CIVL 1101 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials - Part 2 1/5

Stress–Strain Diagrams Tension Test

 The mechanical properties of materials are determined by  The axial stress  in the test specimen is calculated by
tests performed on small specimens of the material dividing the load P by the cross–sectional area A

 In order that test results

 Strain in the bar is found from the measured elongation 
may be compared easily,
between the gage marks by dividing  by the
the dimensions of test
gage length L
specimens and the
methods of applying loads
have been standardized

 Standards organizations: American Society

for Testing and Materials (ASTM), American
Standards Association (ASA) and the
National Bureau of Standards (NBS)

Developing a Stress–Strain Diagram Developing a Stress–Strain Diagram

 After performing a tension or compression test and
determining the stress and strain at various magnitudes of
the load, we can plot a diagram of stress versus strain
 Stress–strain diagrams were originated by:
Jacob Bernoulli (1654–1705) and J. V. Poncelet (1788–
1867)

Stress–Strain for Steel Stress–Strain for Steel

 The first material we will discuss is: structural steel

 A stress–strain diagram for a typical structural steel in
tension is shown: 60

s
40
Fracture
Ultimate Stress
Yield Stress 20

0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25

Strain

Elastic Plastic Strain Necking 
Hardening
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials - Part 2 2/5

Stress–Strain for Aluminum Stress–Strain for Rubber

 

60 3

Steel Hard Rubber

40 2

Aluminum Soft Rubber

20 1

2 4 6 8
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
 
Strain Strain

Linear Elasticity Linear Elasticity

The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in
simple tension or compression can be expressed by the
 When a material returns to its original dimensions after equation:
unloading, it is called elastic

 When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a   E

linear relationship between stress and strain, it is said to be
linearly elastic. where E is a constant known as the

modulus of elasticity
(units are either psi or Pa)

Hooke’s Law Hooke’s Law

The equation  = E  commonly known as Hooke’s law  The modulus of elasticity E has relatively large values for
materials that are very stiff, such as structural metals
 For the famous English scientist
Robert Hooke (1635–1703).
 Steel has a modulus of 30,000 ksi or 200 GPa
 Hooke was the first person to investigate  Aluminum is approximately 10,600ksi or 70 GPa
the elastic properties of materials, and he
tested such diverse materials as metal,  Wood is 1,600 ksi or 11 Gpa
wood, stone, bones, and sinews.
 The modulus of elasticity is often called
 He measured the stretching of long wires Youug’s modulus, after another English
supporting weights and observed that the scientist, Thomas Young (1773–1829)
elongations “always bear the same
proportions one to the other that the
weights do that make them”
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials - Part 2 3/5

Linear Elasticity Linear Elasticity

If the material in the bar is considered linear-elastic and the tensile stress If you substitute the formulas for stress and strain into
is 25,000 psi and the tensile strain is 0.005, what is the modulus of Hooke’s Law you get:
elasticity of the material?
P
  
  E  E   E A
  

25,000 psi
L
E
0.005
 5,000,000 psi P 
E
 5  10 psi
6
A L

Group Problem 6 Stress–Strain Diagram

Determine the cross-sectional area of a 100-ft. steel cable  Materials that undergo large strains before failure are
supporting a 20,000 lb. tensile force while not exceed the an classified as ductile
allowable tensile stress of 50,000 psi or a maximum
elongation of 0.050 ft. Assume the modulus of elasticity of  Ductile materials include mild steel, aluminum and some
steel is E = 29,000,000 psi (assume all value are “exact” of its alloys, copper, magnesium, lead, molybdenum,
measurements). nickel, brass, bronze, nylon, teflon, and many others
s

Fracture
Ultimate Stress

Yield Stress

Elastic Plastic Strain Necking 

Hardening

Stress–Strain Diagram Compression Test

 Materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of  Compression tests of metals are customarily made on
strain are classified as brittle materials. small specimens in the shape of cubes or circular
cylinders.
 Examples are concrete, stone, cast iron, glass, ceramic
 Concrete is tested in compression on every
materials, and many common metallic alloys.
important construction project to ensure that
 Ordinary glass is a nearly the required strengths have been obtained.

ideal brittle material

 The standard ASTM concrete test specimen

is 6 in. in diameter, 12 in. long, and 28 days
old (the age of concrete is important
because concrete gains strength as it
cures)
Strain 
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials - Part 2 4/5

Compression Test Compression Test

 Stress–strain diagrams for compression have different  However, when yielding begins, the behavior is quite
shapes from those for tension. different. Consider compression of copper:

 Ductile metals such as steel, aluminum, and copper have
proportional limits in compression very close to those in 60

tension.
40

20


0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Strain

Elasticity Plasticity
 The stress–strain diagrams described in the preceding  Now let us suppose that we load this same material to a
section illustrate the behavior of various materials as they much higher level
are loaded statically in tension or compression.

 If the loading is too great a
 Now let us consider what happens when the load is slowly residual strain, or
removed, and the material is unloaded permanent strain, remains Loading
in the material

Unloading
 The corresponding residual
Loading elongation of the bar is
called the permanent set. Elastic 
The material is said to be Residual Elastic
partially elastic Strain Recovery
Unloading

Elastic


Creep Relaxation
 Development of additional strains over long periods of
time and are said to creep 

0 Tight cable


d0

P t0 Time
t0 Time
CIVL 1101 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials - Part 2 5/5

Mechanics of Materials

End of Part 2

Any Questions?