sensors

Review
Corrosion Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring
of Oil and Natural Gas Infrastructure: A Review
Ruishu F. Wright 1,2, *, Ping Lu 1,2 , Jagannath Devkota 1,2 , Fei Lu 1 , Margaret Ziomek-Moroz 3
and Paul R. Ohodnicki Jr. 1, *
1 National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pittsburgh, PA 15236, USA; [email protected] (P.L.);
[email protected] (J.D.); [email protected] (F.L.)
2 Leidos Research Support Team, Pittsburgh, PA 15236, USA
3 National Energy Technology Laboratory, Albany, OR 97321, USA; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (R.F.W.); [email protected] (P.R.O.)




Received: 19 August 2019; Accepted: 10 September 2019; Published: 13 September 2019


Abstract: Corrosion has been a great concern in the oil and natural gas industry costing billions
of dollars annually in the U.S. The ability to monitor corrosion online before structural integrity is
compromised can have a significant impact on preventing catastrophic events resulting from corrosion.
This article critically reviews conventional corrosion sensors and emerging sensor technologies in terms
of sensing principles, sensor designs, advantages, and limitations. Conventional corrosion sensors
encompass corrosion coupons, electrical resistance probes, electrochemical sensors, ultrasonic testing
sensors, magnetic flux leakage sensors, electromagnetic sensors, and in-line inspection tools. Emerging
sensor technologies highlight optical fiber sensors (point, quasi-distributed, distributed) and passive
wireless sensors such as passive radio-frequency identification sensors and surface acoustic wave
sensors. Emerging sensors show great potential in continuous real-time in-situ monitoring of oil and
natural gas infrastructure. Distributed chemical sensing is emphasized based on recent studies as
a promising method to detect early corrosion onset and monitor corrosive environments for corrosion
mitigation management. Additionally, challenges are discussed including durability and stability
in extreme and harsh conditions such as high temperature high pressure in subsurface wellbores.

Keywords: corrosion sensors; oil and gas industry; optical fiber sensors; distributed chemical sensing;
passive RFID sensors; surface acoustic wave sensors; structural health monitoring

1. Introduction

1.1. Corrosion Problems in Oil and Natural Gas Industry

Corrosion has been a great concern in the oil and natural gas (O&G) industry because it adversely
affects infrastructure in exploration, production, processing, and transport with significant economic
costs and safety considerations [1–3]. For domestic O&G exploration and production in the U.S.,
direct corrosion costs were determined to be about $1.4 billion annually, according to a study released
in 2002, with $589 million attributed to surface piping and facility costs, $463 million to downhole
tubing expenses, and $320 million to capital expenditures related to corrosion [4]. There are more
than 528,000 km (328,000 miles) of natural gas transmission and gathering pipelines, and 119,000 km
(74,000 miles) of crude oil transmission and gathering pipelines. The estimated corrosion-related cost
is about $5.8 billion annually to monitor, replace, and maintain these assets [4]. According to the
Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) database, corrosion has caused
~25% of the natural gas transmission and gathering pipeline incidents over the last 30 years, and 61%
out of corrosion caused incidents were due to internal corrosion [5,6]. It has been challenging to

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Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 2 of 32

monitor internal corrosion effectively as the inside of pipeline is not readily accessible during regular
maintenance and inspection. Moreover, corrosion can occur at some random locations inside and
outside pipelines over thousands of miles. Therefore, it is of crucial importance to locate corrosion
events along the long-distance infrastructure for effective real-time corrosion monitoring.
Corrosion is an electrochemical process involving oxidation of metallic materials, causing mass
loss and structural deterioration. An electrochemical system is essentially composed of an anode,
a cathode, and an electrolyte. The anode is the corroding site on the steel, Reaction 1, and the cathode is
where the reduction reaction occurs. The electrolyte is usually an aqueous solution with dissolved salts
(e.g., NaCl) and corrosive species, and it connects the anode and cathode through ionic conductivity so
that the electron transfer can be balanced between the two electrodes. In the anaerobic subsurface
wellbores, ubiquitous acidic gases CO2 and H2 S can dissolve into the electrolyte, reduce the pH and
promote cathodic reactions through Reactions 2–4, accelerating corrosion process [7–12]. Although
most downhole hydrocarbon reservoirs have virtually no dissolved oxygen in the fluids, the presence
of dissolved O2 in drilling fluid can be a major concern for corrosion of drill pipelines and well casing
as O2 is a strong oxidant even at ppb or ppm levels, Reaction 5 [2,13–15].

Anode: Fe → Fe2+ + 2 e− (1)

Cathode: 2 CO2 (aq) + 2 H2 O(l) + 2 e− → H2 (g) + 2 HCO3 − (aq) (2)

2 H2 S(aq) + 2 e− → H2 (g) + 2 HS− (aq) (3)

2 H+ (aq) + 2 e− → H2 (g) (4)

0.5 O2 (aq) + H2 O(l) + 2 e− → 2 OH− (aq) (5)

Besides mass loss due to electrochemical reactions, corrosion combined with mechanical effects can
cause undesirable cracking and resulted catastrophic failures during oil and gas exploration, drilling,
production, processing, and transport due to hydrogen induced cracking (HIC), sulfide stress cracking
(SSC), stress corrosion cracking (SCC), and corrosion fatigue (CF) [16]. In this scenario, localized
corrosion and pitting caused by H2 S or Cl− are particularly detrimental as a structural weak point is
forming and can lead to cracking even when the external force is still within the rated mechanical stress.
Microbes such as sulfate-reducing bacteria can also promote corrosion through producing H2 S [15,17].
As a thermodynamically favorable process, corrosion is difficult to prevent, but can be kinetically
controlled through corrosion mitigation and protection. Real-time in-situ monitoring of corrosion
and associated parameters facilitates structural health evaluation and effective mitigation strategies,
improving infrastructure security and reducing cost caused by catastrophic failures.

1.2. Functions and Categories of Corrosion Sensors

Implementing the best available corrosion prevention and control practices could save 25–30% of
annual corrosion costs in the U.S. [4]. Effective corrosion monitoring bolsters the corrosion management
systems and informs the decision-making entities. Monitoring corrosion rates enables service life
evaluation and guides maintenance management. Carbon steel is commonly used in the O&G industry.
For example, it is used for transmission pipes, drill pipes, and casing tubing [18], because of its
mechanical properties and economic cost. However, it is prone to corrosion in service environments.
Real-time corrosion monitoring and proper mitigation/maintenance are critical to maintaining the
corrosion rate within an acceptable range to ensure that the infrastructures (e.g., pipes) meet the
designed service life. In-situ and online monitoring of the early onset of corrosion also allows
corrosion-related structural health monitoring (SHM) by recognizing early signs of structural risks,
such as localized corrosion and micro-cracking, before structural failures and catastrophic events
resulting from corrosion can occur. Furthermore, in-situ monitoring of corrosive environments
facilitates corrosion mitigation strategies by identifying corrosion causes such as water, pH, Cl− , CO2
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 3 of 32

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and H2 S. Besides monitoring corrosion rates, locating the corrosion spots or localized corrosion is
also of significant
corrosion is also ofvalue for further
significant valueinspection
for further and effective and
inspection mitigation,
effectiveespecially
mitigation, forespecially
thousandsfor of
miles of transmission
thousands of miles of pipelines.
transmissionAdditionally, for the O&G industry
pipelines. Additionally, applications,
for the O&G industryhigh durabilityhigh
applications, and
stability are required for corrosion sensors in extreme service conditions such as high
durability and stability are required for corrosion sensors in extreme service conditions such as high temperature
high pressurehigh
temperature (HTHP) during
pressure drilling
(HTHP) and production
during drilling andup to 200+ ◦ Cup
production and 100 MPa
to 200+ [18].100 MPa [18].
°C and
Numerous corrosion
Numerous corrosionsensor
sensortechnologies
technologies havehave
been been
developed based on
developed different
based sensing principles
on different sensing
principles for different types of corrosion. They can be generally categorized into two types:indirect
for different types of corrosion. They can be generally categorized into two types: direct and direct
corrosion
and sensors
indirect [19]. As
corrosion shown [19].
sensors in Figure
As 1, the direct
shown corrosion
in Figure sensors
1, the monitor
direct corrosion
corrosion process/rates
sensors monitor
directly due
corrosion to various corrosion
process/rates directly duecauses and corrosive
to various corrosionenvironments.
causes and The indirect
corrosive corrosion sensors
environments. The
monitor corrosion through corrosion causes (e.g., low pH, water, CO ) or
indirect corrosion sensors monitor corrosion through corrosion causes2(e.g., low pH, water, consequences (e.g.,
CO2wall
) or
thickness changes,
consequences leakwall
(e.g., vibration, strain changes,
thickness change). Comprehensive
leak vibration,understanding
strain change). of corrosion processes
Comprehensive
from causes to consequences
understanding of corrosioninspires corrosion
processes fromsensor
causesdevelopment strategies
to consequences by identifying
inspires parameters
corrosion sensor
or phenomena of interest as sensing targets.
development strategies by identifying parameters or phenomena of interest as sensing targets.

Figure 1. Two categories of corrosion sensors (direct and indirect) to monitor corrosion process from
Figure
causes 1.
to Two categories of corrosion sensors (direct and indirect) to monitor corrosion process from
consequences.
causes to consequences.
In this article, we briefly review and summarize conventional corrosion sensors which are well
In this
known, article, we
commonly briefly
used, and review and summarize
commercially available conventional
to provide thecorrosion
baseline sensors whichpractices
and common are well
known, commonly
in corrosion used,for
monitoring and
thecommercially
O&G industry. available
The main to focus
provide the baseline
is emerging and common
corrosion practices
sensors including
in corrosion
most monitoring which
recent technologies for theare
O&G
still industry.
in researchThe andmain focus is (R&D)
development emergingandcorrosion sensors
technical transfer
including mostcommercially
stages or only recent technologies which
available withinare the
stilllast
in research and development (R&D) and technical
two decades.
transfer stages or only commercially available within the last two decades.
2. Conventional Corrosion Sensors
2. Conventional Corrosion
Conventional Sensorsused corrosion sensors and SHM techniques in the O&G industry
and commonly
are discussed in this
Conventional section.
and A review
commonly usedorcorrosion
summarysensors
on corrosion monitoring
and SHM techniquestechniques in general
in the O&G or
industry
other
are areas is in
discussed also available
this section.in
A References [19–22]. on corrosion monitoring techniques in general or
review or summary
other areas is also available in References [19–22].
2.1. Corrosion Coupon
2.1. Corrosion
CorrosionCoupon
coupon weight loss measurement is the most well-established and longest-used method
in industry
Corrosion to measure
coupon corrosion
weight lossrates. Weight loss measurement
measurement is still held as theand
is the most well-established goldlongest-used
standard to
method in industry to measure corrosion rates. Weight loss measurement is still held as principle
evaluate corrosion rates before a variety of corrosion monitoring technologies. The working the gold
is that a corrosion
standard to evaluate coupon, made rates
corrosion of a material
before of interest of
a variety with designedmonitoring
corrosion weight andtechnologies.
shape, is installed
The
and exposed to the corrosive environment for a duration of time and then retrieved
working principle is that a corrosion coupon, made of a material of interest with designed weight for after-corrosion
weight
and measurement
shape, is installedandandinspection
exposed to onthe
thecorrosive
corroded environment
coupon [23]. The for acorrosion
durationcoupon
of time method
and then is
commonly
retrieved forused because of its
after-corrosion simple
weight working principle,
measurement easy operation,
and inspection and versatility
on the corroded coupon in[23].
material
The
and shape (Figure 2). However, installation, removal, and after-corrosion lab
corrosion coupon method is commonly used because of its simple working principle, easy operation,analysis of the coupons
require
and an extended
versatility time and
in material period.
shapeThe corrosion
(Figure couponsinstallation,
2). However, only provide an average
removal, corrosion rate
and after-corrosion
during
lab a certain
analysis of theperiod without
coupons real-time
require information,
an extended and they
time period. arecorrosion
The point sensors withonly
coupons limited sensing
provide an
coverage for O&G infrastructures.
average corrosion rate during a certain period without real-time information, and they are point
sensors with limited sensing coverage for O&G infrastructures.
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Figure 2. Corrosion coupons installed in the pipelines. The coupons are shown with a 90o axial
Figure 2. Corrosion coupons installed in the pipelines. The coupons are shown with a 90◦ axial rotation
rotation
Figure 2.from the normal
Corrosion angle installed
coupons [24] (Courtesy
in theofpipelines.
RohrbackTheCosasco Systems).
coupons are shown with a 90o axial
from the normal angle [24] (Courtesy of Rohrback Cosasco Systems).
rotation from the normal angle [24] (Courtesy of Rohrback Cosasco Systems).
2.2.
2.2. Electrical
ElectricalResistance
ResistanceProbe Probe
2.2. Electrical
An Resistance Probe
An electrical
electrical resistance
resistance (ER) (ER) probe
probe is is aa commonly
commonly used used approach
approach for for online
online corrosion
corrosion rate rate
monitoring
An with
electrical the capability
resistance of
(ER) automatic
probe is and
a remote
commonly data
used logging
monitoring with the capability of automatic and remote data logging in some advanced versions. approachin somefor advanced
online versions.
corrosion It
rate
can be
monitoring viewed
It can be viewed as
with as the
thethe “electrical”
capability
“electrical” corrosion
of automatic
corrosion andcoupon
coupon that
remote can
thatdata be
can be monitored
logging in some
monitored in real-time
advancedvia
in real-time via electrical
versions.
electricalIt
resistance.
can
resistance. Mass
be viewedMass aslossthein“electrical”
loss the
in exposed
the exposed metallic
corrosion
metallic materials
coupon leads
that
materials can tobe
leads an increase
tomonitored
an increase inin electrical
real-time
in resistance.
electrical The
viaresistance.
electrical
exposed
resistance.
The exposed sensing
Mass element
loss
sensing in thecan
element be
cancustomized
exposed bemetallic
customized in material
materials andtoand
leads
in material shape for each
an increase
shape for specific
ineach
electrical application.
resistance.
specific ER
The
application.
probes
exposed
ER probes work for
sensing both
work element conductive
for bothcan media
be customized
conductive (e.g.,
media in water
material
(e.g., or
waterandoil systems
shape
or oil with
for each
systems high
with water
specific cuts) and
application.
high water non-
cuts) andER
conductive
probes work
non-conductive environments
forenvironments (e.g.,(e.g.,
both conductive oil,media
gas, and atmosphere).
(e.g.,
oil, gas, and water or oilSome
atmosphere). systems
Somecommercial
with high
commercial ERwater
probes are are
cuts)
ER probes shown
andshown in
non-
Figure
conductive3a [25]. A limitation of common ER probes is that they allow
in Figure 3a [25]. A limitation of common ER probes is that they allow only the measurement in
environments (e.g., oil, gas, and atmosphere). Some only
commercial the measurement
ER probes areof uniform
shown of
corrosion,
Figure
uniform but Li
[25]. A et
3acorrosion, al.
butreported
limitation Li etofal. areported
commonmultiple-line
ERa probes design
is that
multiple-line of design
steel allow
they thinof film
onlyER
steel the
thin probe which
measurement
film ER probewas of sensitive
uniform
which was
to localized
corrosion,
sensitive corrosion
tobut
localized (Figure (Figure
Li et al.corrosion
reported 3b) [26].3b)However,
a multiple-line[26]. design ER of
However, probes
steel are still
thin
ER probes arepoint
film ER sensors
stillprobe
point which only
sensors was capable
only sensitive
capableof
monitoring
to
of monitoring certain
localized corrosion locations.
certain locations. An
(Figure 3b) increase
An [26]. in sensing
However,
increase in sensing locations
ER locations
probes are means an
still an
means increase
point in
sensors
increase total cost.
onlycost.
in total Similar
capable of
Similar
to corrosioncertain
monitoring
to corrosion coupons,
coupons, installation
locations. An increase
installation locations
locations inneed need
sensing to be specifically
to belocations
specifically meanspicked to picked
an increase
maximize into maximize
total
the cost. the
Similar
effectiveness
effectiveness
to
of ER probes.of
corrosion ER probes.
coupons,
Selecting Selecting
installation
locations locations
locations
is usually based isneed
usually
on to based
experience on experience
be specifically
and picked
some uncommon and tosome uncommon
maximize
locations canthe
be
locations
effectiveness can be
easily omittedofeven easily
ER probes. omitted even with
Selectingcorrosion.
with significant significant
locations isThe usually corrosion. The
based on experience
electrical-based electrical-based
measurement and enablesmeasurement
some uncommon
electronic
enables
locations electronic
can beand
data collection data
easily collection
omitted
logging, itand
but even logging,
alsowith
makes butER
significant
the it probes
also makes
corrosion.
prone the
The ER probeselectronic
to electrical-based
common pronemeasurement
to problems,
common
electronic
enables problems,
electronic which
data require
collection andregular
logging, maintenance
but it also and
makes
which require regular maintenance and replacement. Importantly, electrical-based sensors must replacement.
the ER Importantly,
probes prone toelectrical-
common
follow
based
electronicsensors
the intrinsic must
problems, follow
electricalwhich the
safety requireintrinsic
requirements electrical
regular safety
in maintenance
the presence of requirements
and in
replacement.
flammable the
oil and presence
Importantly, of flammable
natural gas.electrical-
oil
basedandsensors
natural must
gas. follow the intrinsic electrical safety requirements in the presence of flammable
oil and natural gas.

(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a)
Figure 3. (a)Commercial
Commercial (a) resistance
electrical
electrical resistance
(ER)(ER) sensing
sensing elements
elements
(b)
with different
with different shapes
shapes [25] [25]
(Courtesy
(Courtesy
Figure of
of Metal3.SamplesMetal Samples Company);
Company);electrical
(a) Commercial and (b) ER and (b) ER
sensor with
resistance sensor with
(ER)a sensing a
multiple-linemultiple-line
pattern
elements pattern
of steel
with of
thin film
different steel thin
which
shapes is
[25]
film which
sensitive
(Courtesy toofislocalized
sensitive
Metal to localized
corrosion
Samples corrosion
(Reprinted
Company); andfrom(Reprinted
(b) Reference
ER sensorfrom
[26] Reference
with
with [26] with
permission
a multiple-line frompermission
of steelfrom
Elsevier).
pattern thin
Elsevier).
film which is sensitive to localized corrosion (Reprinted from Reference [26] with permission from
Elsevier).
Sensors
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5 of

2.3. Electrochemical Sensors

2.3. Electrochemical Sensors
Electrochemical sensors leverage the intrinsic electrochemical characteristics of corrosion and
utilizeElectrochemical
electrochemicalsensors leverage
techniques such theasintrinsic
galvanic electrochemical characteristics
current measurement, linear of corrosion
polarization and
utilize electrochemical
resistance techniques such
(LPR), electrochemical as galvanic
impedance current measurement,
spectroscopy linear polarization
(EIS), and electrochemical resistance
noise (EN)
(LPR), electrochemical
[22,27–29]. Advantages ofimpedance spectroscopy
electrochemical sensors (EIS),
include and electrochemical
direct quantification noise (EN) [22,27–29].
of electrochemical
Advantages
corrosion ratesof and
electrochemical
the capability sensors include
of in-situ direct quantification
corrosion mechanism of electrochemical
investigation withcorrosion
a varietyratesof
and the capability of in-situ corrosion mechanism investigation with
electrochemical techniques. LPR-based corrosion sensing is the most commercialized method among a variety of electrochemical
techniques.
the LPR-based
electrochemical sensorscorrosion
becausesensing is the most
of relatively commercialized
simple operation and method
data among the electrochemical
interpretation. For most
ofsensors because ofLPR
the commercial relatively
probes simple operation
(Figure 4a) [30],andthedata interpretation.
electrodes (2 or 3)Foraremost
oftenof made
the commercial
of the same LPR
probes (Figure 4a) [30], the electrodes (2 or 3) are often made of the same
material instead of strictly following a classic electrochemical three-electrode system. The drawback material instead of strictly
offollowing a classicsensors
electrochemical electrochemical three-electrode
is that externally imposed system. Theor
potential drawback
current mayof electrochemical sensors is
lead to an accelerated
that externally
corrosion imposed potential
rate compared to the trueor current
value, somay lead tosettings
proper an accelerated corrosion rate
of electrochemical compared(e.g.,
parameters to the
true value, soscan
overpotential, proper settings
rate, of electrochemical
and Tafel slopes) and the parameters
electrode(e.g., overpotential,
system design need scan to rate, and Tafel
be carefully
slopes)Additionally,
chosen. and the electrode system design need
the electrochemical to be
sensors carefully
usually chosen.
require Additionally, the
an ion-conductive electrochemical
electrolyte, e.g.,
sensors usually require an ion-conductive electrolyte, e.g., aqueous solutions,
aqueous solutions, and they are not readily suitable for non-conductive environments without special and they are not readily
suitable for non-conductive environments without special modifications.
modifications.
Onecommercially
One commercially available electrochemical
electrochemicalcorrosion
corrosionsensorsensorto detect localized
to detect corrosion
localized is based
corrosion is
on the galvanic current in a coupled multi-electrode array [31,32], and
based on the galvanic current in a coupled multi-electrode array [31,32], and the performance the performance condition can
reach 300can◦ C and 34.5 MPa (5000 psi) with proper packaging (Figure 4b) [33]. Also, water content and
condition reach 300 °C and 34.5 MPa (5000 psi) with proper packaging (Figure 4b) [33]. Also,
corrosion
water rates
content and incorrosion
simulatedrates natural gas have been
in simulated naturalmeasured
gas havesimultaneously
been measuredusing an ion-conducting
simultaneously using
anmembrane-based
ion-conducting advanced
membrane-based electrochemical
advancedsensor (AES) (Figuresensor
electrochemical 4c) [34,35].
(AES) Electrochemical
(Figure 4c) [34,35].sensors
can also be designed
Electrochemical sensorsto monitor
can also pHbe anddesigned
redox potentials
to monitor in the pH
environments.
and redox potentials in the
environments.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure4.4.(a)(a)Commercial
Commercial2-electrode
2-electrodelinear
linearpolarization
polarizationresistance
resistance(LPR)
(LPR)corrosion
corrosionsensors
sensors[30]
[30]
(Courtesy
(CourtesyofofRohrback
RohrbackCosasco
CosascoSystems);
Systems);(b) (b)Coupled
Coupledmulti-electrode
multi-electrodearray
arraycorrosion
corrosionsensors
sensors[33]
[33]
(Courtesy
(CourtesyofofCorr
CorrInstruments,
Instruments,LLC);
LLC);(c)(c)Ion-conducting
Ion-conductingmembrane-based
membrane-basedadvanced
advancedelectrochemical
electrochemical
sensor(AES)
sensor (AES)for forsimultaneous
simultaneous humidity and and corrosion
corrosionrate
ratemonitoring
monitoring(Reprinted
(Reprintedfrom
fromReference [35]
Reference
with
[35] thethe
with permission
permissionof AIP Publishing).
of AIP Publishing).

2.4.Ultrasonic
2.4. UltrasonicTesting
TestingSensor
Sensor
Ultrasonictesting
Ultrasonic testing(UT)
(UT)wallwallthickness
thicknessmeasurement
measurementisisone oneofofthe
themost
mostpopular
popularnondestructive
nondestructive
methodstotomonitor
methods monitor corrosion
corrosion and and structural
structuralhealth
healthofofpipes.
pipes.AA piezoelectric
piezoelectrictransducer
transducer generates high
generates
frequency (MHz) acoustic waves controlled through electric pulses, and these
high frequency (MHz) acoustic waves controlled through electric pulses, and these ultrasonic waves ultrasonic waves are
emitted perpendicular to the pipe wall. The waves are bounced back by the external
are emitted perpendicular to the pipe wall. The waves are bounced back by the external surface, inner surface, inner
surface,and
surface, andgeometric
geometricirregularities,
irregularities,which
whichare arereceived
receivedby bythe
thetransducer.
transducer.The Thetooltoolmeasures
measuresthe the
time interval between the arrivals of reflected echoes from inner and outer surfaces
time interval between the arrivals of reflected echoes from inner and outer surfaces to calculate the to calculate the
wallthickness
wall thickness[36–38].
[36–38].As Asshown
shownininFigure
Figure5 5[39],
[39],the
thewall
wallthickness
thicknessinformation
informationcombined
combinedwith withthe
the
stand-off signal can differentiate the internal and external mass loss/flaw along the
stand-off signal can differentiate the internal and external mass loss/flaw along the pipe. UT corrosionpipe. UT corrosion
sensorshave
sensors haveportable
portableandandfixed
fixedforms
forms[29],
[29],and
andcancanalso
also
bebe integrated
integrated with
with in-line
in-line inspection
inspection devices.
devices.
TheUT
The UTmethod
methodisiscapable
capableofofinspections
inspectionswithwithonly
onlyoneoneside
sideaccessible.
accessible.The Thegeometry
geometryresolution
resolutionisis
related to the ultrasonic frequencies and often not sensitive enough to small features such asaspitting
related to the ultrasonic frequencies and often not sensitive enough to small features such pitting
corrosion or thin deposits. The acoustic-based sensors can be affected by dense
corrosion or thin deposits. The acoustic-based sensors can be affected by dense highly attenuating highly attenuating
mudsand
muds andcasing
casingscales
scales[3].
[3].
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Figure 5. Schematic of the ultrasonic testing (UT) wall thickness measurements with capablities to
Figure 5. Schematic of the ultrasonic testing (UT) wall thickness measurements with capablities to
discriminate internal and external mass loss [39] (Courtesy of NDT Global LLC).
Figure 5. Schematic
discriminate internalof theexternal
and ultrasonic testing
mass (UT)
loss [39] wall thickness
(Courtesy of NDTmeasurements
Global LLC). with capablities to
discriminate internal and external mass loss [39] (Courtesy of NDT Global LLC).
2.5. Magnetic Flux Leakage Method
2.5.
2.5. Magnetic
The Flux Leakage
The magnetic
magnetic flux Method(MFL)
flux leakage
leakage (MFL) method
method is is aa widely
widely used
used nondestructive
nondestructive technology
technology to to detect
detect
anomalies in
anomalies in pipelines.
pipelines. The sensing
sensing principle
principle is
is based on on the magnetic
magnetic properties
properties ofof steels.
steels. When
When the the
The magnetic flux leakage (MFL) method isbased
a widelythe used nondestructive technology to detect
ferromagneticmaterial
ferromagnetic materialis magnetized
is magnetized closeclose
to to saturation
saturation under under
the the applied
applied magnetic magnetic
field, the field,
magneticthe
anomalies in pipelines. The sensing principle is based on the magnetic properties of steels. When the
magnetic
flux fluxmostly
lines will lines will
pass mostly pass thethrough ofthe inside of the material whenno there arewhereas
no defects,
ferromagnetic material is through
magnetized inside
close to the material
saturation when
under thereapplied
the are defects,
magnetic the
field, the
whereas
defect or the defect sites
corrosion or corrosion
will sites
result in will result
bending and inleakage
bendingofand leakage
magnetic of lines
flux magnetic
[40]. flux
The lines [40].
magnetic
magnetic flux lines will mostly pass through the inside of the material when there are no defects,
The magnetic
field is usually field is usually
generated generated
by an by an electromagnet,
electromagnet, and a Hall-effect sensor is used to detect
whereas the defect or corrosion sites will resultand a Hall-effect
in bending andsensor
leakageis used to detect
of magnetic thelines
flux magnetic
[40].
the magnetic
flux leakage flux leakage
(Figure 6) [41]. (Figure
The MFL 6) [41].
methodTheisMFLgood method
for is good
large area for large area
inspection but inspection
it is limited but
for it
theis
The magnetic field is usually generated by an electromagnet, and a Hall-effect sensor is used to detect
limited for
material the material
surface and near surface
surface and near surface
detection. detection.are
Improvements Improvements
needed to are needed
determine the to determine
defect shapes
the magnetic flux leakage (Figure 6) [41]. The MFL method is good for large area inspection but it is
the defect
and shapes
distinguish and distinguish
between internal between
and internal
external defects and external defects [41].
[41].
limited for the material surface and near surface detection. Improvements are needed to determine
the defect shapes and distinguish between internal and external defects [41].

(a) (b)
Figure 6.
Figure 6. Principle
Principle of (a)
of the
the magnetic
magnetic flux
flux leakage
leakage (MFL)
(MFL) method: (b) flux
method: (a) Magnetic
Magnetic flux lines
lines mostly
mostly pass
pass
through the
through the inside
inside ofof ferromagnetic
ferromagnetic materials
materials without
without defects,
defects, and
and (b)
(b) the
the Hall-effect
Hall-effect sensor
sensor can
can detect
detect
Figure 6. Principle of the magnetic flux leakage (MFL) method: (a) Magnetic flux lines mostly pass
the magnetic
the magnetic flux
flux leakage
leakage when
when pipes
pipeshave
havedefects
defects[41].
[41].
through the inside of ferromagnetic materials without defects, and (b) the Hall-effect sensor can detect
the magnetic flux Electromagnetic
2.6. Multi-Frequency leakage when pipes have defects [41].
Sensors
2.6. Multi-frequency Electromagnetic Sensors
Electromagnetic
2.6. Multi-frequency (EM)-based sensing
Electromagnetic provides another commonly used non-destructive corrosion
Electromagnetic (EM)-based Sensors
sensing provides another commonly used non-destructive
monitoring technique. This method is based on the Faraday’s law of induction with many variations
corrosion monitoring technique. This method is based on the Faraday’s law of induction with many
Electromagnetic
available. One example(EM)-based sensing provides
is the multi-frequency another
EM inspection commonly
sensor to detect used non-destructive
corrosion and pipeline
variations available. One example is the multi-frequency EM inspection sensor to detect corrosion
corrosion
integrity. monitoring technique.
The sensor consists of aThis method is
transmitter based
coil and on the Faraday’s
a receiver lawtransmitter
coil. The of induction with
coil many
is excited
and pipeline integrity. The sensor consists of a transmitter coil and a receiver coil. The transmitter
variations available. One example is the multi-frequency EM inspection sensor to detect
by an alternating current, and the generated alternating magnetic field induces eddy currents in the corrosion
and pipeline integrity. The sensor consists of a transmitter coil and a receiver coil. The transmitter
 Sensors 2019, 19, x 7 of 31
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 7 of 32

coil is excited by an alternating current, and the generated alternating magnetic field induces eddy
currents in
surrounding the surrounding
conductive conductive
pipes (Figure pipes
7a). The (FigureEM
primary 7a). Thefrom
field primary EM field from
the transmitter the transmitter
combined with
combined with a secondary field from eddy currents in the pipes induce a voltage
a secondary field from eddy currents in the pipes induce a voltage in the separate receiver coil in the separate
with
receiver
a phase shiftcoil
fromwith
theaprimary
phase shift
EM from the primary
field [3,42,43]. TheEM field
phase [3,42,43].
shift The phasechange
and magnitude shift and
are magnitude
related
change
to the are related
material to conductivity,
electrical the material electrical
magneticconductivity,
permeability,magnetic permeability,
and the presence and the
of defects presence
(Figure 7b). of
The pipe metal thickness can be computed from the low-frequency EM scan, and the high-frequencyand
defects (Figure 7b). The pipe metal thickness can be computed from the low-frequency EM scan,
EMthe high-frequency
scans EMthe
can discriminate scans canwall
inner discriminate
features duethe to
inner wall effect
the skin features due 7c).
(Figure to the skin effect (Figure
7c).

Figure 7. (a) Schematic of induced eddy currents (red arrows) in an uncorroded casing steel pipe
withFigure 7. (a) Schematic
a solenoidal transmitterof induced
(Tx) andeddy currents
a receiver (redwithin
(Rx) arrows)theinpipe.
an uncorroded
The blue casing
arrowssteel pipe with
represent
the magnetic field lines around Tx. (b) Schematic of induced eddy currents flowing around a defect. the
a solenoidal transmitter (Tx) and a receiver (Rx) within the pipe. The blue arrows represent
magnetic drawing
(c) Schematic field lines
of around Tx. (b) Schematic
a multi-frequency of induced
electromagnetic (EM)eddy
toolcurrents flowing
for pipeline around
corrosion a defect. (c)
inspection:
Schematic drawing
low-frequency transmitter of (blue
a multi-frequency electromagnetic
component labeled (EM) tool
Tx) and receivers for blue
(other pipeline corrosionare
components) inspection:
used
to measure average pipe metal thickness; one group of high-frequency transmitter (red component are
low-frequency transmitter (blue component labeled Tx) and receivers (other blue components)
used
labeled Tx)toandmeasure
receiversaverage
(other red pipe metal thickness;
components) is used toone group
measure of resolution
high high-frequency
images oftransmitter
total metal(red
component labeled Tx) and receivers (other red components) is used to
thickness and internal defects; and the other group of high-frequency transmitter (yellow componentmeasure high resolution
images
labeled of total
Tx) and metal thickness
receivers and components)
(other yellow internal defects; and the
is used other group
to measure of high-frequency
the casing inner diametertransmitter
[42].
(yellow component labeled Tx) and receivers (other yellow components) is used to measure the casing
2.7. Pipeline
innerInspection
diameter Gauge
[42].
The commercially available pipeline inspection gauges (PIG) or in-line inspection tools (ILI)
2.7.
integratePipeline Inspection
a selection Gaugeand cleaning tools. PIGs can be carried through the pipes by the flow
of sensors
of liquidTheor gas using the differential
commercially pressureinspection
available pipeline while the pipelines
gauges (PIG)are still operating,
or in-line and they
inspection can(ILI)
tools
travel and perform cleaning and inspections over a long distance. The equipped
integrate a selection of sensors and cleaning tools. PIGs can be carried through the pipes by the sensors such as UTflow
sensors (Figure
of liquid 8), MFL
or gas usingsensors, capacitive
the differential sensors,
pressure and the
while EMpipelines
sensors canare collect data on corrosion,
still operating, and they can
cracking,
travel gouges,
and performand anomalous
cleaning and weld seams [36].
inspections overFor the inspection
a long distance. Thepurpose,
equippedPIG sensors
is typically
suchrun
as UT
every 5–7 years
sensors set by
(Figure 8), regulatory
MFL sensors,requirements
capacitiveor company
sensors, andpolicies [44,45].
EM sensors canThe high data
collect cost associated
on corrosion,
withcracking,
the PIG service
gouges,isand oneanomalous
main reason for low
weld seamsfrequency
[36]. Forofthe
use. Despite comprehensive
inspection purpose, PIG isinspection,
typically run
PIGevery
cannot provide continuous monitoring of pipeline structural health. Therefore,
5–7 years set by regulatory requirements or company policies [44,45]. The high cost associated cost-effective
continuous
with thecorrosion
PIG service sensors
is oneare in demand
main reason forforlow
thefrequency
O&G infrastructures.
of use. Despite comprehensive inspection,
All cannot
PIG the sensors in this
provide review are
continuous comparedof
monitoring in pipeline
Table 1 including
structuralthe emerging
health. technologies
Therefore, of
cost-effective
optical fiber sensors and passive wireless sensors to be described
continuous corrosion sensors are in demand for the O&G infrastructures. in the following sections.
All the sensors in this review are compared in Table 1 including the emerging technologies of
optical fiber sensors and passive wireless sensors to be described in the following sections.
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 8 of 32
Sensors 2019, 19, x 8 of 31

Schematic of a pipeline inspection gauge (PIG) integrated with ultrasonic sensors [36].
Figure 8. Schematic

Table 1. Summary of different corrosion sensors for the oil and gas industry.
Table 1. Summary of different corrosion sensors for the oil and gas industry.
Sensor Temporal Spatial Advantages Disadvantages
Sensor Temporal Spatial Advantages Disadvantages
A few Gold standard,
Gold standard, Simple, General corrosion,
Corrosion General corrosion,
Corrosioncoupon
coupon A few months Point sensor
Point sensor Simple, Easy to
months Easy to operate Notreal-time
Not real-time
operate
Electrical Real-time, Remote Uniform corrosion,
Electrical Real-time Point sensor Real-time, Remote Uniform corrosion,
resistance probe Real-time Point sensor sensing compatible Electrical based
resistance probe sensing compatible Electrical based
Various in-situ Electrical based,
Electrochemical
Electrochemical
Various in-situ Electrical based,
Real-time
Real-time Point sensor
Point sensor electrochemical
electrochemical Mostlyfor
Mostly for
sensor
sensor techniques
techniques conductive liquids
conductive liquids
Point sensor, Not sensitive toto
Not sensitive
Ultrasonic
Ultrasonicsensor
sensor Real-time
Real-time Point sensor, PIG Non-intrusive
Non-intrusive
PIG small thinfeatures
small thin features
Magnetic
Magneticflux
flux Point sensor, Limited for surface
Limited for surface
Real-time
Real-time Point sensor, PIG Nondestructive
Nondestructive
leakage
leakagesensor
sensor PIG detection
detection
Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic Point sensor, Nondestructive, Inner
Nondestructive, Notsensitive
Not sensitivetoto
Real-time
Real-time Point sensor, PIG
sensor
sensor PIG Inner
wall wall features
features small
smalldefects
defects
Pipeline Every 5–7 Run through Comprehensive sensing
Comprehensive
Pipeline
Every 5–7 years Run through pipes
Costly, not frequent
inspection
inspectiongauge
gauge years pipes / logging,sensing/logging,
Long distance Costly, not frequent
Long distance
Distributed sensing for Cost of
Optical fiber Distributed Distributed sensing
Optical Real-time Distributed a long distance, Multi- Costinterrogation
of interrogation
sensors Real-time linear sensors for a long distance,
fiber sensors linear sensors parameter instrument
instrument
Multi-parameter
Small size, Passive, Wireless telemetry
Passive wireless Ubiquitous Small size, Passive,
Passive Real-time UbiquitousWireless capability, Low
Real-time point sensors Wireless capability,
in attenuating
Wireless telemetry
sensors
wireless sensors point sensors in attenuating
cost
Low cost mediamedia

3. Emerging
3. Emerging Corrosion
Corrosion Sensing
Sensing Technologies
Technologies

3.1. Optical Fiber Sensors

Optical fiber
Optical sensors (OFS)
fiber sensors (OFS) have
have emerged
emerged in in recent
recent years
years because
because ofof advantages
advantages such such asas
nondestructive monitoring, in-situ distributive measurements, long reach, small
nondestructive monitoring, in-situ distributive measurements, long reach, small size, flexibility, size, flexibility,
geometric versatility,
geometric light weight,
versatility, light weight, inherent
inherent immunity
immunity to to electromagnetic
electromagnetic interference
interference (EMI),
(EMI),
compatibility to optical fiber data communication systems, and improved
compatibility to optical fiber data communication systems, and improved safety in the presencesafety in the presence of
flammables compared to electrical-based sensors [46–48]. The availability of cost-effective
of flammables compared to electrical-based sensors [46–48]. The availability of cost-effective optical optical
fibers and
fibers and rapid
rapid advancement
advancement in in OFS
OFS have
have stimulated
stimulated the the adoption
adoption of of OFS
OFS inin the
the O&G
O&G industry.
industry.
Reviews on OFS for environmental, chemical, and H
Reviews on OFS for environmental, chemical, and H2 sensing are already available [47,49,50]. Here,
2 sensing are already available [47,49,50]. Here,
we focus
we focus on
on OFS
OFS for
for corrosion
corrosion andand structural
structural health
health monitoring
monitoring in in the
the O&G
O&G relevant
relevantapplications.
applications.
According to
According to the
thespatial
spatialdistribution
distribution of measurements,
of measurements, OFS OFScan becanclassified as point,
be classified as quasi-
point,
distributed, and distributed. Point sensors monitor corrosion at discrete points,
quasi-distributed, and distributed. Point sensors monitor corrosion at discrete points, which are which are assessed
by separate
assessed by channels, i.e., each i.e.,
separate channels, sensor
eachonly detects
sensor onlyone point.
detects oneA point.
quasi-distributed sensor can
A quasi-distributed monitor
sensor can
corrosion at multiple discrete points situated in a single optical channel. Distributed
monitor corrosion at multiple discrete points situated in a single optical channel. Distributed sensing sensing can
monitor the parameters continuously along the whole optical fiber with a specific spatial resolution
by interrogating the continuously backscattered light [48].
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 9 of 32

can monitor
Sensors the
2019, 19, x parameters continuously along the whole optical fiber with a specific spatial resolution
9 of 31
by interrogating the continuously backscattered light [48].
3.1.1. Point OFS for Corrosion
3.1.1. Point OFS for Corrosion
Point corrosion OFS can be considered as the optical version of corrosion coupons. The point
Point corrosion OFS can be considered as the optical version of corrosion coupons. The point
OFS usually have a sensing layer coated at one end or one section of optical fibers such as metallic
OFS usually have a sensing layer coated at one end or one section of optical fibers such as metallic
films. The sensing principle of metallic film-coated OFS is based on interactions between photons and
films. The sensing principle of metallic film-coated OFS is based on interactions between photons and
electronic structure of the metal in form of light reflection and absorption at the metallic films. As
electronic structure of the metal in form of light reflection and absorption at the metallic films. As shown
shown in Figure 9, when the metallic film (Fe or Fe–C alloy film) corrodes at the fiber end, the
in Figure 9, when the metallic film (Fe or Fe–C alloy film) corrodes at the fiber end, the reflected light
reflected light decreases, which can be detected at the other end of the optical fiber [51,52].
decreases, which can be detected at the other end of the optical fiber [51,52]. Alternatively, a Fe–C film
Alternatively, a Fe–C film is coated on a section of the fiber core, and the light transmission along the
is coated on a section of the fiber core, and the light transmission along the optical fiber increases as Fe
optical fiber increases as Fe is dissolved/corroded [53]. The corrosion-induced optical response can
is dissolved/corroded [53]. The corrosion-induced optical response can transmit through the optical
transmit through the optical fiber for a long distance, but point sensors only provide information at
fiber for a long distance, but point sensors only provide information at selected locations.
selected locations.

Figure 9. Point optical fiber sensor for corrosion monitoring based on reflected light from the Fe thin
Figure 9. Point optical fiber sensor for corrosion monitoring based on reflected light from the Fe thin
film coating [52].
film coating [52].
The long-period grating (LPG) provides another design of point sensor allowing light interaction
The long-period
with surrounding gratingthrough
medium (LPG) provides another
the cladding designLPG
modes. of point
hassensor allowing
a typical light interaction
periodicity (Λ) from
with surrounding medium through the cladding modes. LPG has a typical periodicity
100 µm to 1000 µm, which is longer than that of the fiber Bragg grating (FBG), and couples light (Λ) from 100
from
a guided mode in the core into forward propagating cladding modes at certain wavelengths, resultinga
µm to 1000 µm, which is longer than that of the fiber Bragg grating (FBG), and couples light from
guided
in dips inmode in the core into
the transmission forward
spectrum propagating
(Figure 10). Thesecladding modes
resonant at certain(λwavelengths,
wavelengths resulting
R ) can be expressed as
in dips in the transmission spectrum (Figure 10). These resonant wavelengths (λ R) can be expressed
in Equation (6) in terms of the periodicity and the difference between effective refractive indices of the
as incore
fiber Equation (6) in terms
and cladding modes of [54].
the periodicity and the difference between effective refractive indices
of the fiber core and cladding modes [54].
λR λ=R (n (neff,co− −nneff,cl,m
= eff,co )Λ
eff,cl,m) Λ
(6)
(6)
wherenneff,co
where eff,co and
and neff,cl,m
eff,cl,mare
arethe
theeffective
effectiverefractive
refractiveindices
indicesofofthe
thecore
coreand
andcladding
claddingmodes,
modes, respectively.
respectively.
Theresonant
The resonantwavelengths
wavelengths areare sensitive
sensitive to changes
to changes in temperature,
in temperature, strain,strain, or effective
or effective refractiverefractive
indices
indices
of of the cladding
the cladding modes The
modes [55,56]. [55,56]. The cladding
cladding modesexternal
modes enable enable external environmental
environmental monitoring
monitoring such as
such as or
chemical chemical
corrosion orsensing.
corrosion sensing.with
Compared Compared
FBG, LPG with
showsFBG, LPGanshows
almost order ofalmost an order
magnitude higherof
magnitude
spectral shiftshigher
and is spectral shifts and
easier to fabricate dueis to
easier to fabricate
the longer due[55].
periodicity to the longer periodicity
A multiplex of LPGs has [55]. A
been
envisaged with different Λ and/or effective indices along the same fiber for quasi-distributed sensing;
multiplex of LPGs has been envisaged with different Λ and/or effective indices along the same fiber
for quasi-distributed
however, sensing; however,
the multiple resonance peaks andthe multiple
large resonance
bandwidth of LPGspeaks
limitand
thelarge bandwidth
multiplexing of LPGs
capabilities.
limit the multiplexing
Therefore, LPG sensors capabilities. Therefore, as
are mostly considered LPG sensors
point are mostly
sensors. Based on considered as point sensors.
the LPG sensitivity to the
Based on the LPG sensitivity to the cladding mode refractive indices, a LPG fiber
cladding mode refractive indices, a LPG fiber with a micro-layer of nano-iron and silica particles coated with a micro-layer
of the
on nano-iron
cladding andhas
silica
beenparticles coated on
demonstrated to the cladding
monitor has been
corrosion demonstrated
as the to monitor
layer thickness and thecorrosion
sizes of
as the
iron layer thickness
particles get smallerandin thecorrosive
sizes of iron particles get[57,58].
environments smallerThe in corrosive
LPG sensor environments [57,58]. The
with an electroplated
LPG sensor
Fe–C coatingwith has an
been electroplated
studied toFe–C coating
monitor has been studied
corrosion-induced to monitor
mass corrosion-induced
loss [59,60]. LPG sensorsmass can
loss monitor
also [59,60]. LPG sensors can parameters
environmental also monitorrelated
environmental
to corrosionparameters
such as related to corrosion
pH [61–64], humidity such as pH
[65–68],
[61–64], humidity [65–68], CO2 [69–71], H2S [72,73], Cl– and salinity [74–77]. More details on LPG
based sensors can be found in References [56,78].
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 10 of 32

CO2 [69–71], H2 S [72,73], Cl− and salinity [74–77]. More details on LPG based sensors can be found
Sensors
in 2019, 19, x[56,78].
References 10 of 31

Figure
Figure 10. Schematic of
10. Schematic of long-period
long-period grating
grating (LPG)
(LPG) structure
structure [79]
[79] and
and an
an example
example of
of transmitted
transmitted light
light
spectrum after passing through LPG (Reprinted from Reference [80] with permission from Elsevier).
spectrum after passing through LPG (Reprinted from Reference [80] with permission from Elsevier).

3.1.2. Quasi-Distributed OFS for Corrosion

3.1.2. Quasi-Distributed OFS for Corrosion
Fiber Bragg grating-based sensors can be point or quasi-distributed sensors. As shown in Figure 11a,
Fiber Bragg grating-based sensors can be point or quasi-distributed sensors. As shown in Figure
periodic gratings (periodicity Λ) along the core of an optical fiber lead to reflection of a certain
11a, periodic gratings (periodicity Λ) along the core of an optical fiber lead to reflection of a certain
wavelength (Bragg wavelength, λB ) and transmission of other wavelengths, following Equation (7) [47].
wavelength (Bragg wavelength, λB) and transmission of other wavelengths, following Equation (7)
The environmental changes such as temperature and strain changes will cause shifting in the Bragg
[47]. The environmental changes such as temperature and strain changes will cause shifting in the
wavelength for each FBG sensor. Based on this principle, FBG-based sensors are capable of monitoring
Bragg wavelength for each FBG sensor. Based on this principle, FBG-based sensors are capable of
changes in parameters (e.g., temperature and strain) associated with corrosion in pipelines and
monitoring changes in parameters (e.g., temperature and strain) associated with corrosion in
wellbores. Several FBGs can be written along the same fiber with different Λ and/or effective indices
pipelines and wellbores. Several FBGs can be written along the same fiber with different Λ and/or
(neff ), leading to several different Bragg wavelengths that can be spatially resolved along the optical fiber
effective indices (neff), leading to several different Bragg wavelengths that can be spatially resolved
based on the reflected or transmitted spectrum (Figure 11b), enabling quasi-distributed sensing [48,81].
along the optical fiber based on the reflected or transmitted spectrum (Figure 11b), enabling quasi-
distributed sensing [48,81].
λB = 2 neff Λ (7)
λB = 2 neff Λ (7)
FBG-based pressure sensors can be used to locate the pipeline leak based on the negative
FBG-based
pressure pressure
wave (NPW) sensors
method. Thecan be ofused
onset to locate
pipeline the pipeline
leak induces leak drop
a pressure basedwhich
on the negative
propagates
pressure wave (NPW) method. The onset of pipeline leak induces a pressure drop
in both directions from the leak location, and the induced NPW will reach the FBG pressure sensors which propagates
in both directions
mounted from
on the pipe the time
with leak location,
recordedand the induced
through NPW
which the will
leak reach the
location canFBG pressure sensors
be computed [82,83].
mounted on the pipe with time recorded through which the leak location can
The FBG-based strain sensors have been used to monitor the hoop strain (circumferential strain) be computed [82,83].
of
The FBG-based strain sensors have been used to monitor the hoop strain (circumferential
pipelines as an indicator of inner pressure fluctuation and the wall thickness reduction of pipelines strain) of
pipelines
(Figure as [84–86].
12a) an indicator
It hasofalso
inner pressure
been reportedfluctuation and the wall
that the FBG-based thickness
strain sensorsreduction
were bondedof pipelines
directly
(Figure 12a) [84–86]. It has also been reported that the FBG-based strain sensors
on the surface of steel pipelines or inserted in the epoxy composite layers to measure the strain were bonded directly
of
on the surface of steel pipelines or inserted in the epoxy composite layers to measure
repaired pipes [87]. Moreover, the FBG-based sensors have been installed onto the risers in field tests the strain of
repaired pipes [87]. Moreover, the FBG-based sensors have been installed onto the
to demonstrate monitoring of the riser stress for subsea drilling and operations (Figure 12b) [88–90].risers in field tests
to demonstrate
When coated withmonitoring of the hydrogel
pH responsive riser stress
or for subsea drilling
hygroscopic and operations
polymers, (Figure
FBG structures can 12b)
also [88–90].
be used
as pH or water sensors due to the mechanical expansion of the hydrogel or polymers [91–93].be used
When coated with pH responsive hydrogel or hygroscopic polymers, FBG structures can also
as pH or water sensors due to the mechanical expansion of the hydrogel or polymers [91–93].
 Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 11 of 32
Sensors 2019, 19, x 11 of 31
Sensors 2019, 19, x 11 of 31

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)
Figure11.
Figure Schematicofof(a)
11.Schematic (a)one
onefiber
fiberBragg
Bragggrating
grating(FBG)
(FBG)and
andoptical
opticalspectral
spectralresponses
responses[47]
[47]and
and(b)
(b)
FigureFBG
multiple 11. Schematic of (a) one
structuresalong
along fiber Bragg
anoptical
optical grating
fiberand
and (FBG)
optical and optical
spectral spectral
responses [48]. responses [47] and (b)
multiple FBG structures an fiber optical spectral responses [48].
multiple FBG structures along an optical fiber and optical spectral responses [48].

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 12. (a) Photo of FBG hoop strain sensors wrapping around a pipe (Reprinted from Reference
Figure 12.
(a) (a) Photo
Photo of FBG
of FBG hoop
hoop strain
strain sensors
sensors wrapping
wrapping around
around a pipea(Reprinted
pipe (Reprinted from Reference
Figure
[84] with12.
permission from Elsevier); (b) Field demonstration of FBG-based sensors tofrom Reference
monitor [84]
the riser
[84]
with with permission
permission from Elsevier);
from Elsevier); (b) Field
(b) Field demonstration
demonstration of FBG-based
of FBG-based sensors
sensors to monitor
to monitor thethe riser
riser
stress for subsea drilling and operations [88].
stress
stress forfor subsea
subsea drilling
drilling andand operations
operations [88].
[88].
3.1.3.
3.1.3.Distributed
Distributed OFS
OFS for Physical
forfor
Physical Sensing
Sensing
3.1.3. Distributed OFS Physical Sensing
Distributed
Distributed monitoring
monitoring is a significant
is aissignificant capability
capability of
ofOFS
OFS technology
technology and
and isisparticularly
particularly suitable
suitable
Distributed monitoring a significant capability of OFS technology and is particularly suitable
for long-distance
forfor
long-distance infrastructures
infrastructures in
in the
the O&G
O&G industry
industry such
such as
asthousands
thousands of
of miles
miles of
of transmission
transmission
long-distance infrastructures in the O&G industry such as thousands of miles of transmission
pipelines.
pipelines. Compared
Compared totopoint
point sensors,
sensors, distributed
distributed OFS
OFS enable
enable continuous
continuous real-time
real-time monitoring
monitoring over
over
pipelines. Compared to point sensors, distributed OFS enable continuous real-time monitoring over
the whole
thethe
whole structure
structure with
with reduced
reduced cost
cost per
per unit
unit of
of length.
length. Distributed
Distributed OFS
OFS areare based
based on
on the
the light
light
whole structure with reduced cost per unit of length. Distributed OFS are based on the light
backscattering
backscattering atatdiscontinuities
discontinuities along
along the optical
thethe
optical fiber.
fiber. There
Thereare three
areare
three kinds
kinds ofofscattering:
scattering: Rayleigh,
Rayleigh,
backscattering at discontinuities along optical fiber. There three kinds of scattering: Rayleigh,
Brillouin,
Brillouin, and
and Raman
Raman scattering
scattering [47].
[47]. As As
shownshownin in
Figure Figure
13, 13,
RayleighRayleigh scattering
scattering is an is
elastic an elastic
scattering
Brillouin, and Raman scattering [47]. As shown in Figure 13, Rayleigh scattering is an elastic
scattering
caused caused
by local by local
fluctuationsfluctuations of the
of the refractive refractive index and is sensitive to surrounding changes
scattering caused by local fluctuations of theindex and isindex
refractive sensitive
and is tosensitive
surrounding changes such
to surrounding as
changes
such as temperature, strain/bending, and vibration. Brillouin scattering is an inelastic scattering
such as temperature, strain/bending, and vibration. Brillouin scattering is an inelastic scattering
caused by interaction with acoustic waves from lattice vibration and is sensitive to local temperature,
caused by interaction with acoustic waves from lattice vibration and is sensitive to local temperature,
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 12 of 32

temperature, strain/bending, and vibration. Brillouin scattering is an inelastic scattering caused by

interaction with acoustic waves from lattice vibration and is sensitive to local temperature,
Sensors 2019, 19, x 12 of 31
strains,
and deformation of the optical fiber. Raman scattering is another inelastic scattering caused
Sensors 2019, 19, x
by energy
12 of 31
strains,
exchanges withandmolecular
deformation of the optical
vibrations fiber.
of the Raman
fiber. The scattering is another
anti-Stokes Raman inelastic scattering
scattering caused to the
responds
by energy
strains,
temperature and exchanges
changesdeformation
whereas with molecular
ofthe
the vibrations
optical fiber.
Stokes Raman Raman ofscattering
the fiber.
scattering isThe anti-Stokes
another
is insensitive; inelastic Raman thescattering
scattering
therefore, caused
ratio of Stokes
responds
by energy toexchanges
the temperature
with changes whereas
molecular the Stokes
vibrations of the Raman
fiber. scattering
The is insensitive;
anti-Stokes Raman therefore,
scattering
to anti-Stokes Raman scattering can be used to measure temperature [47,94]. The optical signals can
the ratio of
responds to Stokes to anti-Stokes
the temperature Raman
changes scattering
whereas can be Raman
the Stokes used to scattering
measure temperature [47,94].
is insensitive; The
therefore,
be interrogated using Optical Time-Domain Reflectometry (OTDR) or Optical Frequency-Domain
optical
the ratiosignals
of Stokes cantobe interrogated
anti-Stokes using
Raman Optical Time-Domain
scattering can be used to Reflectometry (OTDR)[47,94].
measure temperature or Optical
The
Reflectometry (OFDR) to Reflectometry
Frequency-Domain realize spatially distributed monitoring. A detailedmonitoring.
comparison on distributed
optical signals can be interrogated (OFDR) to realize
using Optical spatially distributed
Time-Domain Reflectometry (OTDR)Aordetailed Optical
interrogation
comparison techniques
Frequency-Domain in terms
on distributed of (OFDR)
principle,
interrogation
Reflectometry resolution,
techniques
to realize terms limitation,
in spatially
of principle, and sensitivity
resolution,
distributed A can
limitation,
monitoring. be found
and
detailed
in Reference [95],
sensitivity canincluding
be found Brillouin
in ReferenceOTDR,
[95], Raman
including OTDR,
Brillouin Rayleigh
OTDR, OFDR,
Raman OTDR,etc.
comparison on distributed interrogation techniques in terms of principle, resolution, limitation, and Rayleigh OFDR,
etc.
sensitivity can be found in Reference [95], including Brillouin OTDR, Raman OTDR, Rayleigh OFDR,
etc.

Figure 13. Three kinds of backscattered optical signals and their responses to temperature changes.
Figure 13. Three kinds of backscattered optical signals and their responses to temperature changes.
(Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature: A review on optical fiber sensors for environmental
(Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature: A review on optical fiber sensors for environmental
Figure 13. Three kinds of backscattered optical signals and their responses to temperature changes.
monitoring, H. Joe,
monitoring, H.et al,et2018
Joe, [47]).
al, 2018 [47]).
(Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature: A review on optical fiber sensors for environmental
monitoring, H. Joe, et al, 2018 [47]).
Distributed temperature,
Distributed temperature,strain, andand
strain, acoustic
acoustic sensing
sensing(DTS,
(DTS,DSS,
DSS,andand DAS) havebeen
DAS) have beendeveloped
developed and
matured andover the
matured last
over three decades
the last [96],
three decades and they
[96], andhave been
they have adopted
been adopted for corrosion
for
Distributed temperature, strain, and acoustic sensing (DTS, DSS, and DAS) have been developed
corrosion and
andstructural
structural health
healththrough
monitoring monitoring through investigations
investigations and forfieldthe
tests for the O&G industry. monitoring
Besides monitoring
and matured over the last three and field[96],
decades tests
and they O&G
have industry.
been adoptedBesides temperature,
for corrosion and structural
temperature,
strain, health
and vibration strain,
for welland vibration
logging for well
during O&G logging during O&G exploration [94], distributed OFS
monitoring through investigations and exploration
field tests for[94],
the distributed
O&G industry. OFSBesides
have been leveraged
monitoring to
have been leveraged to monitor physical parameters related to corrosion, failure, and leak detection.
monitor temperature, strain, andrelated
physical parameters vibration for well logging
to corrosion, failure,during
and leakO&G exploration
detection. DTS[94],
used distributed OFS
for leak detection is
DTS used for leak detection is based on the thermal signatures of the flowing products inside the
based onhave been leveraged
the thermal to
signaturesmonitor physical
of the isflowing parameters
products related to corrosion, failure, and leak detection.
pipelines. Heating transportation one way to reduceinside the pipelines.
the viscosity Heating
to efficiently flowtransportation
highly viscous is one
way toDTS usedthe
reduce forviscosity
leak detection
to is basedflow
efficiently on the thermal
highly signatures
viscous crude of
oil the
in
crude oil in the pipes, and the leak of heated oil results in a temperature change outside the
flowing
the products
pipes, and inside
thepipelines,
leak of theheated
pipelines. Heating transportation is one way to reduce the viscosity to efficiently flow highly viscous
oil results in acan
which temperature
be detectedchange
throughoutside
DTS [97]. theDuepipelines, which can beeffect,
to the Joule-Thomson detected through
the leak DTS
of high [97]. Due to
pressure
crude oil in the pipes, and the leak of heated oil results in a temperature change outside the pipelines,
gas decreases effect,
the Joule-Thomson the temperature
the leak of and the pressure
high leak of liquids increases the
gas decreases the temperature,
temperaturewhich and theallows
leakDTSof liquids
which can be detected through DTS [97]. Due to the Joule-Thomson effect, the leak of high pressure
increasesto the
detect pipeline leaks
temperature, which[94].allows
OFDR-based
DTS toDSS
detect haspipeline
been studied
leaks to monitor
[94]. wall thickness
OFDR-based DSS variation
has been studied
gas decreases the temperature and the leak of liquids increases the temperature, which allows DTS
induced by internal corrosion based on the hoop strain monitoring using optical fibers around the
to monitor wallpipeline
to detect thickness variation
leaks induced by DSS
[94]. OFDR-based internal corrosion
has been studiedbased on the hoop
to monitor strain monitoring
wall thickness variation using
pipes [86,98]. DAS, using coherent Rayleigh backscattering, has been investigated for detection of the
opticalinduced
fibers around the pipes
by internal [86,98].
corrosion DAS,
based onusing coherent
the hoop strainRayleigh backscattering,
monitoring using opticalhas beenaround
fibers investigated
the for
leak-induced pipeline vibrations, either negative pressure waves or broadband leak-induced acoustic
pipes
detection of [86,98].
the DAS, usingpipeline
leak-induced coherentvibrations,
Rayleigh backscattering,
either negative has been investigated
pressure waves or for detectionleak-induced
broadband of the
noises, using optical fibers helically wound around the pipes (Figure 14) [99,100]. Importantly, for
acousticleak-induced pipeline
noises, using vibrations,
optical fibers either negative
helically wound pressure
around waves or broadband
the OTDR
pipes (Figure leak-induced
[99,100].acoustic
long-distance monitoring, the sensing range of phase-sensitive has been14) demonstrated Importantly,
to be
noises, using optical fibers helically wound around the pipes (Figure 14) [99,100]. Importantly, for
for long-distance
possible for monitoring,
extension to 131.5 the sensing rangeintrusion
km to monitor of phase-sensitive
in pipelinesOTDR
[101]. has been demonstrated to be
long-distance monitoring, the sensing range of phase-sensitive OTDR has been demonstrated to be
possible for extension to 131.5 km to monitor intrusion in pipelines [101].
possible for extension to 131.5 km to monitor intrusion in pipelines [101].

Figure 14. Schematic illustration of the employed fiber helically wrapping around the pipe to monitor
leak-induced vibrations based on distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) [99].
Sensors 2019, 19, x 13 of 31

Figure 14. Schematic illustration of the employed fiber helically wrapping around the pipe to monitor
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 13 of 32
leak-induced vibrations based on distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) [99].

3.1.4. Distributed
3.1.4. Distributed OFS
OFS for
for Chemical
Chemical Sensing
Sensing
Most of
Most of the
the sensors
sensors mentioned
mentioned above above are
are placed
placed outside
outside of of the
the pipelines
pipelines and
and measure
measure corrosion
corrosion
indirectly through
indirectly throughconsequences
consequences of corrosion
of corrosion (e.g., temperature,
(e.g., temperature, strain, acoustic
strain, acoustic waves, leak waves, leak
vibration)
vibration) after corrosion has occurred and the structural integrity is
after corrosion has occurred and the structural integrity is deteriorated; however, it is more ideal todeteriorated; however, it is more
ideal to monitor
monitor internal internal
corrosion corrosion with sensors
with sensors inside the inside the pipelines
pipelines and detect andearly
detect early corrosion
corrosion onset
onset before
before significant
significant mass lossmassandloss and structural
structural integrity integrity is compromised.
is compromised.
Distributed chemical sensing (DCS)
Distributed chemical sensing (DCS) shows promising shows promising
potential to potential to monitor
monitor corrosive corrosive
environments
environments (Figure 1) before or upon early corrosion onset
(Figure 1) before or upon early corrosion onset to facilitate corrosion mitigation, although DCS is to facilitate corrosion mitigation,
although
less mature DCS is less mature
compared to DTS, compared
DSS, andtoDAS.DTS,Optical
DSS, and DAS. Optical
fiber-based fiber-based
chemical sensorschemical
are enabledsensorsby
are enabled by functional chemical sensing coatings mostly on the fiber
functional chemical sensing coatings mostly on the fiber core or cladding, such as metallic films [53,102], core or cladding, such as
metallic[103–109],
oxides films [53,102], oxides[49,110–112],
polymers [103–109], polymers
nanomaterials [49,110–112],
[113–115],nanomaterials [113–115],
and metal-organic and metal-
frameworks
organic frameworks (MOFs) [116,117]. Figure 15 illustrates one example
(MOFs) [116,117]. Figure 15 illustrates one example of the evanescent field-based chemical sensor [118]. of the evanescent field-based
chemical
The optical sensor
fibers[118].
can be The optical
etched, fibers can
tapered, be etched,
spliced, tapered, spliced,
or side-polished to allowor the
side-polished to allowwith
light interactions the
light interactions
chemical with chemical
sensing layers on the core sensing layersand
or cladding on with
the core or cladding and
the surrounding media with the surrounding
[47,50,119].
media [47,50,119].
Microstructured optical fibers provide a new type of fiber structure for OFS with great potential
for DCS Microstructured
since the inceptionopticalinfibers provide
the 1990s a new type
[120–122]. Theseof fiber
fibersstructure for OFS
are featured with with
air great
holes potential
running
for DCStosince
parallel the inceptionaxis
the longitudinal in the 1990s
along the [120–122].
entire fiberThese length.fibers
If theareairfeatured
holes arewith air holesarranged
periodically running
parallel to the longitudinal axis along the entire fiber length. If the
in the cladding matrix, they are also known as photonic crystal fibers (PCF) [120,123]. Hollow-coreair holes are periodically arranged
in the
PCF cladding
and matrix, PCF
index-guided they sensors
are alsohave known been as demonstrated
photonic crystal fibers (PCF)
to detect gases [120,123]. Hollow-core
such as methane, H2 S,
PCF and index-guided PCF sensors have been demonstrated to detect
CO2 , and acetylene with high sensitivity (ppm level) through direct interaction of light with gases gases such as methane, H2S,
CO 2 , and acetylene with high sensitivity (ppm level) through direct
in the holes [124–128]. A suspended-core fiber sensor has been developed for Cl detection with interaction of light
− with gases in
athe
Cl holes [124–128]. A suspended-core
material filledfiber sensor
holeshas been developed for Cl detection with a Cl–
− –
sensitive fluorescent in the [129]. PCF LPG sensors have also been studied
sensitive
for Cl− and fluorescent
humiditymaterial
monitoring filled[130,131].
in the holes [129]. PCF LPG
A birefringent PCF sensors
sensorhave also been
has been studied
designed for Cl–
to detect
and humidity
corrosion monitoring [130,131].
product-induced expansion A birefringent
for corrosion PCF sensor
onset has been in
monitoring designed
reinforcedto detect corrosion
concrete [132].
product-induced expansion for corrosion onset monitoring in reinforced
More sensing applications can be found in References [133–135]. Although microstructured fibers offer concrete [132]. More sensing
applications
high sensitivity canand be flexible
found fiber
in References
designs, mass [133–135]. Although
production microstructured fibers
and commercialization offer
are still high
limited,
sensitivity
which requireandcost-effective
flexible fiberlong-distance
designs, massfabrication
productionofand these commercialization
fibers. are still limited, which
require cost-effective long-distance fabrication of these fibers.

Figure 15.Schematic
Figure 15. Schematicof evanescent field-based
of evanescent chemical
field-based sensor sensor
chemical with a colorimetric indicator contained
with a colorimetric indicator
in the cladding of optical fiber [118].
contained in the cladding of optical fiber [118].

AA recent
recent concept
concept forfor corrosion
corrosion detection
detection involves
involves the
the use
use ofof proxy
proxy materials
materials integrated
integrated with
with the
the
distributed OFS platform to monitor corrosion directly as a distributed optical “corrosion
distributed OFS platform to monitor corrosion directly as a distributed optical “corrosion coupon” coupon” and
provide insights
and provide into the
insights corrosive
into conditions
the corrosive [5,6]. The[5,6].
conditions corrosion-proxy distributeddistributed
The corrosion-proxy OFS is envisioned
OFS is
to be installed along the inner wall of pipelines to monitor internal corrosion.
envisioned to be installed along the inner wall of pipelines to monitor internal corrosion. Metallic film-coated
Metallic
optical fibersoptical
film-coated have been demonstrated
fibers have been for distributed monitoring
demonstrated of corrosion
for distributed whenof
monitoring interrogated
corrosion using
when
OFDR. As shown
interrogated usinginOFDR.
Figure 16, As mass
shown loss
in of metallic
Figure 16, coating
mass lossis monitored
of metallicbased on (a)
coating intensity change
is monitored based
or (b) strain change along the optical fiber [102,136]. The light intensity increases in the corroded
Sensors 2019, 19, x 14 of 31
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 14 of 32

on (a) intensity change or (b) strain change along the optical fiber [102,136]. The light intensity
increases
region in thethe
because corroded region because
light absorption the film
of metallic lightdecreases
absorption of metallic
as the film decreases
film becomes thinner. Theas increase
the film
becomes
in strain isthinner.
caused The increase
by release of in strain is caused
compressive by stress
internal release of compressive
induced internal
by electroless stress induced
deposition by
of Ni film.
electroless deposition of Ni film.

(a) (b)
16. Metallic
Figure 16. Metallic thin
thin film
film coated optical fiber sensors (OFS) for distributed
distributed corrosion sensing
interrogated using
interrogated usingOptical
OpticalFrequency-Domain
Frequency-Domain Reflectometry
Reflectometry (OFDR):
(OFDR): (a) Rayleigh
(a) Rayleigh backscattered
backscattered light
light increases
increases as corrosion
as corrosion of Feof Fe proceeds
proceeds due
due to to light
light absorption
absorption of metallic
of metallic film;film; (b) Microstrain
(b) Microstrain on
on the
fiber increases with mass loss of coated Ni film due to release of compressive internal
the fiber increases with mass loss of coated Ni film due to release of compressive internal stress stress induced
by Ni deposition
induced [102]. Note:
by Ni deposition 1—single-mode
[102]. fiber core;
Note: 1—single-mode 2—cladding;
fiber 3—polymer
core; 2—cladding; jacket; 4—coated
3—polymer jacket; 4—
metallic film; 5—multi-mode
coated metallic fiber core.
film; 5—multi-mode fiber core.

Environmental
Environmental factors factors such
suchasaspH, pH,water
water content,
content, electrolyte
electrolyte conductivity,
conductivity, andandacidicacidic
gas COgas2
CO
or H or H S are critical for corrosion. Distributed sensing of these chemical
2 2S are 2critical for corrosion. Distributed sensing of these chemical parameters can determine the parameters can
determine
environmental the corrosivity
environmental and corrosivity and therefore
therefore indirectly monitor indirectly
corrosion. monitor
Although corrosion.
DCS has Although
only been
DCS has only in
demonstrated been demonstrated
a few in a few studies
studies [102,137–139], [102,137–139],
the chemical sensing thematerials
chemical investigated
sensing materials for a
investigated for a broader range of fiber optics applications could be
broader range of fiber optics applications could be potentially utilized for the development of DCS potentially utilized for the
development of DCSenvironmental
to monitor corrosive to monitor corrosive
factors.environmental
There is a variety factors.
of pH There
sensingis materials
a variety for
of pH sensing
integration
materials
with OFS, including localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) Au or Ag nanoparticlesAu
for integration with OFS, including localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) or
(NP)
Ag nanoparticles (NP) incorporated composites (Figure 17a) [107,140,141],
incorporated composites (Figure 17a) [107,140,141], organic dyes [142–147], fluorescent molecules organic dyes [142–147],
fluorescent molecules
[148–152], polymers [148–152],
[153–156], polymers [153–156],
pH-sensitive pH-sensitive
hydrogel [157–160], etc.hydrogel [157–160],
For the silica matrix etc. For the
coating, the
silica matrix coating, the surface charge density of silica matrix was found
surface charge density of silica matrix was found to correlate with the solution pH regardless of to correlate with the solution
pH regardlessmaterials
incorporated of incorporated materials
in the matrix layerin (Figure
the matrix 17b)layer (FigureOptical
[107,161]. 17b) [107,161].
fiber pHOptical
sensorsfiberand pHpH
sensors
sensitiveand pH sensitive
materials materials
are reviewed in are
more reviewed
detail ininReferences
more detail in References [160,162,163].
[160,162,163].
Water
Water andand salinity
salinity cancan also
also be
be monitored
monitored by by OFS.
OFS. Water
Water condensation
condensation and and presence
presence havehave been
been
detected
detected by by aa fully
fully distributed
distributed water
water sensor
sensor based
based on on the
the hygroscopic
hygroscopic property
property of of the
the intrinsic
intrinsic
polymer
polymer jacket
jacket ofof aa commercial
commercial single-mode
single-mode (SM) (SM) fiber,
fiber, and
and the
the swelling-induced
swelling-induced strainstrain changes
changes are are
spatially
spatially interrogated using OFDR (Figure 18a) [138,164]. The coatings of graphene oxide film
interrogated using OFDR (Figure 18a) [138,164]. The coatings of graphene oxide film and
and
polymers (e.g., polyimide)
polymers (e.g., polyimide)have havealso
alsobeen
beenstudied
studiedfor forwater
water oror humidity
humidity monitoring
monitoring [137,165,166].
[137,165,166]. A
A multi-parameter OFS has been developed to detect the water/solution
multi-parameter OFS has been developed to detect the water/solution presence, ionic strength, and presence, ionic strength,
and temperature
temperature simultaneously
simultaneously without
without anyany coating
coating through
through analyzingphase
analyzing phaseshifts
shiftsin
inall
all the
the modes
modes
(Figure
(Figure 18b),
18b), and
and aa sensor
sensor network
network cancan be
be designed
designed for for internal
internal corrosion
corrosion monitoring
monitoring of of natural
natural gas
gas
transmission pipelines [119]. OFS for Cl− and salinity monitoring are mostly based on the refractive
transmission pipelines [119]. OFS for Cl and salinity monitoring are mostly based on the refractive
–

index
index changes
changes detected using tapered
detected using tapered optical
optical fiber,
fiber, U-shaped
U-shaped fiber,fiber, SPR
SPR coating,
coating, oror fluorescence
fluorescence
sensitive material for chloride [129,167–169].
sensitive material for chloride [129,167–169].
For
For acidic
acidic gas
gas monitoring,
monitoring, gas gas sensitive
sensitive coatings
coatings or or gas
gas absorption
absorption layers
layers are
are often
often used
used in in OFS.
OFS.
CO -absorbing MOFs
CO2-absorbing MOFs have have been
been studied
studied for for CO monitoring and
CO2 monitoring and demonstrated
demonstrated quick quick and
and reversible
reversible
responses [117,170,171]. Because dissolved CO can reduce the solution pH,
responses [117,170,171]. Because dissolved CO22 can reduce the solution pH, CO2 sensors also employ CO sensors also employ
pH indicators (colorimetric or fluorescent dyes) within various sensing layers such as silica gel
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 15 of 32
Sensors 2019, 19, x 15 of 31
Sensors 2019, 19, x 15 of 31
pH indicators (colorimetric or fluorescent dyes) within various sensing layers such as silica gel coating,
coating, polymer matrix with quantum dots, and sol–gel matrix with silica nanoparticles [172–177].
coating,
polymerpolymer
matrix withmatrix with quantum
quantum dots,
dots, and and sol–gel
sol–gel matrixmatrix with nanoparticles
with silica silica nanoparticles [172–177].
[172–177]. H2 S
H2S monitoring often utilizes reactive sensing materials such as Ag [178,179], Cu [180,181], ZnO
H 2S monitoring
monitoring oftenoften utilizes
utilizes reactive
reactive sensingsensing materials
materials such assuch as Ag [178,179],
Ag [178,179], Cu [180,181],
Cu [180,181], ZnO
ZnO [182,183],
[182,183], CuO doped SnO2 [184], CdO [185], and fluorescent or luminescent indicators [186–188].
[182,183],
CuO doped CuOSnO doped
2 SnO
[184], CdO
2 [184],
[185],CdO
and [185], and
fluorescent fluorescent
or or
luminescent luminescent
indicators indicators
[186–188]. [186–188].
More H2 S
More H2S sensitive materials can be found in References [189,190].
More H2Smaterials
sensitive sensitive can
materials canin
be found beReferences
found in References
[189,190]. [189,190].
Table 2 lists some examples of OFS chemical sensing layers for corrosivity monitoring.
Table 2 lists some examples
examples of of OFS
OFS chemical
chemical sensing
sensing layers
layers for
for corrosivity
corrosivity monitoring.
monitoring.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 17. (a) Transmission spectra of optical fiber pH senor coated with localized surface plasmon
Figure 17. (a) Transmission spectra of optical fiber pH senor coated with localized surface plasmon
resonance (LSPR) Au-nanoparticles incorporated SiO2 layer at different pH; and (b) pH sensing
resonance (LSPR)
(LSPR)Au-nanoparticles
Au-nanoparticlesincorporated
incorporatedSiOSiO 2 layer
layer at different
at different pH;(b)
pH; and andpH(b) pH sensing
sensing results
results from silica-matrix coatings embedded with a2 variety of optically active materials. (Reproduced
results from silica-matrix
from silica-matrix coatings
coatings embedded
embedded with a with a variety
variety of optically
of optically activeactive materials.
materials. (Reproduced
(Reproduced from
from Reference [107] with permission from The Royal Society of Chemistry).
from Reference
Reference [107] permission
[107] with with permission fromRoyal
from The The Royal
SocietySociety of Chemistry).
of Chemistry).

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 18.(a)
Figure18. (a)Demonstration
Demonstrationofofdistributed
distributedwater
waterdetection
detectionininairairbased
basedon onthe
theswelling-induced
swelling-inducedstrain strain
Figure 18. (a) Demonstration of distributed water detection in air based on the swelling-induced strain
changes interrogated with an optical backscatter reflectometer (OBR). The first water
changes interrogated with an optical backscatter reflectometer (OBR). The first water drop was added drop was added
changes interrogated with an optical backscatter reflectometer (OBR). The first water drop was added
atat1 min and
1 min thethe
and second water
second dropdrop
water was was
added at 30 min
added at 30[138];
min (b) Phase
[138]; (b) shift-based optical fiber
Phase shift-based opticalsensor
fiber
at 1 min and the second water drop was added at 30 min [138]; (b) Phase shift-based optical fiber
(OFS)
sensorwithout any additional
(OFS) without coating coating
any additional for simultaneous multi-parameter
for simultaneous monitoring
multi-parameter including
monitoring ionic
including
sensor
strength(OFS) without anyindicator
as a corrosivity additional coating for simultaneous multi-parameter monitoring including
[119].
ionic strength as a corrosivity indicator [119].
ionic strength as a corrosivity indicator [119].
Table 2. Chemical sensing parameters and examples of optical fiber sensing layers for corrosion monitoring.
Table 2. Chemical sensing parameters and examples of optical fiber sensing layers for corrosion monitoring.
Table Parameter
2. Chemical sensing parameters and examples of optical
Sensing layer
fiber sensing layers
Test Condition
for corrosion monitoring.
Performance and Comments
Parameter Sensing layer Test Condition
◦ C, 1 atm, CO
Performance and Comments
Parameter Sensing layer Testo30Condition 2 Performance and Comments
Distributed sensing, nm-scale
Fe [136] 30 C, 1 atm, CO 2
30saturated
oC, 1 atm, 3.5CO
wt.%
2
NaCl mass losssensing,
Distributed sensitivity nm-scale
Fe [136] saturated 3.5 wt.% Distributed sensing, nm-scale
Corrosion Fe [136] saturated 3.5 wt.% 10s mass
of uWloss sensitivity
increase in light
FeC [53] 0.18–1.8
NaCl mol/L H2 SO4 mass loss sensitivity
NaCl transmission in <10 min
Corrosion 10s of uW increase in light
Corrosion FeC [53] 0.18–1.8 mol/L H 2 SO 4 uW increase
10s of uW increase in light
in light
FeC Al [191]
[53] 0.18–1.8 0.05 mol/LHNaOH
mol/L 2SO4 transmission
transmission in in5<10
minmin
transmission in <10 min
uW increase in light transmission
Al [191] 0.05 mol/L NaOH uW increase in light transmission
Al [191] 0.05 mol/L NaOH in 5 min
in 5 min
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 16 of 32

Table 2. Cont.

Parameter Sensing layer Test Condition Performance and Comments

Room temperature (RT)
Au-NP in SiO2 matrix [107] pH 2–12, quick response
and 80 ◦ C, 1 atm
Organic dyes in SiO2 matrix
RT, 1 atm * pH 3–12
[143,146]
pH 2–12,
pH Polyaniline [154] RT, 1 atm *
>1 month stability in air
fluorescent
Poly(p-pyridiniumphenylene RT, 1atm pH 1–10
ethynylene)s [192]
Wavelength 1.94 nm/pH,
pH-sensitive hydrogel [158] RT, 1atm
pH 3–10
38.5 ± 1.9 microstrain/%Relative
Polyimide [137] 30 – 50 ◦ C, 1atm
Humidity (RH)
Water Wavelength 0.145–0.915
◦ C, nm/%RH for 32–97.6% RH;
Graphene oxide film [165] 27–67 1atm
Intensity 0.427 dB/%RH for
58.2–92.5% RH
SPR based Al/TiO2 [193] RT, 1atm * Accuracy of 0.1% salinity
Salinity or Cl−
Fluorescent Lucigenin [129] RT, 1atm * Detection limit of 0.02 mol/L Cl−
Zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 10s of seconds response,
RT, 1atm
(ZIF-8) MOF [170] Reversible, Linear calibration
Dyes (e.g., methyl red)
CO2 15–60 ◦ C, 1atm 2–3 seconds response
in SiO2 gel [172]
Fluorescent dye HPTS
Sol–gel matrix doped with silica
(1-Hydroxypyrene-3,6,8-trisulfonic 5–35 ◦ C, 1atm
particles improved sensitivity
acid trisodium salt) [174,176]
90% transmittance drop in 15
Ag layer [178] 30 ◦ C, 1 atm minutes in 0.1 mol/L
H2 S solution
25–30 minutes response time for
H2 S
CdO in porous SiO2 [185] 450 ◦ C, 1atm 1–100 ppm H2 S, Irreversible
but regenerable
100 ppb–100 ppm H2 S,
SPR based Ag/NiO doped
RT, 1atm * Sensitivity decreased with
indium tin oxide (ITO) [194]
H2 S concentration
* Assumed at RT and 1atm when lack of clarification on test conditions.

3.1.5. Challenges of OFS Application in the O&G Industry

HTHP in the O&G wellbores impose a big challenge on downhole monitoring with harsh conditions
due to CO2 , H2 S, and mechanical stress. The downhole temperature is commonly 150–200 ◦ C, and it
can reach as high as 300 ◦ C in some cases [94]. Although OFS possess advantages for downhole sensing
(e.g., thermally and chemically stable, small size, light weight, long reach, and no electronics required
downhole), silica fibers can suffer from long-term instability and hydrogen darkening due to hydrogen
ingress when exposed to hydrogen/water especially at high temperature, thereby dramatically reducing
their rated operational temperatures for long-term deployment. The formation of the Si–H bond and
adsorption of OH− ions cause the extrinsic attenuation along the fiber [195]. A hermetic carbon layer
can be added between the cladding and the polymer jacket to protect silica fibers against hydrogen
induced attenuation, but this specialty fiber is only rated up to 200 ◦ C [196]. Therefore, protective
coatings or proper OFS designs are paramount for HTHP sensing. Alternative fibers such as sapphire
fibers can be suitable for extreme high temperature sensing (up to 1800 ◦ C) if the cost and cladding
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 17 of 32

challenges can be overcome and fibers can be produced at sufficient lengths to be relevant for the O&G
applications [197].
SensorsDistributed
2019, 19, x interrogation with high resolution over long distances is another challenge 17 offor
31
the long-distance O&G infrastructures such as hundreds of thousands of miles of gathering and
transmission pipelines.
pipelines.Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,low-cost
low-cost interrogation
interrogation system
system and effective
and effective deployment
deployment of
of optical
optical fiber sensors in the O&G infrastructures are also critical to make OFS more
fiber sensors in the O&G infrastructures are also critical to make OFS more competitive than existing competitive than
existing
corrosioncorrosion
monitoring monitoring technologies.
technologies. Phase-sensitive
Phase-sensitive OTDR and OTDR and Brillouin
Brillouin optical time-domain
optical time-domain analysis
(BOTDA) are promising interrogation approaches for monitoring >100 km distance [100,101,198–200].
analysis (BOTDA) are promising interrogation approaches for monitoring >100 km distance
[100,101,198–200].
There Therebetween
is often a trade-off is oftenthea interrogation
trade-off between theand
distance interrogation distance and
the spatial resolution. For the spatial
distributed
resolution.
physical For distributed
sensing, physicalbetween
cross-sensitivity sensing, multiple
cross-sensitivity between
parameters multiple
requires parametersfrom
discrimination requires
one
discrimination from one another, e.g., T and strain effects [201–204]. For distributed
another, e.g., T and strain effects [201–204]. For distributed chemical sensing, most chemical sensingchemical sensing,
most
layerschemical sensing layers
require “leakage” require
of light from “leakage”
the fiberof lightresulting
core, from thein fiber core, resulting
increased in increased
loss of light power andloss
of light power
therefore andthe
limiting therefore limiting
interrogation the interrogation distance.
distance.

Passsive Wireless Sensors

3.2. Passsive
Passive wireless
wirelesssensors constitute
sensors another
constitute emerging
another technology
emerging for structural
technology for health monitoring,
structural health
which do not
monitoring, require
which active
do not source
require of energy
active sourceor of active
energyelectronics at the sensing
or active electronics at thelocation
sensing and can
location
wirelessly transfer energy
and can wirelessly transferand signals.
energy andElimination of local batteries,
signals. Elimination active electronics,
of local batteries, and electrical
active electronics, and
wiring is critical
electrical wiringtoisimprove
criticalsensor stabilitysensor
to improve and durability
stabilityatand
HTHP and harshatenvironments
durability HTHP and and to
harsh
make sensors more
environments and tocompatible
make sensors withmore
moving parts. The
compatible wireless
with movingfeature
parts. also
The makes it possible
wireless for
feature also
monitoring
makes in inaccessible
it possible areas. Due
for monitoring to the smallareas.
in inaccessible size and
Duelow cost,small
to the passive
sizewireless
and lowsensors can be
cost, passive
deployedsensors
wireless ubiquitously
can be in the system
deployed of interest.inPassive
ubiquitously wireless
the system sensorsPassive
of interest. for corrosion and
wireless SHM are
sensors for
mostly based
corrosion andonSHMthe passive radio-frequency
are mostly based on the identification (RFID) and theidentification
passive radio-frequency surface acoustic waveand
(RFID) (SAW)
the
techniques
surface [205–208].
acoustic wave (SAW) techniques [205–208].

3.2.1. Passive
3.2.1. Passive Radio-Frequency
Radio-Frequency Identification
Identification Sensors
Sensors
Passive
Passive RFID
RFID sensors form aa large
sensors form large group
group ofof passive
passive wireless
wireless sensors
sensors for
for corrosion
corrosion and
and SHM,
SHM,
especially the chipless RFID sensors, and they have advantages of low cost, light weight,
especially the chipless RFID sensors, and they have advantages of low cost, light weight, small size, small size,
and wireless
and wireless remote
remote sensing
sensing [206,207]. RFID technology
[206,207]. RFID technology usually
usually consists
consists of
of three
three components:
components: aa small
small
tag unit (or transponder), a reader (or transceiver), and antennas. Figure 19 shows one example ofof
tag unit (or transponder), a reader (or transceiver), and antennas. Figure 19 shows one example a
a passiveRFID
passive RFIDantenna
antennasensor
sensorsystem
system[209].
[209].Passive
PassiveRFID
RFIDtags
tagsreceive
receiveRFRFsignals
signalsfromfromthe
thereader
reader and
and
respond with
respond withidentity
identityand
andsensing
sensingsignals through
signals throughthethe
antennas [210].
antennas Different
[210]. fromfrom
Different chip-based RFID
chip-based
tags, chipless RFID tags do not have an onboard silicon chip on the circuitry. Chipless
RFID tags, chipless RFID tags do not have an onboard silicon chip on the circuitry. Chipless RFID RFID sensors
categorically
sensors have three have
categorically types: three
time-domain
types: reflectometry
time-domain(TDR)-based;
reflectometry frequency modulation-based,
(TDR)-based; frequency
modulation-based, and phase-encoded chipless RFID sensors [211]. SAW devices can be
and phase-encoded chipless RFID sensors [211]. SAW devices can also be designed to RFID
also be
tags [205,212,213].
designed to be RFID tags [205,212,213].

Figure 19. Schematic of a passive radio-frequency identification (RFID) antenna sensor system including
Figure 19. Schematic of a passive radio-frequency identification (RFID) antenna sensor system
a RFID tag, a reader, and antennas [209].
including a RFID tag, a reader, and antennas [209].
RFID sensors can directly monitor corrosion when incorporated with corrosion sensitive proxy
RFID sensors
materials in can directly
the sensor monitor corrosion
configuration. when incorporated
With a corrosion with
sensitive link or corrosion
connectorsensitive proxy
(e.g., metal or
materials in the sensor configuration. With a corrosion sensitive link or connector (e.g., metal or steel
of interest) between the circuit and antennas on a RFID sensor, the circuit will not be properly
energized through antennas to respond back due to corrosion of the link, which indicates occurrence
of corrosion [214]. In another design, the EM shielding effect of metallic materials between the reader
and the RFID tag is exploited where the plastic-packaged RFID tags are coated/covered with metallic
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 18 of 32

steel of interest) between the circuit and antennas on a RFID sensor, the circuit will not be properly
energized through antennas to respond back due to corrosion of the link, which indicates occurrence
of corrosion [214]. In another design, the EM shielding effect of metallic materials between the reader
and the RFID tag is exploited where the plastic-packaged RFID tags are coated/covered with metallic
materials or metal-filled conductive paint. When exposed to corrosive environments, degradation of
the coating dampens its EM shielding effect and improves communication between the reader and
the tag [215,216].
Moreover, corrosion and structural health can be indirectly monitored with RFID sensors. An LC
resonator on a passive tag with an interdigitated capacitor has been studied to monitor the coating
lift-off from pipelines and water ingress [217]. Defects and cracking progression have been detected
using low frequency or (ultra) high frequency RFID antenna-based sensors [207,209,218,219]. Corrosion
potential, chloride ion concentration, and pH have been measured using chip-based RFID sensors
with integrated sensing electrodes [220–223]. Chemical sensing functionality can be achieved with
suitable films on the RFID tags to monitor, for example, CO2 , H2 S, humidity and pH [224–226].
Sun et al. have demonstrated an innovative RFID corrosion sensor based on Events as Power Source
(EPS) where the corrosion process is monitored as an event while powering the wireless sensor [227].
The micro-energy produced by the electrochemical reactions during corrosion is harvested through
a supercapacitor-based chip to power the sensor.

3.2.2. Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors

SAW sensors are of particular interest as passive wireless sensors because of their small size,
cost efficiency, ease of fabrication, compatibility with wireless telemetry, and adaptability to many
applications (Figure 20). SAW devices consist of interdigitated transducers (IDTs) fabricated on
a piezoelectric substrate. IDTs are periodic metallic electrodes (fingers) in the form of two combs
intercrossing from opposite sides, and they can convert the RF signal to SAWs on piezoelectric surfaces
and vice versa. There are variants of SAWs such as Rayleigh, shear horizontal SAW (SH-SAW),
Love, Stoneley, Lamb, and Leaky waves that can be excited on piezoelectric substrates. When the
emitting IDT is excited by an external RF signal, SAWs are launched on the piezoelectric substrate
and propagate on the substrate surface and perpendicular to the IDT aperture. When the SAWs
reach a second IDT, the waves can be converted to output RF signals (Figure 20a) or some waves get
reflected back to the emitting IDT for output RF signals. Alternately, when the SAWs reach grating
reflectors, they get reflected back to the emitting IDT for RF signal processing (Figure 20b) [228,229].
SAW-based sensing is accomplished by measuring changes in the phase velocity and/or amplitude of
the waves caused by property changes in the propagation path such as temperature, mass, electrical,
and mechanical changes; therefore, SAW sensors can be employed for monitoring many physical
parameters (e.g., temperature [213,230–232], pressure [233,234], and strain [235,236]) as well as chemical
species in the gaseous and aqueous phases. Detailed reviews on fundamentals of sensing mechanisms
and applications can be found in References [228,229,237].
SAW chemical sensors are usually coated with target-specific chemical-sensitive materials such as
polymers, MOFs, metals, and metal oxides (Figure 20). For sensing in the gaseous phase, Rayleigh
waves are most commonly utilized with gas absorbing or reactive layers coated on the SAW devices
as functional sensing layers [229]. Real-time monitoring of the O&G relevant gases such as CO2 and
CH4 using SAW sensors coated with MOF materials has been demonstrated in wired and wireless
operations (Figure 21) [116,238]. CO2 sensitive polymers or nanomaterials (e.g., graphene) have also
been studied for CO2 SAW sensors [239–241]. H2 S can also be monitored by SAW sensors coated with
H2 S sensitive films such as CuO, SnO2 , Cu, and WO3 [242–246].
Application of SAW sensors in an aqueous medium for detection of corrosion onset or monitoring
corrosion stimulants (Table 2) requires consideration of devices with specific wave modes such as
SH-SAW [247,248], because not all SAW modes (e.g., the Rayleigh mode) can survive in the aqueous
phase. The devices with appropriate SAW modes, when functionalized with specific sensing layers
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 19 of 32

(e.g., Al, ZnO coating), can be adopted to monitor corrosion and chemical parameters that can cause
corrosion, thereby leveraging them for the O&G applications [249–252]. Alternatively, a device with any
SAW mode might be used to monitor corrosion when designed to avoid direct contact of propagating
acoustic waves with liquids through proper packaging [253]. Additionally, challenges exist with
wireless telemetry in the aqueous phase due to strong absorption of typical RF electromagnetic radiation
Sensors 2019, 19, x 19 of 31
by aqueous
Sensors 2019, 19,solutions.
x 19 of 31

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)
Figure 20. Schematic of (a) a surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensor with a coated sensing layer on the
Figure 20. Schematic
Schematic ofof (a) a surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensor with a coated sensing layer on the
delay line and (b) a functionalized SAW sensor interrogated wirelessly [228,229].
delay line and (b) a functionalized SAW
SAW sensor
sensor interrogated
interrogated wirelessly
wirelessly [228,229].
[228,229].

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 21. 21. Responses
Responses of of a surface
a surface acoustic
acoustic wave
wave (SAW)
(SAW) sensor
sensor coated
coated with
with zeolitic
zeolitic imidazolate
imidazolate
Figure 21. Responses of a surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensor coated with zeolitic imidazolate
framework-8
framework-8 (ZIF-8)
(ZIF-8) metal-organic
metal-organic framework
framework (MOF)
(MOF) film
film to various
to various concentrations
concentrations of CO
of CO 2 2 through
through
framework-8 (ZIF-8) metal-organic framework (MOF) film to various concentrations of CO2 through
wired
wired or wireless
or wireless measurements
measurements (© (© 2018
2018 IEEE.
IEEE. Reprinted
Reprinted with
with permission
permission from
from Reference
Reference [238]).
[238]).
wired or wireless measurements (© 2018 IEEE. Reprinted with permission from Reference [238]).
4. Summary and Outlook
4. Summary and Outlook
4. Summary and Outlook
The ability to monitor corrosion online before structural integrity is compromised can have
The ability to monitor corrosion online before structural integrity is compromised can have a
The ability
a significant to monitor
impact corrosion
on preventing online before
catastrophic eventsstructural
resulting integrity is compromised
from corrosion. Corrosion can havefor
sensors a
significant impact on preventing catastrophic events resulting from corrosion. Corrosion sensors for
significant impact on preventing catastrophic events resulting from corrosion. Corrosion
structural health monitoring in the O&G industry have been reviewed including conventional corrosion sensors for
structural health monitoring in the O&G industry have been reviewed including conventional
structural
sensors and health monitoring
emerging in the O&G in
sensor technologies industry
terms ofhave
sensorbeen reviewed
designs, including
advantages, andconventional
limitations.
corrosion sensors and emerging sensor technologies in terms of sensor designs, advantages, and
corrosion
Corrosion sensors
sensorsand
canemerging sensor
be generally technologies
categorized intoin two
terms of sensor
types: designs,
direct advantages,
and indirect and
corrosion
limitations. Corrosion sensors can be generally categorized into two types: direct and indirect
limitations. Corrosion sensors can be generally categorized into two types: direct
sensors. Conventional corrosion sensors encompass corrosion coupons, electrical resistance probes, and indirect
corrosion sensors. Conventional corrosion sensors encompass corrosion coupons, electrical resistance
corrosion sensors.
electrochemical Conventional
sensors, corrosion
ultrasonic testingsensors encompass
sensors, magneticcorrosion coupons,
flux leakage electrical
sensors, resistance
electromagnetic
probes, electrochemical sensors, ultrasonic testing sensors, magnetic flux leakage sensors,
probes, electrochemical
sensors, and sensors,gauges.
pipeline inspection ultrasonic testing sensors,
The emerging magnetic flux
sensor technologies leakage
highlight sensors,
optical fiber
electromagnetic sensors, and pipeline inspection gauges. The emerging sensor technologies highlight
electromagnetic sensors, and pipeline inspection gauges. The
sensors and passive wireless sensors such as RFID and SAW sensors. emerging sensor technologies highlight
optical fiber sensors and passive wireless sensors such as RFID and SAW sensors.
optical fiber sensors and passive wireless sensors such as RFID and SAW sensors.
Optical fiber sensors have the advantages of nondestructive monitoring, in-situ distributive
Optical fiber sensors have the advantages of nondestructive monitoring, in-situ distributive
measurements, long reach, small size, light weight, flexibility, inherent immunity to EMI,
measurements, long reach, small size, light weight, flexibility, inherent immunity to EMI,
compatibility to optical fiber data communication systems, and improved safety in the presence of
compatibility to optical fiber data communication systems, and improved safety in the presence of
flammable gas/oil compared to electrical-based sensors. According to spatial distribution of the
flammable gas/oil compared to electrical-based sensors. According to spatial distribution of the
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 20 of 32

Optical fiber sensors have the advantages of nondestructive monitoring, in-situ distributive
measurements, long reach, small size, light weight, flexibility, inherent immunity to EMI, compatibility
to optical fiber data communication systems, and improved safety in the presence of flammable
gas/oil compared to electrical-based sensors. According to spatial distribution of the measurements,
OFS can be classified as point, quasi-distributed, and distributed with different sensing principles
and interrogation methods. Distributed monitoring enabled by the OFS technology is particularly
suitable for long-distance infrastructures in the O&G industry such as transmission pipelines. DTS,
DSS, and DAS have been developed and matured over the last three decades for physical parameter
monitoring. As a less mature technology, DCS shows promising potential to detect early corrosion
onset and monitor corrosive environments such as direct mass loss, pH, water, salinity, and acidic gases
before or upon early corrosion onset and therefore facilitate corrosion mitigation. It is crucial to have
effective deployment of optical fiber sensors in the O&G infrastructures with low-cost, long-distance,
and high spatial resolution interrogation.
Passive wireless sensors have advantages of small size, cost efficiency, elimination of active
power, ease of fabrication, compatibility with wireless telemetry, and adaptability to many applications.
Elimination of local batteries, active electronics, and electrical wiring is critical to improve sensor
stability and durability at HTHP and harsh environments and to make sensors more compatible with
moving parts. Passive RFID sensors have been explored for corrosion and structural health monitoring
with versatile designs. SAW sensors have been employed for monitoring many physical parameters
(e.g., temperature, pressure, and strain) as well as chemical species in the gaseous and aqueous phases.
Due to the small size and low cost, passive wireless sensors can be deployed ubiquitously in the system
of interest. Main challenges exist with wireless telemetry in highly attenuating media such as aqueous
or muddy conditions.
Both emerging technologies are promising for continuous real-time in-situ corrosion monitoring
and SHM of the O&G infrastructure. Additional R&D are required to develop and design chemical
sensing materials with high sensitivity, selectivity and stability to integrate with the sensing platforms,
especially for HTHP and harsh environments in the subsurface wells or other extreme conditions.

Disclaimer
This work was funded by the Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, an agency
of the United States Government, through a support contract with Leidos Research Support Team (LRST).
Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, nor LRST,
nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, expressed or implied, or assumes any legal liability
or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product,
or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to
any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise,
does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States
Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily
state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.

Author Contributions: R.F.W. conducted the extensive literature review and wrote the whole manuscript; P.L.
reviewed and edited mainly the content on optical fiber sensors; J.D. reviewed and edited mainly the content on
passive wireless sensors and magnetic methods; F.L. reviewed and edited the pH sensing materials for optical
fiber sensors; M.Z.-M. reviewed and edited the content related to corrosion and conventional corrosion sensors;
P.R.O. supervised the research program and critically reviewed and edited the manuscript.
Funding: This work was performed in support of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Fossil Energy Crosscutting
Technology Research Program, Briggs White, National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) Technology Manager,
and the U.S. Department of Energy’s Fossil Energy Oil & Natural Gas Research Program, Jared Ciferno, NETL
Technology Manager. The Research was executed through the NETL Research and Innovation Center’s Natural
Gas Infrastructure and Embedded Sensor Technology Suite for Wellbore Integrity Monitoring Programs. Research
performed by Leidos Research Support Team staff was conducted under the RSS contract 89243318CFE000003.
Fei Lu would like to acknowledge the support from the NETL post-graduate program administered by Oak Ridge
Institute for Science and Education (ORISE).
Sensors 2019, 19, 3964 21 of 32

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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