid. This cre-
ates a ‘bad debt,’ which means that payment will never be collected and so becomes
an expense. Technically, a bad debt becomes a bad debt when the chances of payment
become so small as to be nonexistent.

Many organizations know from experience the sort of percentage of total sales that will
never be paid for. In Wendy’s case they estimate a 5% bad debt expense has happened
when the sale is made. Even though no check is actually written to cover this percentage,
it exists as a total against which the actual bad debt can be subtracted from.

The way that bad debt is handled in the accounts is explained more fully in our free eB-
ooks titled ‘Understanding Income Statements’ and ‘Reading a Balance Sheet’ which you
can download free by visiting www.free-management-ebooks.com.

Depreciation
All organizations have ixed assets such as ofice and capital equipment, which have a
useful and productive life longer than the period of an annual income statement. Many
of these items have a useful life that will span several years.

It would be unreasonable to apportion the costs of these to the quarter in which they
were purchased. This problem is overcome by charging only a portion of the cost of these
assets to each quarter of their expected useful life.

New lorry Annual Quarterly

5 Year life
cost depreciation depreciation
span
$4,000 4000/5=$800 800/4=$200

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

For example, Wendy’s bought a new lorry for $4,000 in January and it has a productive
life of ive years. This allows for $800 a year ($4,000 divided by 5 years life) in depre-
ciation, which for the quarterly income statement enables $200 to be entered under
overheads as depreciation.

Key POINTS
4 An accrual is an allowance for costs that have not yet been invoiced. In other
words, a charge incurred in one accounting period that has not been paid by
the end of it.
4 A prepayment is a payment in advance for a good or service not yet received.
4 Many organizations know from experience the sort of percentage of total
sales that will never be paid for and make an allowance for this ‘bad debt.’
4 Depreciation is a method of allocating the cost of a tangible asset over its useful
life.

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

Summary
You should now have an understanding of basic inancial terms, the differences between
cash-based and accrual accounting, and an appreciation of when revenue and costs are
recognized in the accounts. This is suficient background information to be able to un-
derstand the inancial statements that make up an organization’s annual report and most
internal monthly reports as well.

Primary Financial Statements are:

Income Statement of
Balance Sheet
Statement Cash Flow

The most widely used inancial statements are:

● The Income Statement—An accounting of revenue, expenses, and proit for a

given period. This can also be an internal document that can be used to make
management decisions about almost any activity where you have a record of the
money spent and the associated return.
● The Balance Sheet—An itemized statement that summarizes the assets and li-
abilities of the business at a given date.
● The Statement of Cash Flow—A report that shows the effect of all transactions
that involved or inluenced cash but did not appear on the income statement.

This eBook has used the income statement as a basis for explaining the basic principles
of accounting. If you need to interpret or prepare an income statement then you should
read the free eBook ‘Understanding Income Statements’ which can be downloaded from
www.free-management-ebooks.com.

Other free inancial skills eBooks are:

● Reading a Balance Sheet

● Controlling Cash Flow
● Assessing Financial Performance
● Understanding Income Statements

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

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 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

References
Mason, Roger (2012), Finance for Non-Financial Managers in a Week, Hodder Education &
The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.

Investopedia, www.investopedia.com

Insite Partners, www.insitepartners.com/Newsletters

Shoffner G.H., Shelly S., and Cooke R.A. (2011). The McGraw-Hill 36-hour Course Finance
for Non-inancial Managers, 3rd edn, The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.

Siciliano, Gene (2003), Finance for Non-Financial Managers, The McGraw-Hill Companies
Inc.

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