CHAPTER

3
Analyzing an Experimental Design

CONTENTS
Introduction 60
Learning Objectives 60
Correlations With Nationwide Standards 60

Constructing an Experimental Design Diagram 62

Box 3-1 Practice—Experimental Design Diagram 63

Diagramming an Experiment 65
Box 3-2 Experiment—Huff, Puff, and Slide 67

Assessing an Experimental Design Diagram 69

Using a Checklist 69
Box 3-3 Checklist—Experimental Design Diagram 70
Comparing Assessments 71
Box 3-4 Practice—Assessing Experimental Design Diagram 73

Designing Experiments With Multiple Independent 77

Variables
Repeated Measures Over Time 77
Repeated Treatments of Subjects 78
Two Independent Variables 80

Exploring STEM Connections 81

Box 3-5 STEM Perspective—Huff, Puff, and Slide 83

References 87

59
60  Part One  Engaging in Experimentation

INTRODUCTION
At this point you know the components of an experiment and what they mean. Suppose a scientist
conducted an experiment which involved “amount of water.” Then the scientist asked you: “Was
the amount of water the independent variable, the dependent variable, a controlled variable, or the
control group in the experiment?” What would you say? It’s a tough question. In fact, it is impos-
sible to answer the question given what you were told. The amount of water could be any of the
choices depending on its role in the experiment. In Chapter 3, you will use a diagram to communi-
cate the role of various components in an experiment. Also, you will use an expanded checklist to
analyze the experimental design diagram and recommend improvements.

Learning Objectives
Specific learning objectives for Chapter 3, Analyzing an Experimental Design, include:

➤➤ Identify the major experimental components in a structured investigation or scenario:

independent and dependent variables, question, hypothesis, control group, controlled
variables, and number of repeated trials;
➤➤ Develop an experimental design diagram to communicate the major experimental compo-
nents;
➤➤ Respectfully ask questions, provide feedback, and receive critiques; cite relevant evi-
dence;
➤➤ Use a checklist to evaluate and revise an experimental design diagram so better qualita-
tive and/or quantitative data are generated to test a hypothesis; and
➤➤ Use argumentation skills to compare assessments of an experimental design diagram.

Correlations With Nationwide Standards

In Table 3-1, the core Chapter objectives and STEM concepts are correlated with nationwide learn-
ing standards. The correlations for “Exploring STEM connections” are shown in italics. For a
synopsis see Appendix A.
©Angela Shvedova/Shutterstock.com
 Chapter 3  Analyzing an Experimental Design  61

TABLE 3-1  Correlations With Nationwide Standards

NEXT GENERATION SCIENCE STANDARDS

▶▶ Scientific & Engineering Practices: Asking questions and defining problems; Planning
and carrying out investigations; Constructing explanations and designing solutions;
Using mathematics and computational thinking; Engaging in argument from evidence;
Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information
▶▶ Cross-Cutting Concepts: Patterns; Cause and effect; Systems and system models
▶▶ Disciplinary Core Ideas: Motion and stability; Energy; Heredity; Earth’s systems;
Engineering Design; Links among engineering, technology, science, and society

COMMON CORE STANDARDS—MATHEMATICS

▶▶ Mathematical Practices: Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of
others; Model with mathematics
▶▶ Mathematical Domains: Interpreting categorical and quantitative data; Expression and
equations; Functions; Interpreting functions

COMMON CORE STANDARDS—LITERACY IN SCIENCE AND TECHNICAL SUBJECTS

▶▶ Reading: Cite textual evidence; Determine key ideas or conclusion; Follow multi-step
procedure; Determine meaning of symbols, key terms, etc.; Integrate words and visual
representations; Read and comprehend text
▶▶ Writing: Write arguments; Conduct short research projects; Gather relevant
information; Draw information from informational texts

ISTE STANDARDS—STUDENTS
▶▶ Creativity and innovation: Identify trends and forecast possibilities
▶▶ Research and information fluency: Process data and report results; Locate . . . and use
information from a variety of sources/media; Evaluate and select information sources
and digital tools based on the appropriateness to specific tasks
▶▶ Critical thinking, problem solving, and decision making: Collect and analyze data to
identify solutions and/or make informed decisions
▶▶ Digital citizenship: Demonstrate personal responsibility for lifelong learning; Advocate
and practice safe, legal, and responsible use of information and technology; Exhibit a
positive attitude toward using technology that supports collaboration, learning, and
productivity
▶▶ Technology operations and concepts: Understand and use technology systems

Source: Confrey & Krupa, 2012, p. 9; Morphew, V. N., 2011, pp. 299–300; National Governors Association Center for
Best Practices, 2010, English language & literacy, pp. 64–66; National Governors Association Center for Best Practices,
2010, Mathematics, pp. 6–8; NGSS Lead States, 2013, Volume 1, p.1; NGSS Lead States, 2013, Volume 2, pp. 67–79.
62  Part One  Engaging in Experimentation

CONSTRUCTING AN EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN DIAGRAM

Although lists can be useful tools of analysis, diagrams are frequently more powerful tools. For
example, you can analyze an experiment by listing its components. However, constructing an
experimental design diagram of the same experiment is a more effective way to quickly visualize
the design of the experiment.
To construct an experimental design diagram for an experiment with one independent variable
follow these steps.

1. Write a testable question: Communicate what you want to learn about the effect of the
independent variable on the dependent variable.
2. State a hypothesis: If the (independent variable) is (describe how you changed it), then
the (dependent variable) will (describe the effect) because (state the reason).
3. Draw a rectangle and subdivide it into three rows. In the first row write the independent
variable (IV).
4. In the second row, communicate the levels of the independent variable. To do this, sub-
divide the row into a column for each level of the independent variable. Write the specific
levels of the independent variable (IV) above each of the columns. If one of the levels is used
as the control group for the experiment, write the words control group under that level.
5. In the third row, communicate the number of repeated trials. Subdivide this third row
into the same number of columns as the second row. In each column, write the number of
repeated trials conducted for each level of the independent variable.
6. Put the dependent variable (DV) below the rectangle.
7. Write a list of controlled variables (CV).

In Figure 3-1, the general format of an experimental design diagram is illustrated. Use Figure 3-1
to construct an experimental design diagram for the scenarios given in Box 3-1, Practice—Exper-
imental Design Diagram.

FIGURE 3-1  General Format for an Experimental Design Diagram

WRITE A TESTABLE QUESTION  Communicate what you want to learn about the effect of
the independent variable on the dependent variable.
STATE A HYPOTHESIS  If the independent variable is (describe change), then the depen-
dent variable will (describe effect) because (state the reason).
IV: Write the independent variable.
Divide this row, and the one below it into columns, one for each level of the
independent variable. Place the words control group below the standard of
comparison.
In each column, write the number of repeated trials conducted for each level of
the independent variable.
DV  Write the dependent variable.
CV  Write a list of controlled variables.
 Name Date

PRACTICE
3-1 Experimental Design Diagram

DIRECTIONS  Read several of the scenarios and construct an experimental design diagram.
Use the available information within the scenario.

1. Zelda’s friends were always talking about how smart their

dogs were. Of course Zelda thought her Chihuahua, even
though small, was the smartest. For a project, Zelda decided
to see if some breeds of dogs learn behaviors faster than
others. She used her Chihuahua, and asked her neighbors

©Kendall Hunt
if she could borrow a poodle, a German shepherd, a Saint
Bernard, and a Fox Terrier. In the basement of her home,
Zelda tried to teach each dog to sit and shake hands using
“Dawg Treats” as a reward. She gave each dog a 30-minute lesson. She repeated the
lessons over five days. If the dog learned she recorded the number of lessons required to
teach the trick. If the dog never learned the trick she recorded that.

2. Dion moved his trophies from his bedroom to the basement den of
his house. He noticed the trophies needed more dusting. Because

©Natsmith1/Shutterstock.com
people often came into the basement from the yard and tracked dirt
on the carpet, he thought if he put the trophies on higher shelves
there would be less dust. He cut fourteen identical pieces of wax
paper, covered them all lightly with petroleum jelly, and attached the
paper to metal coat hangers. He hung two hangers so the bottom
of the paper was at 0, 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, 1.2, 1.5, and 1.8 m off the floor
in the hallway. A week later he took the hangers down. Holding the
greased wax paper in front of a bright light, he compared the amounts of dust collected
at each height, e.g., small, medium, and large.

3. When studying fossils in her Earth Science class, Casandra learned

different fossils are deposited over time. She knew fossils were present
©Hein Nouwens/Shutterstock.com

in the cliff behind her house, and thought the fossils might change as
she went from the top to the bottom of the bank because of changing
life over time. She marked the bank at five positions: 5, 10, 15, 20,
and 25 m from the surface. She removed three buckets of soil from
each of the positions and determined the kind and number of fossils in
each sample. Casandra was an experienced rock climber and worked
with her Dad to follow safety precautions when collecting the soil.

63
4. Carlos read that seedlings compete for light, water, and nutrients.
This is why gardeners thin seedlings to have good flowers. Carlos
decided to test how close together the seeds could be planted
before the plants were harmed. He bought some marigold seeds

©Marta Jonina/Shutterstock.com
and potting soil and got 12 paper salad bowls of the same size
from his mom. Carlos punched four holes in the bottom of each
bowl. Then, he filled each bowl two-thirds full, which took 350 ml
of soil. In the first set of three bowls, he planted one seed in each
of the bowls; this would be the comparison. For each set of three
bowls, he planted different numbers of seeds, e.g., 2, 4, and 8
seeds per bowl. Carlos placed the bowls in a tray in the window so
the plants received the same light. Every three days he gave the plants the same amount
of water. After 25 days Carlos counted how many plants were in each container. He also
measured the plants’ heights (cm) and described the plants as healthy or unhealthy.

5. Amanda wanted to determine if the color of food affected

what kindergarten students would select. She put food
coloring into four identical bowls of mashed potatoes. The
colors were red, green, yellow, and blue. She also had a

©itVega/Shutterstock.com
fifth bowl of natural mashed potatoes. Because an earlier
survey had shown red to be the students’ favorite color
she thought the students would select this color most
often. Each student indicated their choice. Amanda did the
experiment using a total of 100 students. She recorded the
number of students choosing each color. (Notice, the students did not eat the potatoes.)

6. Lou read the juice of the Aloe vera plant promoted the healing of
burned tissue. He decided to investigate the effect of varying the
concentration of A. vera on the regeneration of planarian. Lou
bisected planarian to obtain 10 parts (5 heads and 5 tails). For each
experimental group, he applied concentrations of 0%, 10%, 20%,
©TheBlackRhino/Shutterstock.com

and 30% A. vera to the planarian parts. Fifteen milliliters of A.vera

solutions were applied. All planarian were maintained in a growth
chamber with identical food, temperature, and humidity. Lou thought
the higher concentration solutions would promote healing. On Day
15 Lou observed the regeneration of the planarian heads and tails; he
categorized regeneration as full, partial, or none.

64
 Chapter 3  Analyzing an Experimental Design  65

DIAGRAMMING AN EXPERIMENT
Knowing how to construct an experimental design diagram is of little use unless you can apply
these skills to an experiment you are conducting, whether in class or of your own design. To test
your application skills conduct the investigation in Box 3-2, Experiment—Huff, Puff, and Slide.

©Eduardo Liuzzo/Shutterstock.com
 O R K SP
W

AC
MY

66
 Name Date

EXPERIMENT
3-2 Huff, Puff, and Slide

QUESTION  How far can I blow a cup?

HYPOTHESIS  Construct your own.

MATERIALS SAFETY
▶▶ Safety goggles ▶▶ Wear safety goggles and appropriate
▶▶ Long, flat, smooth surface (about 2 m) protective equipment.

▶▶ Meter stick ▶▶ If you have respiratory problems do not

conduct this experiment.
▶▶ Plastic container, about 250 ml (8 oz)
▶▶ Wash hands after investigating.
▶▶ Pennies, 10
▶▶ Follow your teacher’s directions for
safety, cleaning the laboratory area, and
disposing of materials.
▶▶ See Appendix B, Using Safe Procedures

PROCEDURE
1. Place two pennies in the container.
2. Place your chin on one end of the smooth surface.
Place the container 15 cm from your chin.
3. Blow as hard as you can on the side of the container.
Measure how far the container slides in centimeters.
Record your data.
4. Repeat steps 1–3 with 4, 6, and 10 pennies in the
container.
©Kendall Hunt

67
 DATA TABLE
Number of Pennies Distance Moved (cm)
2
4
6
10

ANALYZING THE EXPERIMENT

1. Construct an experimental design diagram for Huff, Puff, and Slide.

2. Describe ways you can improve the experiment.

3. What is your confidence in the experimental data? How could you modify the
experimental design to improve confidence in the data?

68
 Chapter 3  Analyzing an Experimental Design  69

ASSESSING AN EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN DIAGRAM

In your analysis of the Huff, Puff, and Slide investigation, you constructed an experimental design
diagram. How does your experimental design diagram compare with ours, which is shown in
Figure 3-2?

FIGURE 3-2  Experimental Design Diagram for Huff, Puff, and Slide

QUESTION  How far can I blow a cup?

HYPOTHESIS  If the number of pennies is increased, then the distance the cup will
slide will decrease because it has a greater mass.
IV: Number of Pennies
2 Pennies 4 Pennies 6 Pennies 10 Pennies
1 Trial 1 Trial 1 Trial 1 Trial
DV Distance container slides (cm)
CV Size of container
Shape of container
Slide surface

Using a Checklist
From the experimental design diagram you can spot the missing parts quickly and easily. For exam-
ple, there is no control group designated in the experiment. Other components may be present, but
of poor quality. To assess the quality of experimental components it is helpful to use a checklist.
In Box 3-3, the checklist from Chapter 2 was expanded to include questions about the experimental
design diagram, creativity, and complexity of the proposed experiment. Use the checklist in Box
3-3 to review the Huff, Puff, and Slide experiment. Then, compare your analysis with ours.
©surassawadee/Shutterstock.com
 3-3 ✓ CHECKLIST
Experimental Design Diagram

EXPERIMENTAL COMPONENT
SELF
CHECK
PEER
CHECK
POINT
VALUE GRADE
QUESTION
1. Is there a question?   3
2. Does the question communicate what you want to learn about   6
the interaction of the IV and DV?
HYPOTHESIS
3. Is there a hypothesis?   3
4. Does the hypothesis clearly state how changing the IV will affect   6
the DV?
5. Does the hypothesis state the reason for the prediction?   3
6. Is a directional hypothesis written? If not, is a reason provided   6
for the non-directional hypothesis?
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
7. Is there just one IV? Operationally defined?   9
8. Are the levels of the IV clearly stated? Operationally defined?   9
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
9. Is there one or more DV? Operationally defined?   9
CONTROLLED VARIABLES
10. Does the list of CV include the major factors that might impact   6
the experimental outcome?
11. Is each of the identified CV operationally defined?   3
CONTROL GROUP
12. Is there a control group? Operationally defined?   9
REPEATED TRAILS
13. Are there repeated trials?   6
14. Are there a sufficient number of repeated trials?   3
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN DIAGRAM
15. Are the components placed in the proper place?   6
16. Are any components missing?   3
CREATIVITY AND COMPLEXITY
17. Is the experimental design creative?   5
18. Is the experimental design at an appropriate level of complexity?   5
TOTAL 100
COMMENTS

70
 Chapter 3  Analyzing an Experimental Design  71

Comparing Assessments
With the checklist you identified strengths and weaknesses of the experiment, which may be dif-
ferent from ours. By comparing assessments you can develop a stronger set of recommendations
for improving the Huff, Puff, and Slide experiment.

Question. The question—“How far can I blow a cup?”—is too general. The question needs
to focus on the variables being investigated, e.g., “How does the number of pennies impact the
distance a cup will slide?”

Hypothesis. The hypothesis is already stated in an “if . . ., then . . . because . . .” format and
requires no change.

Independent Variable. The independent variable, number of pennies, is correct. The unit of
mass in this experiment is the mass of a U.S. penny which is approximately the same for all pen-
nies. To be more precise you could measure the mass of the pennies using units such as grams. The
levels are clearly stated, but the sequence of 2-4-6-10 pennies is missing the level of 8 pennies.
The levels of the independent variable are usually set at equal intervals or multiples, such as 2-4-
6-8-10 pennies.

Dependent Variable. This variable is the distance traveled (cm). Using the metric unit (cm)
to operationally define distance is appropriate. One improvement would be to state which path you
measured: a straight line or the actual path the container took.

Controlled Variables. The controlled variables could be stated more clearly. You could
describe the type of smooth surface, perhaps a polished wooden table, stone countertop, or a lino-
leum floor. Likewise, describe the type of container, such as a clear plastic cup (250 ml) or a specific
brand and size of margarine container (Golden Glow, 250 ml). Tell where to aim the air stream, at
the base or the middle of the container. Indicate if the container was covered or uncovered.

Control Group. A zero (0) pennies level of the independent variable should be added and
labeled as the control group. This would be a no treatment control group.

Repeated Trials. There is a problem here! Only one trial was done. When you conduct repeated
trials you test each level of the independent variable several times. A major way to improve this
experiment would be to add around five trials. Remember, repeated trials are used to reduce the
effects of chance errors and to increase confidence in the findings. Because the data are quantita-
tive calculate the mean.

Experimental Design Diagram. The control group is missing. The other components are
shown in the appropriate place (see Figure 3-1).

Creativity and Complexity. Deciding upon creativity and appropriateness are “judgment
calls” on your part. Creativity means novel and appropriate outcomes are presented. These could
be a novel topic for the experiment, an unusual hypothesis, or unique ways the independent, depen-
dent, and controlled variables are defined. In the following chapters, we will discuss how creativity
can be demonstrated in various experimental components.
72  Part One  Engaging in Experimentation

For an experiment to be appropriate, it should address a question whose answer is unknown to

the investigator. Determining the effect of different colors of ground covers on plant growth is an
appropriate experiment, whereas determining the effect of light versus no light on plant growth is
not. Almost everyone knows plants will die without light. In determining appropriateness consider
the experimenter’s background knowledge. An appropriate experiment for a sixth grader is not an
appropriate experiment for a high school senior. Huff, Puff, and Slide may be an appropriate exper-
iment for a middle school student who needs to better understand the relationships among force,
mass, and distance traveled. However, an older student would need to explore more complex rela-
tionships, including derived dependent variables such as velocity, acceleration, and kinetic energy.
For the independent variable, older students could investigate factors such as the position of the
mass in the cup or the direction of the force on the cup.
As you can see, using a combination of an experimental design diagram and checklist is an effec-
tive way to analyze and improve an experiment. Use the checklist to assess the experiments in
Box 3-4, Practice—Assessing Experimental Design Diagram.

©De Visu/Shutterstock.com
 Name Date

PRACTICE
3-4 Assessing Experimental Design Diagram

DIRECTIONS  Use the checklist from Box 3-3 to assess several of the experimental design
diagrams below, or ones assigned by your teacher. For your convenience, a checklist follows
the designs. For each scenario summarize ways to improve the experimental design.

Scenario 1:  Compost and Bean Plants

©Popup/Shutterstock.com
QUESTION  Does age impact the nutrient content of compost?

HYPOTHESIS  If older compost is applied, then the bean plants

will grow taller because more nutrients are available.
IV: Age of Compost
3-Month-old Compost 6-Month-old Compost No Compost (control group)
25 plants 25 plants 25 plants
DV Height of plants (cm)
CV Type of compost—grass
Bean plants
Amount of compost—450 g
Same sunlight conditions
Same water every 2 days
Time to grow—30 days
WAYS TO IMPROVE

Scenario 2:  Depth and Water Pressure

QUESTION  How does depth impact water pressure?

©courtesy of author
HYPOTHESIS  If the depth of the hole is increased, then the
distance squirted will increase.
IV: Depth of hole below surface (cm)
5 cm 10 cm 15 cm 20 cm
3 cartons 3 cartons 3 cartons 3 cartons
DV Distance liquid squirted (cm)
CV Identical paper milk cartons
Height of liquid in container—30 cm
Liquid—water
WAYS TO IMPROVE

73
74  Part One  Engaging in Experimentation

Scenario 3:  Effectiveness of Insulation

©Mike Price/Shutterstock.com
QUESTION  Does brand impact the effectiveness of insulation?

HYPOTHESIS  If jars of water are wrapped with different brands of

insulation, then the temperature of the water in the jars will change
by different amounts.

IV: Brand of Insulation

Discount Green
Smith
Lowes TM Home Depot TM Building Contracting
Builders
Supplies Company
1 jar 1 jar 1 jar 1 jar 1 jar

DV Temperature of water in jar

CV Jars all ½ full
Jars placed in direct sunlight for 4 hr
Jars fitted with plastic lids
WAYS TO IMPROVE

©Anton Mykhailovskyi/Shutterstock.com
Scenario 4: Metals and Rusting Iron
QUESTION  How do active metals impact the rusting of iron?

HYPOTHESIS  If the chemical activity of the metallic wrapper

is increased, then less rusting will occur because the acid will
react with the wrapper.

IV: Type of Metallic Wrapping Strip

Iron Nail with No
Iron Nail with Iron Nail with Iron Nail with
Metal
Magnesium Aluminum Lead
(control group)
6 nails 6 nails 6 nails 6 nails

DV Amount of rusting (small, moderate, large)

Color of water
CV Plastic cup—250 ml
Amount of water—200 ml
Type of nail—galvanized iron nail, 15.2 cm
Dimensions of metallic wrapper—5 cm x 22 cm
Length of experiment—2 weeks
WAYS TO IMPROVE
 Chapter 3  Analyzing an Experimental Design  75

© laschi/Shutterstock.com
Scenario 5: Dropping Magnets
QUESTION  Does dropping harm a magnet?

HYPOTHESIS  The more times a magnet is dropped the fewer iron

filings it will pick up because my teacher said dropping harms magnets.

IV: Number of Times Magnet Dropped

5 drops 10 drops 15 drops
10 magnets 10 magnets 10 magnets

DV Mass of iron filings picked up (g)

CV Craft bar magnets, 30 of same brand
Height dropped—1.5 m
Type of floor—cement
WAYS TO IMPROVE

Scenario 6: Perfumed Bees

©Sign N Symbol Production/

QUESTION  Do perfumes worry bees?

Shutterstock.com
HYPOTHESIS  If the perfume contains an ester, then the bees will fly
more around the hive because they are agitated by the chemical.

IV: Type of Perfume

Perfume 1 Perfume 2 Perfume 3
(Wooden Glade) (Meadow) (Eastern Spice)
4 trials 4 trials 4 trials

DV Time to emerge from hive (min)

Flight pattern observed over 15 min
CV Amount of perfume—10 ml
Distance from the hive—3 m
Container for perfume—clear plastic plate
Placement of container—grass
Same weather conditions—air temperature and wind
Recovery time between trials—30 min
WAYS TO IMPROVE
✓ ASSESSMENT
Scenarios of Experimental Designs

EXPERIMENTAL COMPONENT
SELF
CHECK
PEER
CHECK
POINT
VALUE GRADE
QUESTION
1. Is there a question?   3
2. Does the question communicate what you want to learn about   6
the interaction of the IV and DV?
HYPOTHESIS
3. Is there a hypothesis?   3
4. Does the hypothesis clearly state how changing the IV will affect   6
the DV?
5. Does the hypothesis state the reason for the prediction?   3
6. Is a directional hypothesis written? If not, is a reason provided   6
for the non-directional hypothesis?
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
7. Is there just one IV? Operationally defined?   9
8. Are the levels of the IV clearly stated? Operationally defined?   9
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
9. Is there one or more DV? Operationally defined?   9
CONTROLLED VARIABLES
10. Does the list of CV include the major factors that might impact   6
the experimental outcome?
11. Is each of the identified CV operationally defined?   3
CONTROL GROUP
12. Is there a control group? Operationally defined?   9
REPEATED TRAILS
13. Are there repeated trials?   6
14. Are there a sufficient number of repeated trials?   3
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN DIAGRAM
15. Are the components placed in the proper place?   6
16. Are any components missing?   3
CREATIVITY AND COMPLEXITY
17. Is the experimental design creative?   5
18. Is the experimental design at an appropriate level of complexity?   5
TOTAL 100
COMMENTS

76
 Chapter 3  Analyzing an Experimental Design  77

DESIGNING EXPERIMENTS WITH MULTIPLE

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
The first part of this chapter focused on experiments involving one independent variable. However,
scientists do not always confine themselves to one independent variable. Experiments may include
repeated measurements and two or more variables. Once you have experimented with one inde-
pendent variable, you may find you need to design a more complex experiment to test a hypoth-
esis. This chapter component will provide a basis for designing and diagramming more complex
experiments.

Repeated Measures Over Time

A typical change to experiments with one independent variable is to obtain multiple measures
of the dependent variable over time. An experiment to determine the influence of earthworms
on soil quality would be enhanced by reporting results weekly, rather than at the end of a two-
month period. Similarly, the influence of aerobic exercise on resting pulse rate can be more
accurately assessed with monthly measurements, rather than one measurement at the end of
the year. This design is particularly effective when different effects over time are hypothesized.
One fertilizer may act more quickly than another to promote plant growth, yet they may pro-
duce equivalent growth at six weeks. To understand how an experimental design diagram would
be produced for an experiment involving repeated measures over time, look at a scenario
involving crickets.

Scenario. Juan read bees were attracted to certain colors and wondered whether crickets
also had a color preference. He hypothesized crickets would be attracted to the brightest
color, red. He divided an aquarium into four sections; the sections contained a red, blue,
green, and no plate. Juan put 2 g of mustard seeds in each dish. Then, he put 30 crickets
into the aquarium. He observed the number of crickets in each section at the end of 30,
60, 90, and 120 min. Also, Juan recorded the mass of mustard seeds (g) consumed at the
end of 120 min. He repeated the experiment on five different days and was careful to
keep the amount of light the same.

In this experiment there are two independent variables—color of dish and time. Also, there are
two dependent variables: the number of crickets, which is recorded at specific times, and the
mass of mustard seeds consumed, which is measured only at the end of the experiment. In this
experimental design, one independent variable is shown on the side and the second independent
variable across the top (see Figure 3-3). Although these variables can be switched, we prefer to
put time across the top. This preference is related to how graphs are constructed, which will be
discussed in Chapter 6. In this experiment, a graph would typically have time on the x-axis, the
number of crickets on the y-axis, and multiple trends to represent the number of crickets in each
section of the container.
78  Part One  Engaging in Experimentation

FIGURE 3-3  Attraction of Crickets to Color

QUESTION  Are crickets attracted to different colors?

HYPOTHESIS  If crickets are fed from different colored plates, then they will be more
attracted to a red plate, which is brighter.

IV: Color IV: Time (min)

of dish 30 min 60 min 90 min 120 min
None
(control 5 trials 5 trials 5 trials 5 trials
group)
Red 5 trials 5 trials 5 trials 5 trials
Blue 5 trials 5 trials 5 trials 5 trials
Green 5 trials 5 trials 5 trials 5 trials

DV Number of crickets in each section at 30, 60, 90, 120 min

Total mass of mustard seeds (g) eaten from each plate at 120 min
CV Kind of seeds—mustard
Amount of seeds—2 g
Number of crickets put in aquarium—30
Same aquarium
Same amount of light

Repeated Treatments of Subjects

As discussed earlier, substantial variation exists among living organisms, especially humans. By
exposing the same subjects to different treatments you can minimize experimental errors resulting
from variations within subjects. Repeated treatment designs are particularly effective in psycho-
logical and biological studies involving higher organisms. For example, the most effective time for
learning could be investigated by determining sixty subjects’ rate of learning of nonsense syllables
at three different times during the day. With a repeated treatments design each subject serves as
his or her own control. Thus, genetic and environmental factors are minimized. Because nonliv-
ing matter exhibits less variation, repeated treatment designs are less common in the physical and
earth sciences. Any time humans or other vertebrates are used in an experiment the researcher must
follow specific guidelines, which are generally described in Chapter 9, Analyzing and Addressing
Safety Risks. To understand how an experimental design diagram would be constructed for repeated
treatments over subjects, analyze a scenario involving performance on mathematics tests.

Scenario. Although Sienna’s classmates learned the advantages of studying in a quiet

place and focusing on the task, the majority of students continued to complete homework
while listening to music or watching television. Sienna hypothesized that the ability to
 Chapter 3  Analyzing an Experimental Design  79

solve mathematical problems would decrease with increased stimuli in the environment.
Sienna taped a 30-min segment of a television program which included a mix of conver-
sation, music, and screen action. She developed four equivalent mathematics tests (20
items) on decimals and percentages. Fifteen students were randomly selected from her
class and appropriate permissions were secured for each student. Students completed a
mathematics tests while exposed to no stimuli, to a sound tape of the program, to a video
with no sound, and to a complete tape of the program. The form of the mathematics test,
type of stimuli, and order of presentation of the stimuli were randomized. The time for
completion (min) and the number of correct items were recorded. The tests were admin-
istered over four days, at the same time of day, and in identical test sites. The sound level
of the auditory stimuli and the screen size of the visual stimuli remained constant.

This design looks similar to the ones constructed previously for one independent variable. The
independent variable, type of stimuli, is placed across the top. However, on the side you com-
municate the number of subjects, which is the number of repeated trials. Because each subject is
tested four times with different stimuli there are four repeated measures. This diagram is shown
in Figure 3-4, External Stimuli and Problem Solving.

FIGURE 3-4  External Stimuli and Problem Solving

QUESTION  How do different stimuli affect mathematical problem solving?

HYPOTHESIS  If the number of stimuli increases, then performance on a mathematics
test will decrease because of reduced focus on the task.

IV: Type of Stimuli

None Video Video
Subjects (control Sound Without With
group) Sound Sound
1
2
3
.
.
15

DV Time to complete test (min)

Number of test items correct
CV Length and difficulty of test
Length of stimuli
Presentation of stimuli—same sound level and screen size
Time and place of test administration
80  Part One  Engaging in Experimentation

Two Independent Variables

When physicians prescribe medication they give specific directions for taking the medicine. These
directions reflect numerous experiments over the years which have shown certain medicines
are more effective at specific times of day, taking a medicine with food will minimize side effects,
and certain foods will interfere with medical effects. For example, people who take cholesterol-
lowering drugs are generally directed not to eat grapefruit. When two variables influence an out-
come, scientists say the variables are interacting. If you take a drug at the recommended time, then
a lower dosage may be used. However, if you take the drug at another time, a higher dosage may
be required to achieve the same effect. Both the time of day and the dosage interact to impact the
drug’s effectiveness.
If you were interested in the impact of thermal and acid rain pollution on the respiratory rate of
fish, you could conduct two different experiments. For the first experiment, you could investigate
the impact of acid rain pollution by using simulated acid rain with different pH values such as 4.5,
5.5, and 6.5. Then, you could conduct a second experiment to investigate the impact of different
temperatures of water (10°, 20°, 30°, 40° C) on respiratory rate. These multiple or serial experi-
ments would enable you to learn the impact of acid rain and thermal pollution separately. However,
they would not enable you to investigate the potential interaction of these variables. That is, does
one variable interact with a second variable to reduce or increase the impact? To see how interac-
tion works, analyze an experiment involving the impact of two independent variables—UV light
and acid rain—on the durability of paint.

Scenario. Larry read that acid rain and sunlight cause paint to fade faster. Larry wanted
to learn how these variables impacted the fading of Chromo-Sure yellow paint (color
216). In the experiment, he exposed five samples of painted wood to a combination of
different amounts of ultraviolet light (5, 10, 15 units) and different strengths of simu-
lated acid rain (pH = 3, 5, 7). For each combination he used five samples (3 cm x 3 cm)
of wood, which he had painted with one coat of the yellow paint. For the different UV
exposures he used three lamps of the same brand. He used 20 ml of the acid rain solu-
tion. After two weeks of exposure, he estimated the amount of fading by comparing the
paint samples with an original sample. He described the fading as none, small, medium,
or large.

When there are two independent variables, one independent variable is shown across the top and the
second independent variable along the side. Because time is not involved, as with the cricket exper-
iment, there is no convention regarding the placement of the variables. The number of repeated
trials is shown within each of the resulting boxes. Larry’s experimental design diagram is shown
in Figure 3-5, Fading of Paint.
 Chapter 3  Analyzing an Experimental Design  81

FIGURE 3-5  Fading of Paint

QUESTION  Do acid rain and ultraviolet radiation interact to impact the fading of house
paint?
HYPOTHESIS  If paint is exposed to higher acidic rain and ultraviolet radiation, then the
variables will interact to produce a great amount of fading.

UV Light pH of Simulated Acid Rain

Strength
(units) 3 5 7
5 5 trials 5 trials 5 trials
10 5 trials 5 trials 5 trials
15 5 trials 5 trials 5 trials

DV Amount of fading (rating scale of none, small, medium, large)

CV Brand and color of paint—Chromo-Sure yellow, #216
Size of samples—3 cm x 3 cm
Same brand of UV lamp
Amount of acid rain—20 ml
2 weeks of exposure

EXPLORING STEM CONNECTIONS

You know how important we think it is for you to make connections among various scientific dis-
ciplines, mathematics, technology, and engineering. In Box 3-5, STEM Perspective—Huff, Puff,
and Slide, some options are described. As before, select among the options, complete a teacher
assigned investigation, or identify a topic you want to explore. ©behindlens/Shutterstock.com
 O R K SP
W

AC
MY

82
 STEM PERSPECTIVE
3-5 Huff, Puff, and Slide

Science
Explaining how the natural world works

1. Forces, interactions, and energy. Explore the following connections. Then, use
key scientific concepts to explain the experimental findings.
a. Make a diagram to communicate the energy changes occurring in the Huff,
Puff, and Slide experiment.
b. What is Newton’s Second Law of Motion? How does the law relate to the
experiment?
c. For Newton’s Second Law of Motion, there are online simulations where you can
explore the effect of changing the variables of force, mass, and acceleration. To
conduct a simulated experiment, search for sites such as:
Exploriments—Newton’s Second Law;
Math & Science Gizmos—Fan Physics (free trial); and
PhET Interactive Simulations—Forces and Motion and Forces and Motion: Basic.
2. Planning investigations. Was the air flow well controlled in the experiment?
Explain. What tools might you use to provide the air flow? What instruments might
you use to measure the air flow? (Hint: think how meteorologists measure wind
speed)
3. Systems and system models. What are the major components of the respiratory
system? How were these components involved when you blew on the cup?
4. Heredity: Inheritance and variation of traits. What genetic and environmental
factors impact a person’s lung capacity? How do these factors interact?
5. Earth’s systems. Meteorologists report wind measurements. Explain why
knowledge of the wind is important.
©serato/Shutterstock.com

83
84  Part One  Engaging in Experimentation

Technology and Engineering

Modifying the world to meet human needs and wants

6. Engineering design. In Chapter 8, apply your knowledge of force and motion to

designing a wind operated device. See Box 8-4, Wind Power.
7. Links among engineering, technology, science, and society. Explore the
following connections.
a. Wind farms are a form of renewable energy. How does the use of wind energy
in the United States compare with its usage in other parts of the world? What
geographical and societal factors underlie these differences?
b. For disabled people devices exist they can operate with their breath. What are
some recent innovations?

©Alex Mit/Shutterstock.com
 Chapter 3  Analyzing an Experimental Design  85

Mathematics
Describing, analyzing, and interpreting patterns and relationships

8. Collecting additional data. In Huff, Puff, and Slide, you experimented with
blowing a container with various numbers of pennies to see how far the container
would slide.
a. Finding the control group value. When analyzing this experiment you found
you did not collect information for the control group. Using the same container
collect this data. To maintain the controlled variables, be sure to use the same
surface and blowing technique.
b. Finding the missing level of the independent variable. It is better to use set
intervals for incrementing the levels of the independent variable. When
analyzing the experiment you found the level of eight pennies was missing.
Using the same controlled variables collect this data.
9. Detecting mathematical patterns. In the table below, record your new data from
question 8, as well as the original data from the Huff, Puff, and Slide experiment.

Number of Pennies Distance Moved (cm)

0
2
4
6
8
10

a. Relationship of pennies and distance traveled. Use words to describe the

relationship between these variables. Sketch a graph to illustrate the features.
Do the data support or refute the hypothesis you made?
b. Use a graph to make a prediction. What do you think will happen if you
continue to increase the number of pennies in the container? What value will
the distance (cm) approach as you add more and more pennies to the container?
c. One more level of the independent variable. Use your graph to predict how
many pennies you will need to place in the container for the container to
no longer move when you blow on it. Collect data to test your prediction.
Remember to keep the controlled variables the same. How do the prediction
and data compare?
86  Part One  Engaging in Experimentation

10. Constructing scatter plots. In Chapter 6 learn about scatter plots, trends, and
mathematical models. Construct and interpret scatter plots for your experimental
data or the data in question 9.
11. Using algebra to represent patterns. In Volume 2 (Chapter 15) learn about
linear and non-linear mathematical models. Use what you learn to explore the
relationship between the number of pennies (or mass) and the distance moved.
12. Adding time as a dependent variable. In the experiment you measured
the distance traveled. By collecting another variable—time—you can explore
other aspects of motion such as the velocity and acceleration of the cup when
it contained different numbers of pennies. How could you use the capabilities
of digital technology to measure time? Once you have this data how can you
calculate the cup’s average velocity? Acceleration?.

©Robyn Mackenzie /Shutterstock.com

 Chapter 3  Analyzing an Experimental Design  87

REFERENCES
At the time of publication, the links for the references were accurate. If they have changed, try searching by
the author(s) or name of the publication.
Confrey, J., & Krupa, E. E. (2012). The common core state standards for mathematics: How did we
get here, and what needs to happen next? In C. Hirsh, G. Lappon, & B. Rey (Eds). Curriculum
issues in an era of common core state standards for mathematics (pp. 3–16). Reston, VA: The
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
ExploreLearning. (2015). Math & science gizmos. Charlottesville, VA. Retrieved from http://www.
explorelearning.com/
IL & FS Education & Technology Services. (2010). Exploriments. Retrieved from http://www.
exploriments.com
Morphew, V. N. (2011). A constructivist approach to the national educational technology standards
for teachers. Washington, DC: International Society for Technology in Education.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers.
(2010). Common core state standards for English language & literacy in history/social studies,
science, and technical subjects. Retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org/wp-content/
uploads/ELA_Standards.pdf
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers.
(2010). Common core state standards for mathematics. Retrieved from http://www.corestandards.
org/wp-content/uploads/Math_Standards.pdf
NGSS Lead States. (2013). Volume 1: The standards. Next generation science standards: For states,
by states. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
NGSS Lead States. (2013). Volume 2: The appendixes. Next generation science standards: For states,
by states. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Salinger (2008, January 9). Definition of STEM. In Arlington County Public Schools. Career,
technical and adult education advisory committee report. Arlington, VA: Arlington County Public
Schools. Retrieved from http://www.apsva.us/cms/lib2/VA01000586/Centricity/Domain/29/
CTAE_Committee_Report.pdf
University of Colorado Boulder. (2015). PhET interactive simulations—physics. Retrieved from
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/category/physics