OUR ENVIRONMENT

Environment : The term environment denotes all the physical,

chemical and biotic conditions surrounding and influencing a living
organism. Favourable environmental conditions are required to
sustain life on earth.

Ecosystem: The place where an organism lives is called its habitat.

The different species living in a habitat form a community. The
community with its natural surroundings is called an ecosystem. An
ecosystem is the basic functional unit of biosphere.

Biosphere

A thin layer on and around the earth which sustains life is

called biosphere. Life exists in the diverse forms of living
organisms. All these living organisms of the biosphere are
directly or indirectly dependent on one another as well as on
the physical components of the earth. The three physical
components of the earth are atmosphere, lithosphere and
hydrosphere (air, land and water).

The atmosphere is a gaseous envelope surrounding the

earth’s surface, It is made up of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide and many other gases in very small amounts.

Hydrosphere is all the water supply to the earth which

exists as liquid, vapour or frozen form of fresh and salt
water.

Lithosphere comprises the soil and rock of the earth’s

crust.

Types of Ecosystems

Our planet earth itself is considered as a unique, giant ecosystem.

This is also called the biosphere or the ecosphere. It is divided into
two major kinds: Natural ecosystem, and Artificial ecosystem

⦁ Natural Ecosystem: The ecosystem which operates by itself

under natural conditions is known as natural ecosystem.
Natural ecosystem is either totally dependent on solar radiation
e.g. forests, grasslands, oceans, lakes, rivers and deserts (they
provide food, fuel, fodder and medicines), or dependent on solar
radiation and energy subsidies (alternative sources) such as
wind, rain and tides. e.g tropical rain forests, tidal estuaries and
coral reefs.

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 Based upon the particular kind of habitat, these are divided into
two groups : Terrestrial Ecosystem, and Aquatic Ecosystem

⦁ Terrestrial Ecosystem: Forests, deserts and grasslands are

examples of terrestrial ecosystem.

⦁ Aquatic Ecosystem : It is classified into two types i.e.

⦁ Fresh water or limnetic ecosystem; This ecosystem is

further divided into

i) Lentic: Here the water is stationary as in a pond or lake.

ii) Lotic: In this type, the fresh water flows as in a river or
stream.

⦁ Salt water or marine ecosystem: this includes seas,

oceans, coral reeves and the estuaries.

⦁ Artificial ecosystem : This is operated by man. Artificial

ecosystem is either dependent on solar energy-e.g. Agricultural
fields and aquaculture ponds, or dependent on fossil fuel e.g.
urban and industrial ecosystems. It is of two types,

1. Cropland - (e.g.) Rice field

2. An Aquarium

COMPONENTS OF THE ECOSYSTEM

The ecosystem has two basic components

(A) Abiotic (B) Biotic

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 (A) Abiotic Components (Nonliving): They can be classified into
following two categories

⦁ Physical components

They are the various climatic characteristics such as light,

temperature, humidity precipitation, pressure and soil profile.
These factors sustain and control the growth of organisms in an
ecosystem. Deficiency or excess of any one of these is harmful
for their growth.

2. Chemical components

⦁ Inorganic components: Substances such as carbon, carbon

dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus sulphur, zinc, water
and many other minerals are the inorganic nutrients
required by all living beings.

They may be classified into the micronutrients and

macronutrients.

Macronutrients are the essential inorganic elements

CH Ca NPK such as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
calcium, potassium which are required in large quantities

Micronutrients are the essential elements required in

small amounts e.g. zinc, boron and magnesium.

Sources of all nutrients for plants are air, water and soil.
All these nutrients are converted into the living biomass by the
plants.

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 ⦁ Organic components: The complex molecules such as
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are the organic
substances in an ecosystem. These substances when out
side the organism make the abiotic component but in the
living organism they make an important component of the
biomass. They make a link between the biotic and abiotic
components.

(B) Biotic Components (living)

The living organisms form the biotic component of the

environment. All the living things require energy for their life
processes and material for formation and maintenance of their body
structure. Food meets both these requirements.

The biotic components can be classified as producers, consumers and

decomposers.

⦁ Producers: The plants are capable of capturing solar energy

and transforming it into food energy for all the other living
organisms. Therefore, they are called as producers. These Green
plants are called autotrophs, as they absorb water and
nutrients from the soil, carbon dioxide from the air, and capture
solar energy to make their own food.

⦁ Consumers: They are called heterotrophs and they consume

food synthesized by the autotrophs. Based on food preferences
they can be grouped into three broad categories.

⦁ Primary consumers or the Herbivores (e.g. cow, deer and

rabbit etc.) feed directly on plants.
⦁ Secondary consumers or the carnivores are animals which
eat other animals (eg. lion, cat, dog etc.).
⦁ Tertiary consumers or the omnivores organisms feeding
upon both plants and animals e.g. human, pigs and
sparrow.

⦁ Decomposers: Also called saprotrophs. These are mostly

bacteria and fungi that feed on dead decomposed and the dead
organic matter of plants and animals by secreting enzymes
outside their body on the decaying matter. They play a very
important role in recycling of nutrients. They are also called
detrivores or detritus feeders.

POND ECOSYSTEM
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A pond ecosystem is a fresh water ecosystem with a non-flowing body
of water. There is an abundance of all the biotic and abiotic
components in a continuous state of interaction in a pond.

Fig. 1 Pond Ecosystem

Structure of Pond Ecosystem

(A) Abiotic components

⦁ Light: Solar radiation provides energy that controls the

entire system. Penetration of light depends on transparency
of water, amount of dissolved or suspended particles in
water and the number of plankton. On the basis of extent of
penetration of light a pond can be divided into limnetic or
euphotic (eu=true, photic=light), Littoral or mesophotic
and Profoundal or aphotic zones. Plenty of light is available
to plants and animals in euphotic zone. No light is available
in the aphotic zone (Fig. 2).

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 Fig. 2 Zonation in a pond ecosystem

⦁ Inorganic substances: These are water, carbon, nitrogen,

phosphorus, calcium and a few other elements like sulphur
depending on the location of the pond. The inorganic
substances like O2 and CO2 are in dissolved state in water.
All plants and animals depend on water for their food and
exchange of gases- nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and other
inorganic salts are held in reserve in bottom sediment and
inside the living organisms. A very small fraction may be in
the dissolved state.

⦁ Organic compounds: The commonly found organic matter in

the pond are amino acids and humic acids and the
breakdown products of dead animals and plants. They are
partly dissolved in water and partly suspended in water.

(B) Biotic components

⦁ Producers or autotrophs: synthesize food for all the

heterotrophs of the pond. They can be categorized into two
groups:
⦁ Floating micro-organisms and plants
⦁ Rooted plants

⦁ Floating microorganisms (green) and plants are called

phytoplankton (“phyto”- plants, “plankton” –floating).
They are microscopic organisms. Sometimes they are so
abundant in pond that they make it look green in colour
e.g. Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora, Diatoms, Volvox.

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 ⦁ Rooted plants: These are arranged in concentric zones
from periphery to the deeper layers. Three distinct zones
of aquatic plants can be seen with increasing depth of
water in the following order:

⦁ Zone of emergent vegetation: . eg. Typha, Bulrushes

and Sagittaria
⦁ Zone of rooted vegetation with floating leaves . eg.
Nymphaea
⦁ Zone of submergent vegetation: eg. All pond weeds
like Hydrilla , Rupia, musk grass etc.

⦁ Consumers/Heterotrophs are animals which feed directly

or indirectly on autotrophs e.g. Tadpole, snails, sunfish,
bass etc.

Pond animals can be classified into the following groups

⦁ Zooplanktons are floating animals. Cyclops, Cypris

⦁ Nektons are the animals that can swim and navigate
at will. e.g. Fishes
⦁ Benthic animals are the bottom dwellers: beetle,
mites, mollusks and some crustaceans.

⦁ Decomposers: They are distributed through out the entire in

the whole pond but in the sediment most abundant. There
are bacteria and fungi. (Rhizopus, Penicillium,
Curvularia ,Cladosporium) found at the bottom of the pond.

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM (TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM)

Grasslands (also called Greenswards) are areas where

the vegetation is dominated by grasses and other herbaceous (non-
woody) plants.

Structure and functions of Grassland Ecosystems

I. Biotic components

1) Producer Organisms

⦁ In grassland, producers are mainly grasses; though, a few herbs

& shrubs also contribute to primary production of biomass.

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 ⦁ Some of the most common species of grasses are:

⦁ Brachiaria sp., Cynodon sp., Desmodium sp.,

Digitaria sp.

2) Consumers

⦁ In a grassland, consumers are of three main types;

a) Primary Consumers

⦁ The primary consumers are herbivores feeding directly on

grasses. These are grazing animals such as

⦁ Cows, Buffaloes, Sheep, Goats, Deer, Rabbits

etc.

⦁ Besides them, numerous species of insects,

termites, etc are also present.

b) Secondary Consumers

⦁ These are carnivores that feed on primary consumers

(Herbivores)

⦁ These include;-Frogs, Snakes, Lizards, Birds, Foxes, Jackals

etc.

c) Tertiary Consumers

⦁ These include hawks etc. which feed on secondary consumers.

3) Decomposers

⦁ These include wide variety of saprotrophic micro- organism like:

Bacteria; Fungi; Actinomycetes

⦁ They attract the dead or decayed bodies of organisms & thus

decomposition takes place.

⦁ Therefore, nutrients are released for reuse by producers.

II. Abiotic components

⦁ These include basic inorganic & organic compounds present in

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 the soil & aerial environment.

⦁ The essential elements like C, H, N, O, P, S etc. are supplied by

water, nitrogen, nitrates, sulphates, phosphates present in soil
& atmosphere.

FOREST ECOSYSTEM

The forest has the same structural organization as of a pond.

Abiotic components: The most important non-living component is

sunlight which is the principal source of energy. The other abiotic
components arc soil water, various soil salts and different
atmospheric gases like O2, CO2, and N2.

Biotic components: These include producers, macro-consumers and

micro-consumers.

⦁ Producers: (e.g.) bryophytes, pleridophytes, dicot and monocot

plants. There is a four tiered stratification of vegetation in a forest
namely tree layer, shrub layer, herb layer and ground layer.

⦁ Macro-consumers: There are three categories.

⦁ Primary Consumers: These are the herbivores animals like

rats, ants, grasshoppers, millipedes, fruit eating birds, deer,
monkeys and elephants.

⦁ Secondary consumers: These include wild dogs, jackals, tigers,

snakes and frogs which feed on primary consumers. Hence they
are the primary carnivores.

⦁ Tertiary consumers: These are referred to as secondary

carnivores (e.g.) eagles and hawks.

⦁ Micro-consumers: These are micro-organisms such as bacteria

and fungi. They are also called as decomposers.

FOOD CHAIN

Transfer of food from the plants (producers) through a series of

organisms with repeated eating and being eaten is called a food chain.
Three important features in food chains are :

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 ⦁ Weaker organisms are attacked by the stronger organisms
⦁ Number of organisms is reduced at each higher level but the
size of organisms is increases.
⦁ The number of steps in a food chain is limited to 4-5.
⦁ Each step in the food chain is called trophic level.

A food chain consists of the following trophic levels:

⦁ (Producers) Autotrophs: They produce food for all other

organisms of the ecosystem. Autotrophs represent the first
trophic level. They are largely green plants they convert
inorganic substances by the process of photosynthesis into food
(organic molecules) in the presence of sun light.

The total rate at which the radiant energy is stored by the process
of photosynthesis in the green plants is called Gross Primary
Productivity (GPP). This is also known as total photosynthesis. A
part of the gross primary productivity is utilized by the plants
for their own metabolism, maintenance and reproduction.
Energy required for all these functions is produced by the
process of respiration. The remaining is stored by them as Net
Primary, Productivity (NPP) and is available to the heterotrophs
or consumers, (The next trophic level).

GPP = NPP + R or GPP – R = NPP

Productivity in the biological system is a continuous process but

it is different in different ecosystems.

⦁ Primary consumers Herbivores: These are animals which feed

directly on the plants. They are first level consumers and
therefore they are also known as primary consumers and
make the second trophic level in the food chain e.g.
grasshopper in the above example. Other examples are insects,
birds, rodents and ruminants. Herbivores are capable of
converting energy stored in the plant tissue into animal tissue
and therefore they are also known as key industry. They can
digest high cellulose diet.

⦁ Secondary consumer Carnivores: Carnivores are the animals

that feed on other animals or its tissues. Therefore they are
secondary, tertiary or quaternary level consumers. Frog is
secondary level consumers as it feeds on herbivorous
grasshopper. Snake is tertiary level consumer since it consumes
other carnivore that is frog. Frog, snake, dog, cat and tiger are
all carnivores. Generally the size of the carnivore/ increases at
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 each trophic level.

⦁ Decomposers: They make up the final trophic level in a food

chain. Decomposers are the organisms that feed on dead
organic matter called detritus of all the trophic levels and help
in recycling the nutrients. They can be grouped into two classes:
micro-decomposers and macro-decomposers. Micro-
decomposers are very small microscopic organisms like
bacteria, fungi, and protozoans. Macro-decomposers are large
but less in number. They are visible to the naked eye e.g.
springtails, mites, millipedes, earthworms, nematodes, slugs,
crabs and molluscs.

Special feeding groups (Consumers)

⦁ Scavengers : These are the animals that feed on the dead

plants and animals. e.g. termites and beetles feed on the
decaying wood, and many marine invertebrates. Vultures, gulls
and hyena are other examples of scavengers.

⦁ Omnivores : Omnivores consume both plants and animals as

source of their food e.g. human beings. Some of the omnivores
like the red fox feeds on berries small rodents as well as on dead
animals. Thus it is a herbivore, carnivore and also a scavenger.

⦁ Parasites : They live and feed on/in other living organisms

called host. Parasites not only feed on their host but they also
cause lethal or nonlethal disease in it.

Position of human beings in the food chain

Human beings are consumers and may occupy primary, secondary or

tertiary levels. Vegetarian people are ‘primary consumers; when they
consume small fish chicken or goat meat they are ‘secondary’
consumers and when they consume big fishes they are ‘tertiary’
consumers.

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TYPES OF FOOD CHAIN

There are two types of food chains in nature i.e. Grazing food chain,
and Detritus food chain.

A. Grazing food chain: This type starts from green plants proceeds to
herbivores and ends in carnivores.

Examples of grazing food chain.

1. Grass cattle man

2. Grass rabbit fox wolf
tiger
3. Plants mouse snake hawk

Food chain in an aquatic ecosystem.

Phytoplankton zooplankton fish snake

⦁ Detritus food Chain: The dead organisms and the debris are
termed as detritus. They are decomposed and taken as food by
detrivores. Thus they release the essential elements into the
environment. Producers use these elements for their life process.
Termites, beetles and worms are some of the detrivores in the
terrestrial ecosystem. Insect larvae are aquatic decomposers. The

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 saprophytic fungi and bacteria come under this category. The
detrivores are eaten up by some protozoans. They are in turn
preyed upon by small fishes. Larger carnivorous fishes feed on
these small fishes.

Organic waste detrivores protozoa small

fish large fish

Fig. 3 Some examples of food chain.

FOOD WEB

In nature the food chains are not isolated sequences but they
are interconnected with one another. A net work of food chains which
are interconnected at various trophic levels of the food chain to form a
number of feeding connections is called a food web. In a food web one
trophic level may be connected to more than one food chain.

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

The flow of energy in an ecosystem is always linear or one way. The

quantity of energy flowing through the successive trophic levels
decreases as shown by the reduced sizes of boxes in Fig. 4. At every
step in a food chain or web the energy received by the organism is
used to sustain itself and the left over is passed on to the next trophic
level.

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 Fig. 4 Model of energy flow through an ecosystem

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

Ecological pyramid is a graphic representation of various trophic

levels of a food chain in an ecosystem These pyramids clearly reveal
the trophic structure and function of the ecosystem. In this
representation, producer level is represented at the base of the
pyramid, herbivores lie above the base, followed by first order
carnivores and so on with tertiary carnivores at the top.

These pyramids are of three types.

⦁ Pyramids of Numbers
⦁ Pyramids of Biomass
⦁ Pyramids of Energy

⦁ Pyramid of number: This represents the number of organisms

at each trophic level. For example in a grassland (Fig. 5) the
number of grasses is more than the number of herbivores that
feed on them and the number of herbivores is more than the
number of carnivores. In certain other cases, the reverse is
true. For example, in a tree ecosystem, the number of the
primary producers is the least and that of the ultimate
consumers is the maximum. A single fruit tree supports a large
number of fruit eating herbivorous birds. These in turn support
a still higher number of parasitic insects which are further
consumed by microbial parasites such as bacteria and fungi. In
this case, there is an increase in numbers from producers to
consumers of different orders, constituting an inverted pyramid
(Fig. 6.)

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 Fig 5. Pyramid of numbers : grassland Fig 6. Pyramid of numbers : Tree

⦁ Pyramid of biomass: Biomass is the total amount of organic

matter present in the organism at a given time per unit area.
Pyramid of biomass is a graphical representation of biomass
present per unit area in different trophic levels. In grassland
and forest ecosystem, the biomass of producers is the highest
of all the trophic levels. The biomass goes on decreasing from
primary producers to the top carnivores. Thus it forms an
upright pyramid (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7 Pyramid of biomass – Forest Fig. 8 Pyramid of biomass – Pond

In an aquatic ecosystem like that of a pond, the situation is

entirely reverse. The biomass of diatom and phytoplankton
(Primary producers) is very little compared to small herbivorous
fishes (primary consumers) that feed on them. The biomass of
large carnivorous fishes (secondary consumers) which feed on
the smaller fishes is the highest of all trophic levels. Thus the
relationship of biomass among organisms in such a food chain

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 results in an inverted pyramid (Fig.8).Pyramid of biomass follows
10 per cent law. Thus, 1000 Kg of grass would form only 100 Kg
of biomass in mice while the later would produce only 10 kg of
biomass in snakes. The snakes would produce only 1 Kg of
biomass in hawks.

⦁ Pyramids of Energy: It is a graphic representation of amount of

energy trapped in different trophic levels in a food chain. The
primary producers of an ecosystem trap the radiant energy of
the sun and convert it into potential chemical energy. This
trapped energy lows in the food chain from the producers to the
top carnivore which decreases at successive tropic levels. Thus
an upright pyramid is always formed (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9 Pyramid of energy

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

The cycling of the nutrients in the biosphere is called biogeochemical

or nutrient cycle. It involves movement of nutrient elements through
the various components of an ecosystem. These elements are
continuously cycling in the ecosystem through the biogeochemical
cycles and the planet earth has no input of these nutrients. The
nutrients (matter) from the dead remains of organisms are recovered
and made available to the producers by decomposers. Thus the
nutrients are never lost from the ecosystems.

⦁ Carbon cycle

Atmospheric carbon dioxide is the source of all carbon in both living

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organisms as well as in the fossils (used as fossil fuel). It is highly
soluble in water. Oceans also contain large quantities of dissolved
carbon dioxide and bicarbonates. The carbon cycle comprises the
following processes:

Photosynthesis : Terrestrial and aquatic plants utilize CO2 for

photosynthesis. Through this process the inorganic form of carbon is
converted into organic matter in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll. The carbon dioxide is thus fixed and assimilated by
plants. It is partly used by them for their own life processes and the
rest is stored as their biomass which is available to the heterotrophs
as food.

Respiration : Respiration is a metabolic process reverse of

photosynthesis in which food is oxidized to liberate energy (to perform
the various life processes) and carbon dioxide and water. Thus the
carbon dioxide of the atmosphere is recovered through this process.

Decomposition : After the death of the organisms the decomposers

break down the remaining dead organic matter and release the left
over carbon back into the atmosphere.

Combustion : Fossil fuel such as crude oil, coal, natural gas or heavy
oils on burning releases carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide into the
atmosphere. Forests make a large amount of fossil fuel. Fossil fuel is
product of complete or partial decomposition of plants and animals as a
result of exposure to heat and pressure in the earth’s crust over millions
of years. Forests also act like carbon reservoirs as carbon fixed by them
cycles very slowly due to their long life. They release CO2 by forest
fires.

Impact of human activities : Carbon dioxide is continuously

increasing in the atmosphere due to human activities such as
industrialization, urbanization and increased use of automobiles. This
increase in atmospheric CO2 is bading to green house effect and
global warming.

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 Fig. 10 The Carbon Cycle

⦁ Nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen is an essential component of protein and required by all

living organisms including human beings. Our atmosphere contains
nearly 79% of nitrogen but it can not be used directly by the majority
of living organisms. Broadly like corbondioxide, nitrogen also cycles
from gaseous phase to solid phase then back to gaseous phase
through the activity of a wide variety of organisms. Cycling of nitrogen
is vitally important for all living organisms. There are five main
processes which essential for nitrogen cycle are elaborated below.

⦁ Nitrogen fixation: This process involves conversion of gaseous

nitrogen into Ammonia, a form in which it can be used by plants.
Atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed by the following three methods:

⦁ Atmospheric fixation: Lightening, combustion and volcanic

activity help in the fixation of nitrogen.
⦁ Industrial fixation: At high temperature (400oC) and high
pressure (200 atm.), molecular nitrogen is broken into atomic
nitrogen which then combines with hydrogen to form ammonia.
⦁ Bacterial fixation: There are two types of bacteria-

⦁ Symbiotic bacteria e.g. Rhizobium in the root nodules of

leguminous plants.

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 ⦁ Free living or symbiotic e.g. 1. Nostoc 2. Azobacter 3.
Cyanobacteria can combine atmospheric or dissolved
nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia.

⦁ Nitrification: It is a process by which ammonia is converted into

nitrates or nitrites by Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus bacteria
respectively. Another soil bacteria Nitrobacter can covert nitrate
into nitrite.
⦁ Assimilation: In this process nitrogen fixed by plants is converted
into organic molecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA etc. These
molecules make the plant and animal tissue.
⦁ Ammonification : Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste
products such as urea and uric acid. These waste products as well
as dead remains of organisms are converted back into inorganic
ammonia by the bacteria This process is called ammonification.
Ammonifying bacteria help in this process.
⦁ Denitrification: Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen
is called denitrification. Denitrifying bacteria live deep in soil near
the water table as they like to live in oxygen free medium.
Denitrification is reverse of nitrogen fixation.

Fig. 11 The Nitrogen Cycle

⦁ Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorous cycle is another important nutrient cycle-which is shown

in Fig. 12. The reservoir of phosphorus lies in the rocks, fossils etc.
which is excavated by man for using it as a fertilizer. Farmers use the
phosphate fertilizers indiscriminately and as a result excess

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phosphates are lost as run-off, which causes the problem of
eutrophication or over nourishment of lakes leading to algal blooms. A
good proportion of phosphates moving with surface runoff reaches the
oceans and lost into the deep sediments. The limited supply of
phosphorus lying in the phosphate rocks of this earth is thus over-
exploited and a large part is taken out of the normal cycle due to loss
into oceans. Sea birds, on the other hand, are playing an important
role in phosphorus cycling. They eat sea-fishes which are phosphorus
rich and the droppings or excreta of the birds return the phosphorus
on the land.

Fig. 12 The phosphorus cycle

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