DISCOURSE

I. linguistique de la parole : actes de langage, subjectivité

(Discourse linguistics: speech acts, subjectivity)

1
FROM STRUCTURE TO DISCOURSE

General linguistics takes into consideration two aspects of language:

- language as structure (system): “la langue”,
- language as activity: “la parole”.

LANGUAGE AS STRUCTURE → LA LANGUE

- a language = a structure (system)
- Linguistic articulation → separable and combinable units (according to rules of
combination).
- double articulation (la double articulation)
- opposition between units (l’opposition entre les unités)
- distribution (la distribution, analyse distributionnelle).

- opposition: a unit exists in so far as it is distinguished from other units in a

system of oppositions. (plural/singular, masculine gender/feminine gender

- The double articulation (la double articulation du langage) →two types of units :
- first articulation : morphemes (= meaningful minimal unit)
- second articulation : phonemes (= distinctive minimal unit)

- ex: MEAT /NEAT, MANAGE/ MANAGED 2

- a minimal pair: a minimal pair is a couple of forms that are different on only
one point.
- Categories are identified thanks to their distribution. The distribution of a unit is
the class of contexts where it can appear.
Ex:
- prefixes IN-, UN- are because their appear at the beginning of a lexical unit.
- a syntactic category = a syntactic distribution

- several levels of basic linguistic units and fields:

- phonology/phonetics
- morphology (lexical, grammatical)
- lexicology
- syntax

2
LANGUAGE AS ACTIVITY (USAGE) → LA PAROLE

- expression of judgments by the speaker (utterance = énonciation)

- to refer to elements in the world (referential function of language)
- varying interpretations of the same form according to its context
(contextualization)
- text grammar (grammaire textuelle),
- utterances (énoncés) have effects (speech acts, pragmatic theories).

→ Discourse linguistics (linguistique de la parole)

- speech acts (the speaker’s aim, effect on the addressee),
- reference to situation,
- expression of judgments,
- contextualization (insertion of a construction in a particular text and/or a
given situation).

- meaning (semantics = la sémantique)

- the literal meaning of the units
- the meaning of a unit in a given context
- the aim of the message (pragmatics).
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- linguistic meaning, the signification : le sens linguistique : la signification
- pragmatic meaning: the significance of the message; le sens pragmatique: le sens

- EX: It is snowing a lot.

- a literal meaning
- interpretations depending on the situation of discourse:
- we won’t be able to go shopping,
- we will be able to go skiing,
- that explains why someone has not arrived yet,
- the weatherperson was right (and you did not believe me),
- we must check if all the windows are shut…

langue parole
literal meaning of the sentence - contextualization
- relationship with the speech situation
- speaker’s intentionality
- effect on the addressee
linguistic meaning pragmatic meaning
signification (la signification) significance (le sens)

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- speech acts (actes de langage) and contextualization.
- same sentence form/different significances; same sentence/ different
utterances
-I declare you husband and wife. → accomplishment of the action ( a
performative utterance = un énoncé performatif)
- and then, the mayor declares them husband and wife → descriptive.

- speech acts:
and then, the mayor declares them husband descriptive
and wife.
I declare you husband and wife; performative
I declare you husband and wife as soon as promise
possible.

- utterance (énoncé): effects (perlocutionary function: perlocutoire), force

(illocutionary function: illocutoire):
force intentionnality illocutionary function
effect relationship wth the addressee perlocutionary function

force de l’énoncé intentionnalité du locuteur fonction illocutoire

effet relation avec l’interlocuteur fonction perlocutoire
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- the viewpoint (utterance theory: linguistique énonciative),
- the relationship with the situation (relevance theory: théorie de la pertinence),
- the relationship with the context (text grammar: grammaire textuelle).

- the explicit/the implicit:

- what is posited (ce qui est posé): explicitly stated
- what is presupposed (présupposé)
- what is implied (sous-entendu)

presupposed implicit meaning part of what is explicitly posited

Ex: “John is better” presupposes “John was ill” or “John had problems.”
If this presupposition is denied, the utterance makes no sense.

implied implicit meaning contextualisation

Ex: “it is getting late” → the addressee should leave, it would be better to stop
working now, the speaker cannot stay…

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LANGUAGE
« La LANGUE » « La PAROLE »
sign (semiotic level)) discourse (semantic level)
- structure - utterance (énonciation)
- system - pragmatics
- opposition - discourse theory
- distribution - grammaire du text grammar

LANGAGE
LANGUE PAROLE
le signe (niveau sémiotique) le discours (niveau sémantique)
- structure - énonciation
- système - pragmatique
- opposition (acte de langage : le langage comme
- distribution action → les fonctions du langage)
- analyse du discours
(discourse theory)
- grammaire du texte

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TEXTUAL ANALYSIS
Utterance (énonciation) – textuality

I. Commitment (prise en charge)

I.1. Communication: utterance and codification

I.2. énonciation (utterance) (l’énonciation)
I.2.1. Enunciative indicators
I.2.1. 1. Personal indicators
I.2.1. 2. Space-time indicators
I.2.1. 3. Modes of enunciation: narration (récit) / discourse
I.2.2. Modes of commitment (reported discourse, polyphony)
I.2.2. 1. Degrees of reported speech
I.2.2. 2. Polyphony

II. Textuality : cohesion, transtextuality

II.1. Progression and continuity

II.1. 1. Cohérence, cohesion, connection
II.1. 2. Information processing (progression thématique) 6

II.2. Textual components

II.2. 1. Coherence
II.2. 2. Transtextuality

6
I. Commitment (prise en charge)

I.1. Communication : utterance and codification

- natural language and codification have different properties.

- Code = a conventional system based on explicit regular and systematic
procedures of production (coding) and reception (decoding).
- language → reflect the speaker (utterer)’s attitude (expression of subjectivity)
- a codified message → another system of meaning used to understand the
message.
- a natural utterance does not need some kind of hyper-language or metalanguage
to be understood.
- Code is a closed and fixed set of rules that are explicit, preestablished and
imperative. A codified message is unambiguous and context-free. For instance,
the red light for a driver only means “stop”: there is no other interpretation.
On the other hand, natural linguistic signs are polysemous and the interpretation
depends on the context. Natural language is also creative: it is always possible to
create new lexical units and new texts. Its rules are not always explicit (it is
necessary to carry out linguistic analyses to identify linguistic processes that are
not described in grammars).
Utterances (énoncés) are built according to grammatical rules but their
interpretations depend not only on grammar but on contextual and situational 7
features. They express a communicative intentionality and they are interpreted by
the receiver of the message.

- parameters acting on the construction of an utterance:

- relationships with the situation of utterance
- relationships with other utterances in the context (co-text)
- subjective commitment
- textuality (relationship between utterances in the text).

Communication rests on 4 fundamental elements:

- “la langue” (linguistic system of a particular tongue, linguistic units)
- the situation of communication
- the actual situation of speech (Who is speaking to whom? What for? When?)
- the mental frame of the message (representation of the utterer and co-utterer
within the text, establishment of a contract of communication linked with the
genre of the text…)
- discourse organization (typology of discourses)
- text (as a cohesive and coherent structure).

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I.2. Elements for an enunciative grammar

I.2.1. Enunciative indicators

- the linguistic roles of the utterer and the co-utterer (linguistic functions),
- the speaker and the hearer = actual persons using language.
- enunciative indicators = shifters (embrayeurs) (deictic or situational elements =
indices énonciatifs: enunciative indicators, indices).

I.2.1. 1. Personal indicators

- personal pronouns (and possessives) of the first and second persons

- “personal nouns”, “persons of discourse” (“personne de discours”).
- “non-person”, “personne délocutée” (“person talked about”)
- “personnes locutées”

I.2.1. 2. Space-time indicators

- Space-time locators understood relatively to the situation of utterance = shifters.
- Here, now
-TOMORROW / HE NEXT DAY

I.2.1. 3. Modes of enunciation: narration (récit) / discourse

- Narration (l’histoire = le récit) = deletion (effacement) of subjective traces in 8
the utterance.
- acts and chronological/causal relationships between facts.
- events = foreground events (événements de premier plan), background events
(événements de second plan) in descriptions and comments. Foreground events
- the skeleton of the text (trame du texte)

- Discourse →the utterances are linked with the situation of utterance which it is
still relevant, while, on the other hand, in narration, the event described in the
utterance is disconnected from the situation of utterance.

- mixed modes

I.2.2. Modes of commitment (reported discourse, polyphony)

I.2.2. 1. Degrees of reported speech
Free reported speech
a- John heard a noise in the living room. Could she be back?
b- John heard a noise in the living room. She is back!

c- John heard a noise in the living room. He wondered if she had come back.

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- Direct speech
- John heard a noise in the living room. “She is back!” he said aloud.

- quoted discourse (discours cité) (→discours direct)

The speaker’s speech is reproduced directly; a reporting verb may be used in a
comment clause (une incise), quotation marks and shifters linked with the quoted
speaker.

- indirect speech
Speech (or thought) is presented in a subordinate clause with a reporting verb as
the main syntactic verb (he said, he ordered, he claimed, he demonstrated…).
Typically, shifters are modified .

a- John said that Peter was guilty.

b- John said that that fool of a Peter was guilty.

- narrative report (le discours narrativisé)

Narrative report refers to act of speaking as an event in the narration:
- I politely insisted.
- He talked to me and gave me a lot of useful information.

In this case, the text refers to the fact that someone uttered something without 9
giving details about what that person said.

- free reported speech (discours indirect libre)

Free reported speech combines the structures of direct speech and indirect speech:
- shifters and deictic (situational) elements may be adjusted (not systematically),
- the reporting verb is not systematically used.

- She was relaxing in her swimming pool. Gosh, what a wonderful life it was!

- She was relaxing in her swimming pool. Gosh, what a wonderful life it was!, she
thought.
- She was relaxing in her swimming pool. Gosh, what a wonderful life it is!

- matching with a character (→ matching eyeline, raccord de regard)

- John noticed Gilda was there. She was relaxing in her swimming pool. Gosh,
what a wonderful life it was! It must be fantastic to be a movie star.

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I.2.2. 2. Polyphony

- several “voices” in a text.

- “Me, resign?” - “You should not think about resigning”

- ironical statements (disjunction between the literal content of the utterance and
its actual significance)

II. Textuality : cohesion, transtextualité

II.1. Progression and continuity

II.1. 1. Cohérence, cohesion, connection
- continuity: the utterances of a text must share common points,
- progression: they introduce new topics,
- coherent: they coherent realities, and are relevant as to a global aim
(communicative target, intentionality: visée de communication, visée de sens).
Coherence
- Coherence is linked with intentionality (the aim of the text).
- What time is it?
- The news report has just ended.
Cohesion
- semantic relationships between utterances: 10
- utterances in a text are syntactically connected,
- anaphoric/cataphoric terms link sentences (anaphora refers back to the previous
context, cataphora refers forward to the following context),
- chronology organizes the events mentioned in a text,
- information processing (= la progression thématique) indicates topics unifying
utterances and introduces new ideas that make it possible for the text to develop.

Connection
Connection is the use of syntactic links (subordination, connectors):
- enumeration (besides, first of all, secondly..)
- reformulation (in other terms, namely…)
- argumentation (however, as a consequence…) …

II.1. 2. Information processing (progression thématique)

- theme and rheme:

- theme: known information, old information, given information, information
taken for granted, information not-at-issue,
- rheme: new information, information at-issue (under discussion).

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- “John wrote a letter”
a- Who wrote a letter? → John.
- The predicate (verb phrase VP) ) = thematic
- “John” = new information at-issue.
b- What did John do? → He wrote a letter.
- The predicate = rhematic new information,
- “John” = old information not at-issue.
c- What happened? → John wrote a letter.
The complete message is new.

NOTE.
- in cases (a) and (b), the utterance is structured in two parts: the starting point and
the predicate → categorical predicative relationship (predication catégorique)
- in case (c), the utterance is seen as one whole → thetic predicative relationship
(predication thétique)

- contextualization: three types of information processing:

- linear processing (progression linéaire)
- constant theme processing (progression à theme constant)
- hypertheme processing (progression dérivée)

- linear processing (progression linéaire) 11

- the rheme linked with the first theme become the theme of the next utterance.
- John wrote a letter. It was quite long.
- constant theme processing (progression à theme constant)
- Several rhemes concern one theme:

- John wrote a letter. He was nervous. He lit a cigarette and tried to smoke but he
could not and he put it out…

- hypertheme processing (progression dérivée)

A text sequence is organized around a hypertheme divided into a series of sub-
themes linked with sub-rhemes:

- A computer is made of different elements. The keyboard may be classical or

tactile. The screen may vary in sizes…

The sub-themes “the keyboard” and “the screen” are linked with the major theme
“a computer” (hypertheme). Each utterance is about local sub-themes and are in
fact about the global hypertheme “a computer”.

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II.2. Textual components
- three main components:
- pragmatic dimension: what is at stake in the text (l’enjeu),
- ordering propositions (text composition),
- transtextuality (connection between texts).
- The pragmatic dimension of the text and the process of ordering propositions
make the text coherent.
- Transtextuality links the text with other texts (addition of meaning).

II.2. 1. Cohérence
- pragmatic dimension: what is at stake in the text (l’enjeu)
- ordering propositions (text composition),
- different genres of texts (descriptive, argumentative, narration, fiction…)
- macro-structure = the schematic representation of a text (structure, relationships
between topics, narrative sequences, global significance).
- narrative sequence (narrated events in terms of tension/resolution)
- an initial situation (stability),
- a triggering event,
- incidents (succession of incidents that stem from the triggering event and lead
to the resolution),
- an outcome (conclusion of the story),
- a final situation (stability). 12

II.2. 2. Transtextuality
Transtextuality is the relationship between a text and other texts. There are
different cases of transtextuality:
- intertextuality (presence of a text within another text): it can be an explicit
quotation or an allusion.
- paratextuality (relationships between a text and its more or less immediate
textual environment):
- peritext: title, sub-title, preface, postface,
- epitext: letters written by the writer, personal diary, interviews about the text..
- metatextuality; relationship between a text and the text it comments upon,
explains or criticizes).
- hypertextuality: relationships between a text and another text that is used as a
source (the hypotext). For instance, the hypertext can be the sequel of another text
with the same characters developing the plot. It can also be a parody (humourous
imitation) or a pastiche (an imitation written in the same manner as the hypotext).
- architextuality: the relationship between a text and other texts of the same genre.
It is about the text respecting the conventions of the genre or subverting these
norms.

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12
Les fonctions du langage / the functions of language
Roman Jakobson, 1963, Essais de linguistique générale, Les Éditions de Minuit,
coll. « double ». Chapitre 11 ("Linguistique et poétique").

- scheme of communication (schéma de communication):

- the message itself: - a sign, an utterance, a text, an image…
- the referent (le référent): what a message is about (ce dont parle le langage)
- the sender (l’émetteur, le destinateur): the source of the message.
- the receiver (hearer, addressee) (le récepteur, le destinataire): the target of the
act of communication.
- the code: the system of signs used to communicate (language, a particular code).

- referential function: the message refers to something (an element of the context),
fonction référentielle,
- expressive function: the message refers to the speaker’s condition (feeling,
physical or mental state, judgement), fonction expressive,
- conative function: the message aims at acting on the receiver (influence, order,
suggestion…), fonction conative,
- phatic function: the message aims at initiating, preserving, ending the
communication and at checking the quality of the communication, fonction
phatique (mise en place, verification, et maintien de la communication)
- metalinguistic function: the message refers to the code itself, fonction 13
métalinguistique (le code lui-même devient objet du message)
- poetic function: the message is seen as a form (esthetic, stylistic function),
fonction poétique (la forme du texte devient l'essentiel du message).

The situation of communication :

CONTEXT (situation)
SENDER MESSAGE RECEIVER
(speaker, CONTACT (channel) (addressee)
addresser)
CODE (language)

factor function
sender expressive
receiver conative
context referential (denotative function)
message metalinguistic function (metalingual, reflexive)
contact (channel) phatic function
code (language) poetic function

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- The expressive function relates to the sender.
- What a view!
-That’s ugly.
- He should call them.

- The conative function is oriented towards the receiver.

- Peter! Stay here!
- They must be accepted.
- I order you to get out.
- The referential function (describing a state of things, a concept, or a cotextual
element)

- The metalinguistic function is used in an utterance that refers to the code:

- “A house” is the English for “une maison.”

- The phatic function →to establish, maintain, verify, or interrupt communication.

It is a social, interactive function:
- Hello.
- Goodbye
- How do you do?
- It’s hot today.
14
- The poetic function focuses on the message, the code itself, and how it is used.

→
- the referential function is oriented toward the context:
- It is raining.
- Water boils at 100 degrees.
- the emotive function is oriented toward the sender:
- Oh!
- I’m tired.
- What a pity!

- the conative function is oriented toward the addressee:

- imperative: Stay here!
- apostrophe: John!
- interpersonal modality: You can’t smoke here.
- reception of the message (effect)

- the phatic function serves to establish, prolong or discontinue communication,

or check whether the contact is still there;
- Hello? Hello?

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- Goodbye.
- Eh?

- the metalinguistic function is about the code;

- a definition (I mean “xxx” by “yyy.”)
- a translation (What is the English for “xxx”?)

-the poetic function puts the focus on the message for its own sake (as an esthetic
form).

Polyfunctional messages (performing several functions)

“The doorbell rang.” → “Go answer the door.”
- conative (Don’t move, don’t make any noise: nobody must know we are here.)
- emotive (I am surprised: I do not expect anybody; something wrong must be
happening).
- referential, informative (so the doorbell works / the guests are arriving…)

- Examples of aspects of the utterance:

- “I got promoted this morning”: referential, emotive (expressive)
- “That hurts.”: referential, expressive, conative
- factual neutrality → purely informative function, the speaker’s attitude, an effect
on the addressee 15

→the target of the message (la visée de sens)

The target of the message determines the dominant function.
- what contextual element is relevant:
- the thematized object (topic): the referent of the message (referential function),
- the sender’s state or attitude (expressive function),
- the receiver’s action or attitude (conative function).
- the communication itself:
- contact (phatic function)
- the channel of communication, the code (metalinguistic function)
- the (esthetic, stylistic) form of the message (poetic function).

- It is possible to use a function in order to perform another function.

- It has been raining for days.
- referential function +
- I don’t know what to do, I am bored,
- I am so happy for the harvest,
- I am worried about the flood,
- You should look at the cellar, it may be wet…
- the conversation is about the speaker’s state,
- it is about the future harvest after a period of intense drought

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- it is about the state of the house…
- The aim of the utterance may be:
- singular or plural,
- explicit or indirect (overt or covert),
- real or simulated,
- expressed deliberately or not involuntary (even unconsciously).
- Several objectives may be concerned (plurality of intentions)
- I want to sleep!
- I like Ike.
- The intention is overt or covert:
- Someone’s knocking on the door.
- The intention is real or simulated
- a fictitious situation (a novel, a play)
- The intentionality may be deliberate, involuntary, or even unconscious:
For example:
- Someone’s knocking on the door.

Messages are often polyfunctional messages.

- a message can fulfill several functions.
- the referential function may be linked with the expressive function.
- the conative function may take two main forms:
- based on authority and power struggle: based on a demonstration 16
- the poetic function may perform the phatic function.
- constitutive definition of literature /conditional definition.

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16
Pragmatics and speech acts - Pragmatique et actes de langage

Main references
- Austin, John Langshaw, 1962, How To Do Things With Words, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Austin, John Langshaw, 1970, Quand dire, c’est faire, Paris, Seuil.
(Austin)

- Searle, John, 1969, Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of

Language, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Searle, John, 1972, Les Actes de langage, Paris, Hermann.

- Searle, John, 1979, Expression and Meaning: A Study in the Theory of Speech Acts, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press.
Searle, John, 1982, Sens et expression : Études de la théorie des actes de langage, Paris, Minuit.

Kerbrat-Orecchioni, Catherine, 2008, Les Actes de langage dans le discours – théorie et fonctionnement,
Armand Colin, Paris.

Ducrot, Oswald, 1998, Dire et ne pas dire : principes de sémantique linguistique, Hermann, Paris.

- Allan, K. (1986). Linguistic Meaning. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

- Austin, J. (1962). How To Do Things With Words. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Bach, Kent, Harnish, Robert, 1979, Linguistic Communication and Speech Acts, Cambridge: M.I.T. Press.
- Cook, G. (1989). Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (6 th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
- Huang, Y. (2007). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Levinson, S. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Mey, J. L. (2001). Pragmatics: An Introduction. (2 nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. 17
- Saeed, J. (1997) Semantics. London: T.J. Press Ltd.
- Perkins, Michael (2007). Pragmatic Impairment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Sadock, Jerrold (2006). "Speech Acts". In Horn, Laurence R. and Gregory Ward. The Handbook of
Pragmatics. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
- Searle, J. (1969).Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
- Searle, J. (1979). Expression and Meaning: A Study in the Theory of Speech Acts. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
- Taylor, Mary V. (1978). The Grammar of Conduct: Speech Act Theory and the Education of Emma
Woodhouse, Style. vol. 12: pp. 357-71.
- Yule, G, -1996), Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

I- Semantics / Pragmatics
II- Constatives/performatives
II.1. Describing vs. performing
II.2. Indirect performatives
II.3. Conditions: truth and felicity (success)
III. Speech Acts (actes de langage)
III.1. The components of a speech act
III. 2. Types of speech acts
III. 3. Indirect speech acts
III. 4. Complexity of speech acts

17
I- Semantics / Pragmatics

- speech acts: making statements, giving commands, asking questions, making

promises…
- occasions: greeting a guest, requesting something, dismissing someone, giving
advice, etc.…
- to achieve actions: complaints, compliments, invitations, promises, requests…

- three main types of parameters:

- the intersubjective relationship (utterer/addressee), (relation
intersubjective)
- the purpose and effect of the message (intention et effet du message)
- the relevance of the message to the context (co-text and situation of
utterance) (la pertinence du message).

- the speaker’s intention

- the effects on the addressee
- the context (pragmatic conditions: “felicity conditions”)

Interaction:
- communication 18
- roles in linguistic interactions
- different forms of implicitness → the implicit dimension of the message
- creation of a frame where messages make sense: “a language game” (un jeu de
langage) → rules and expectations.

- John knows that Peter will be there.

- what is said (what is posited - “le posé de l’énoncé”): “John + know something”,
- presupposition (“le présupposé de l’énoncé”): the utterer is persuaded that Peter
will be there.

- ?? Peter will not be there and John knows that Peter will be there.
→ Peter will not be there but John believes that Peter will be there.

- What makes you think Peter will be there?

- Open on Mondays. (message on the door of a shop)

The presupposition is the implicit part the utterance.

The implication (innuendo, implicature – le sous-entendu) is due to the context.
(implicature)

18
 semantics What is the meaning of the sentence and of its elements?
pragmatics What is the purpose, function and effect of the utterance?
One important theoretical question is: to what extent do
pragmatic elements belong to semantics? Some linguists
separate semantics and pragmatics while others think that the
pragmatic use of an utterance is part of its internal meaning.

II. Constatives/performatives

II.1. Describing vs. performing

- statements
→ to describe state of things (constative utterances, constatives, les énoncé
constatifs))
→ to perform acts (performative utterances, performatives: les performatifs).
- (explicit performatives) or implicit (implicit performatives = primary
performatives).
Ex:
- I’ll help you. (the promise is made).
- I promise to help you. (the promise is explicit) 19

II.2. Indirect performatives

- “I order you to go”

- “Go!”
- “You must go.”

- “I declare this meeting closed”: performative

- “This meeting is closed.”: more descriptive than performative

- “That bull will charge!”: a warning

- “I warn you that the bull will charge.”

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II.3. Conditions: truth and felicity (success)

constatives right or wrong

performatives felicitous or infelicitous

- “He named that ship Queen Elisabeth.”

- “I name this ship Queen Elisabeth.”
- “I now pronounce you husband and wife.” (felicitous: circumstances and social
roles).
- “I promise X”
- “That man is called John”

→ utterances are acts → the speech act theory.

- “I nominate Jane to be President.”

-“I sentence you to five years’imprisonment.”
- “I promise to give it back.” (explicit) performatives

III. Speech Acts (actes de langage) 20

III.1. The components of a speech act

In order to give a better description, the speech act theory developed the idea that
speech acts are divided into three components:
- the locutionary act: the act of saying something. (acte locutoire)
- the illocutionary act: the performance of an act in saying something (acte
illocutoire) → force (a certain tone, attitude, feeling, or intention...)
- the perlocutionary act → effect. (acte perlocutoire)

locutionary act the act of saying something meaningful and

(acte locutoire) understandable.
illocutionary act the force (the value) of the utterance (formulated with a
(acte illocutoire) certain tone, attitude, feeling, or intention.)
- perlocutionary act the effect of the utterance
(acte perlocutoire) (the “uptake”: the recognition by the hearer of the
speech act)
- intended effect / effective effect

- “Look out! The stone is falling!” (description, warning, the interlocutor’s action)
20
→
locutionary act describing a risk
(acte locutoire)
illocutionary act the force (value) of the utterance = warning
(acte illocutoire) (expression of a particular intention)
- perlocutionary act the effect of the utterance = the addressee’s action
(acte perlocutoire)

- the context
- “You will lose all your savings”
→ a warning (if you sell now, you will lose all your savings – so I am
warning you not to sell now!)
→ a piece of advice (if you don’t sell now, you will lose all your savings –
so I am advising you to sell now!)
→ a piece of information (Due to XXX, you will lose all your savings.).

- the intended effect / the actual effect on the hearer:

illocutionary act (force, value) sender’s perspective

intended effect
expectation of a response
perlocutionary act (effect) receiver’s perspective 21
effective consequence

III.2. Types of speech acts

It is difficult to establish complete lists of linguistic acts and of linguistic devices
to perform these acts (lexical items, utterance structures). However, Austin and
Searle (among other pragmatics linguists) proposed some classifications.
- Austin’s classification (1962)
- verdictives
(giving a verdict by a jury, a judge, an umpire…)
- I declare you guilty.
- I congratulate you for doing so well.
- exercitives
(expressing power, authority, influence)
- I appoint you a chairman.
- commissive
(declaration of an intention, commitment)
- I promise to give it back.
- behabitives
(utterances about how to behave with others, about other people’s
behaviour)
- I apologize for being late.
21
 - expositive
(ways of expounding views, conducting arguments: affirm, state, deny,
remark, inform, swear…)
- I firmly state that the butler did it.

- Searle's Classification (1969, 1979)

- assertives (representatives)
- John is working in his room.
- Our planet moves around the Sun.
- directives
- I order you to go.
- Go!
- You must go.
- commisives
- I promise to help you.
- I’ll buy a new bike.
- expressives
- I thank you for coming with us.
- declarations
- I appoint you a chairman.
- I declare the war.
- I pronounce you husband and wife. 22
→A speech act is defined by:
- the objective of the utterance (speaker’s intentionality):
- the point of the utterance
- the relationship between the utterance and reality:
- ? I promise the Earth will move around the Sun.
- ? I promise to breathe.
- ? I order the Earth to move around the Sun.
- ? I order you to do what you want.
- ? I command you to walk on water.

→Intersubjectivity and intentionality

- I declare the meeting open.
- I’ll invite John.
- You are not meeting John tonight.
- I am going there next week!
- I can’t talk to you. I am having a dinner with friends.
- I’d like to talk to you tonight.
- I can’t talk to you. I am having a dinner with friends.
- Mary will be there.

22
III. 3. Indirect speech acts

- It is raining.
- It is raining → Take your umbrella.

- Could you open the door?

- You are telling me you were in that room. Could you open the door?
- No, it was locked. I could not get out.
illocutionary acts perlocutionary act
- Give me your name. requesting information
- Could you give me your name?
- I would like to know your name.
- I don’t know your name.
- Mr…?

(apparent) illocutionary acts perlocutionary act

- It is cold here. - information about the situation
- information about the speaker
- suggestion (“Shut the window.”)

apparent real 23
literal act derived act
acte littéral acte dérivé

Note on terminology:
Searle 79:
apparent real
secondary act primary act
less important act more important act

- conventional forms
-“Could you X?”
- “What about X?”
- Could you open the door?
- What about going out?

- What have I done to you? (I have done nothing → why are you angry? →
expressive act)
- What do I know? (I know nothing).

- non-conventional act (contextualization)

- “It is cold here”→ real significance?

23
-“Shut the door!”
- indirect utterances:
- I’d like you to close the door.
- Could you shut the door?
- The door is open!

- I am listening.
“You may talk.”

- I am thirsty.
“Give me something to drink.”

- Since the door is open, you should close it.

- Since I am listening, you may talk.
- Since I am thirsty, you should give me something to drink.

III. 4. Complexity of speech acts

- micro- acts: an utterance may combine several acts in one global act.
Ex:
- Although her maximum grant is only 2,845 a year, the banks still see her as a
good catch. (BNC, The Daily Mirror, 1992) 24
- assertions of two clauses:
- “her maximum grant is only 2,845 a year” (subordinate clause: C2)
- “the banks still see her as a good catch” (main clause: C1)
- semantic relationship between the clauses:
- presupposed relationship:
Considering that her maximum grant is only 2,845 a year, the banks do not see
her as a good customer.
- actual statement:
But banks do see her as a good customer.
- C1 is more assertive (focus on C1) than C2 (considered as not relevant).

- I’m sorry, sir. Could you tell me where the station is? I do not live here.
This complex utterance is made of several acts organized around one main
act, which is the equivalent of “Where is the station?”
It contains secondary acts: an apology, a justification, an explicit address to
the hearer.

- macro-acts: a whole text may perform one global act.

- a letter of application (demande d’emploi)
- collective sender:

24
 - a group of speakers may collaborate to produce one act (e.g., several
policemen asking questions.)
- collective receiver:
- a speaker may act upon a community (e.g., public address).
- the message may be targeted towards different receivers (main /secondary
receiver, apparent/real receiver).
- examples:
- You are a professor of linguistics, you published several books about
pragmatics…
- “You are such a brilliant pianist”

- sequence of acts
- sequences (organization of exchanges) finally resulting in a conversation as a
global structure.
Example:
- Would you be so kind as to answer a few questions?
- I am afraid that it won’t be possible.
- It isn’t possible?
- No, I have a lot of things to do.
→ several interactions, one global act (asking if it is possible to get some answers)

**************************************************************** 25
Speech Acts
Complements

1- Speech acts
- performing specific actions through language.
- the speaker (the sender, the utterer) + the hearer (addressee, co-utterer, receiver) + the context
of utterance.
- three acts:
- the locutionary act (act of uttering, literal meaning of the utterance),
- the illocutionary act (the force or the value of the utterance: its significance as an act),
- the perlocutionary act (the effect of the utterance on the situation and/or the addressee).
- felicity conditions
- I declare the meeting open.
(conditions: there is a meeting, the speaker is in position to decide on the opening
of the meeting).

- It is getting dark.
The interpretation depends on the context:
- facts (the actual reality): the descriptive act is right or wrong.
- warning (= “we should go back home, because it is not safe…”)
- command (= “Let’s go back home”, “Get the tent ready”, “Light up your
torch”…)

- “The animals we want to observe will soon get out of their lairs.” (→ So, get
ready to take some pictures; So keep quiet…).
25
 - I am listening.
“You may talk now” or “You must talk”

felicity conditions (this is a principle of cooperation between the utterer and the co-utterer).
Some assumptions may take into account:
- the utterer’s sincerity,
- the act can be identified,
- the utterer’s intentionality,
- the possibility of the act,
- the relevance of the act
- the cause and consequence of the act.

- “I promise to do my homework” (sincerity)

the utterer’s commitment + identification of the message
- I told my teacher “I promise to do my homework.”
- I told my teacher that I promised to do my homework.
- I promised to my teacher that I would do my homework.

- the utterer’s intentionality: what does the utterer mean?

+ practical conditions:
“I swear to see and distinguish colours” (intentional event?)
“I promise that the Earth will turn around the sun” (possible promise?)
“I promise to do my homework” (is it relevant?)
“I guarantee I’ll be on time” (if an appointment is arranged)
26

- presupposition
- The King of France is bald.
This utterance presupposes that there is a King of France.
- The King of France is not bald.
This negative utterance also presupposes that there is a King of France.

- John stopped going there.

- John did not stop going there.
These utterances presuppose that John went there.
→
- what is posited in the utterance: “le posé de l’énoncé”,
- what is presupposed: “le présupposé de l’énoncé”.

2 - Presupposition and implication (implying, implicature)

- what may be implied in a particular context (le sous-entendu, the implicature of the utterance).
- John never goes there on Mondays.
What is implied may be negated without altering the utterance:
- John never goes there on Mondays.
- What do you mean? He never goes there at all.

3 - Meaning and significance

26
- linguistic meaning (la signification) is converted into (is actualized as) contextual significance
(le sens) through felicity conditions (including interactive relationships linking the sender and
the receiver in a particular situation):
4 - Direct speech acts / indirect speech acts

- John stands up and leaves the room.

descriptive (in stage directions, in a narrative). to describe a situation (informative
function)

- I promise to help you.

performative (to do an act)

- indirect speech act:

- Dogs are forbidden here. (descriptive → imperative)
- Could you give me that book? (interrogative → imperative)
- Give me that book, will you? (reference to the addressee’s willingness → imperative)
- I am listening. (descriptive → permission: “You may talk now.”, imperative: “You
must talk”).
- I am not listening! (descriptive → imperative: stop talking!=
- It is unnecessary to give those details. (It won’t be necessary to give those details.)
(descriptive → interdiction)

- What's the weather prediction?

- Well… Bring your coat! (indirect answer)
- What's the weather prediction?
- Well… Cook a cake! (nonsense???) 27
- if the weather is fine, there will be a picknick,
- if there is a picknick, you’ll cook a cake,
- you are willing to cook a cake.

****************************************************************
Utterance
Énonciation

I. The modes of utterance (enunciation): narration/discourse

(récit/discours)
II. Utterer and speaker (Énonciateur et locuteur)
III. Additional notes on: Shifter (embrayeur)
IV. Deixis
V. Additional notes on: Utterance, enunciation (l’énonciation)

I. The modes of utterance (enunciation): narration/discourse

(récit/discours)

source : E. Benveniste " Problèmes de linguistique générale" (TEL Gallimard)

T.1.Ch 19 : Les relations de temps dans le verbe français. [EB]

- grammatical tense (le temps grammatical : tiroir verbal)

27
- narrative past tense:
- The battle of Waterloo took place on June 18th 1815.
- present perfect :
- The Emperor has lost the battle!
- passé simple narratif :
- La bataille de Waterloo se déroula le 18 juin 1815, en Belgique, à vingt kilomètres au
sud de Bruxelles.
- passé composé :
- La bataille de Waterloo s’est déroulée le 18 juin 1815, en Belgique, à vingt kilomètres
au sud de Bruxelles.
- historical present tense:
- The battle of Waterloo takes place on June 18th 1815. It is a decisive
moment for the Empire.
- présent historique (présent de narration) :
- La bataille de Waterloo se déroule le 18 juin 1815, en Belgique, à vingt kilomètres au
sud de Bruxelles.
- But the Emperor will lose that terrible battle.
- La bataille de Waterloo se déroulera le 18 juin 1815, en Belgique, à vingt kilomètres
au sud de Bruxelles. Ce sera un terrible désastre pour Napoléon.

- distancing (detachment) (une distanciation)

- taking stock of the situation (un constat présent)
28
1. a -Il regardait la télévision quand elle arriva.
1. b -Il regardait la télévision quand elle est arrivée.
2.Elle arriva.
3.Elle est arrivée.

- She arrived.
- She has (just) arrived.
- the “passé simple”: disconnection from the situation of utterance (the utterance
is interpreted within a narration),
- the “passé composé”: connection with the situation of utterance (taking stock of
the situation of utterance)

- Distancing → narration (le plan du récit : histoire)

- taking stock → discourse (le plan du discours).
- “shifters” (indices d’énonciation = embrayeurs = “shifters” - enunciative
indices).

Narration (Récit)
- narrating events (real or imaginary)
- disconnection from the situation of utterance (plan en rupture par rapport à
situation d'énonciation)

28
- no intervention of the utterer (pas d'intervention de l'énonciateur) :
- no “I” or “you”,
- no HERE or NOW…

- Tenses in French:
- imparfait
- plus-que-parfait
- le prospectif (il allait partir/il devait être vaincu)
- passé simple

- Tense forms in English:

- past tense
- past perfect
- conditional (WOULD instead of WILL).

Discourse (le discours)

- the utterance is connected with the situation of utterance
- shifters such as I, YOU, HERE, NOW… can be used
- the “passé simple” is not used

II. Utterer and speaker (Énonciateur et locuteur)

- the notion of “person”: 29
- the speaker: the individual actually speaking or producing a text,
- the utterer: a linguistic function, the viewpoint expressed in the text.

- le locuteur = l’individu qui prend la parole (oral/écrit)

- l’énonciateur = le point de vue manifesté dans l’énoncé.

example 1

J'ai longtemps hésité avant de prendre la plume. Pour la dernière fois,

sans doute. Á quatre-vingt-cinq ans, alors que le corps vibre aux appels
pressants de la mort, est-il bien nécessaire d'ouvrir le grand cahier jaune
à spirale comme si ce seul geste suffisait à faire remonter le cours de
l'existence pour tout effacer ?

example 2
- Pierre : You know I must leave tomorrow.
Martine : You don’t want to change you plan, do you?
Pierre : That’s impossible.
Martine : You don’t love me any longer.
Pierre : I never said that.

29
 - Martine : You don’t love me any longer.
Pierre : I never said that.
Martine : Of course, you didn’t. That’s what I think!

example 3
- a- John told me that Peter was ill.
- b- John implied that Peter was ill.

a- Jean m'a dit que Pierre était malade.

b- Jean m'a laissé entendre que Pierre était malade.

c- John hinted that that stupid Peter was ill.

c- Jean m'a laissé entendre que cet idiot de Pierre était malade.

example 4
La chambre était glacée. Janine sentait le froid la gagner en même temps
que s'accélérait la fièvre. Elle respirait mal, son sang battait sans la
réchauffer ; une sorte de peur grandissait en elle. Elle se retournait, le
vieux lit de fer craquait sous son poids. Non, elle ne voulait pas être
malade. Son mari dormait déjà, elle aussi devait dormir, il le fallait. Les
bruits étouffés de la ville parvenaient jusqu'à elle. Il fallait dormir. Mais
elle comptait des tentes noires ; derrière ses paupières passaient des 30
chameaux immobiles. Oui, pourquoi était-elle venue ? Elle s'endormit
sur cette question.

- La chambre est glacée. Je sens le froid me gagner (…) Non, je ne veux

pas être malade. Mon mari dort déjà, moi aussi je dois dormir, il le faut.
- The room is icy (…) No, I don’t want to be ill. My husband is already
sleeping (…)

example 5

a- That “abominable monster” was in fact a suitcase under the bed

a- Cette « créature horrible » n'était en fait qu'une valise placée sous le
lit.

b- The president is reported to have made his decision yesterday evening.

b - Le président aurait pris sa décision hier au soir.
(≠ c : il aurait déjà pris sa décision s'il avait eu tous les renseignements.)

Example 6 : ironical utterance

- You are a real winner!

30
→ Two aspects:
formulation locution, speaker’s act
commitment utterance (énonciation), utterer’s position

formulation du message situation de locution, acte du locuteur

prise en charge du message situation d’énonciation, position de
l’énonciateur

- modalization → to adopt a neutral position (factual utterance) / to express a

point of view:
- John left at 9. (factual)
- John might have left at 9. (subjective evaluation of a possible fact)
- John might have left two hours ago. (subjective evaluation of a possible
fact + localization relatively to the situation of utterance with AGO).

NOTE
- the narrating “I” refers to the utterer taking in charge a text (JE narrant),
- the narrated “I” refers to a character in the narration (JE narré).
Le pronom JE peut correspondre à deux cas :
- le JE narrant (le JE du narrateur qui parle et développe le récit),
- le JE narré (le personnage situé dans le récit = un acteur dans le récit dans lequel
l’énonciateur se reconnaît).
31
III. Additional notes: Shifter (embrayeur)

- A shifter (deictic terms, enunciative indicator)

- un embrayeur (ou indicateur, ou indice de l'énonciation : index/ indexes,
indices)

- different categories:
- subjective terms (subjective shifters): the speaker/the addressee (persons of
discourse) (embrayeur de la personne).
- demonstratives (this/that),
- localization in space and time
- space/time shifters (embrayeurs spatiaux/temporels)
- judgment (modality):
- modal verbs
- adverbs and adjectives (unfortunately, likely, certainly, sincerely…)
- subjective verbs (know, believe, think…)
- lexicon→ connotation: pejorative or meliorative connotations (e.g., sa
résidence/sa baraque; a house/ a shack)

- subjective shifters → the relationship between the utterance and the utterer/co-
utterer:
31
 - the imperative,
- the interrogative structure,
- use of an apostrophe (vocative),
- modalization.

- a reference point (vantage point) (point de repère).

→ Expressive function
- The expressive function is fulfilled by modalizers (modalisateur du discours):
- qualifying modality (judgement in terms of good/bad: modalité
appreciative),
- epistemic modality (degrees of certainty: modalité épistémique),
- deontic modality (intersubjective relationship: modalité déontique).

IV. DEIXIS
Deixis (“La deixis”) → the linguistic act of showing the referent from a particular
vantage point.

Example:
The child was christened Napoleon, Eugène, Louis, Jean, Joseph, and after
his name in the baptismal register of “the Imperial parish of Saint Germain
l'Auxerrois” the Emperor wrote “Son of France” thus curiously reviving a 32
custom of the ancien régime because, as he said: “When an heir is born to
perpetuate a national institution, that child is the whole country's son, and
this name will serve to remind him of his duties.”

[THAT child] →a generic child (“when an heir is born.. ”)

[THIS name] → the name that the utterer has written on the register.

- he is working now. (contact avec la situation d’énonciation)

- he was working then. (différenciation)

- localization:
- He worked in 2010. (objective)
- He visited London two years ago. (deictic)
- types of deixis:
- textual deixis (endophoric)
- subjective deixis (the reference point is the speaker/the addressee)
- social deixis (the social status of the speaker /addressee) (cf; honorifics)
- deixis in presentia/in absentia (in presence or absence of the actual
referent)
→ Deixis may be exophoric (showing an extralinguistic element) or
endophoric (reference to a linguistic segment).

32
 in presentia in absentia
- direct ostensive reference: - indirect demonstrative reference:
- Be careful! He looks dangerous. - This train is always late. (reference to
- Open the door. the train which is not yet here: the
(référence ostensive directe) reference is known in the situation)
- definite reference:
- Il va venir tout de suite.
- He’ll soon be here.
(talking about the person the addressee
is waiting for: implicit reference)

Endophoric reference is linked with anaphora and cataphora.

- anaphora: back-reference (reference to the previous context)

anaphore (reprise d’un contenu déjà identifié)

1. He would have to buy them some sweets at the station. But that was
what he had done for the past four Saturdays.

→ THAT refers back to the previous context (“buy them some sweets at the
station”) 33

2. Henry was surprised when he saw Mark walking down the street.

→ HE refers back to the previous context (anaphora).

- cataphora: forward-reference (reference to the following context)

cataphora (annonce d’un contenu à identifier)

- What I meant to say is this: we must get in touch with him as soon
as possible.
- It is true that Mark was walking down the street.

IT et THIS announce a content that is developed in the context that follows.

NOTE
Anaphora and cataphora can have a deictic dimension. For example, in
« What I meant to say is this :…», THIS indicates that the reference is new
for the addressee but is already defined for the utterer.

33
V. Additional notes: Utterance, enunciation (l’énonciation)
Uttering a sentence means performing an individual act producing the utterance
addressed to a receiver in particular circumstances..

A difference should be made between two meanings of “utterance”

- utterance = énoncé (the linguistic product, the text),
- utterance = énonciation (the linguistic act).

- main concepts:
- situation of utterance (situation d’énonciation): the representation of the
situation of speech in the text
(Distinction entre situation d’énonciation en tant que marques linguistiques et situation de
locution : prise effective de parole, situation de production d’un texte)

Disconnection: no shifters. (narration = récit; textes légaux, mode d’emploi :

instructions for use ; scientific demonstrations…)
Connection (anchoring : ancrage dans la situation d’énonciation) :presence of
shifters, modalities, subjective perspective.

- difference between the utterer (énonciateur) and the speaker (locuteur):

34
- The speaker (writer) produces the text, the utterer is the point of view expressed
in and though the text (linguistic construction):

locution énonciation
production - locuteur, auteur (scripteur) énonciateur (prise en charge =
(émetteur) commitment), narrateur,
reception - interlocuteur, auditeur, -co-énonciateur, narrataire
(destinataire) lecteur (co-utterer, narratee)

a/ the utterer and the co-utterer may be more or less present in the text, their
presence may be of varying degrees,
b/ it may be important to distinguish the implied (intended) receiver (the implied
reader) and the actual receiver.

****************************************************************

34
 MODALITY (modalité)
1. Types

1. assertive modality Non-assertive modality

(modalité assertive) (modalité non assertive)
- factual, neutrality, 2. epistemic modality (modalité epistémique)
statement of fact 3. qualifying modality (modalité appréciative)
(énoncé factuels) 4. root modality (modalité radicale):
4. a. property of the subject (propriété du
sujet)
4. b. intentionality (intention du sujet)
4.c. deontic modality (modalité déontique)
(intersubjective modality)

utterer-centered modality subject- centered modality

( modality of the event) (modality of the subject)
modalité de l’événement modalité du sujet
1. assertive modality 4. root modality
2. epistemic modality
3. qualifying modality
The utterer (l’énonciateur) The subject is the target of the
modalizes the content of the modality. 35
whole clause (la proposition)
2. Qualifying modality (modalité appréciative)
1. That he should behave that way ! ( = it is extraordinary / scandalous that he
should behave that way) .
2. It is strange that I should have been delivered at the hospital doors by the police.
3. It is strange that I was delivered at the hospital doors by the police.
4. It is necessary that he be sent to hospital.
5. It is necessary that he should be sent to hospital.
6. I really wonder why my brother was so desirous that I should meet his friend.
3. Assertive modality (modalité assertive)
7. This book costs £5.
8. This book costs a fortune.
9. But I AM working! Can’t you see?
10. Miss Brown had never received the gift of a box or a bouquet of flowers. She
thought that it would have been nice if, on one of her late returns, she had found
a bunch of roses awaiting her on her table.
She was thankful to Providence, to her landlady, to her employer, to the baker for
bringing her bread, to the milkman for leaving her half a pint of milk on Sundays,
to the landlady’s cat for refraining from drinking it.
Yet she could not help thinking, when she put out her light and lay down, of the
wonderful moment if she ever did receive a bouquet.
35
11. Harold laid down his knife and fork.
‘Oh, do please go on eating!’
‘Yes,’ said Harold. ‘I was only looking for the mustard.’

12. I wonder if he’s got a wife. I do wonder!

13. Here’s your room. I do hope you’ll like it.

14. – Time flies, doesn’t it, Mr. Wilkins?

– My name is Weaver!
– Oh, of course, it is! How silly of me. I do apologize.

4. Root modality (modalité radicale)

4. a. property of the subject : WILL / CAN
- predictable property (propriété prévisible): WILL
15. Oil will float on water.
16. John’ll listen to jazz music for hours.
17. After Linda had left her, the district nurse would come, though not every day.
18. Every morning, he would go for a walk.
19. – He said that the project was unrealistic.
– He would! (= Ça ne m’étonne pas de lui.)

20 - ??? The sun will rise in the east. 36

21- This cottage will accommodate six adults easily.

- potential : CAN
22. John can swim very well . / John could swim very well.
23. Now, anything can happen. [ 2. 322]
24. I can be nice, too, says Mr Sinister. [ 2. 313]
(= I can be nice at times : sporadic CAN = CAN sporadique; référence à une
caractéristique occasionnelle)
25. Lions can be dangerous. (Sometimes, they are dangerous).

4. b. intentionality: WILL
26. He won’t eat his soup!
27. If you’ll listen to me, maybe things will become clearer.

36
4.c. deontic modality: permission / obligation/blame/advice/interdiction
permission / obligation/ conseil / reproche / interdiction. (SHALL, MUST, CAN,
MAY)
- obligation: absolute ( SHALL) , necessity ( MUST)
- advice: attenuation of SHALL → SHOULD)
- blame: anteriority = He should have left. (but he did not)
- SHOULD, COULD, MIGHT:
- He should have opened the door for them!
- He might have opened the door for them!
- He could have opened the door for them!
- permission: MAY, CAN
- interdiction:
- MAY NOT (formal), CANNOT (impossibility), MUST NOT
(interdiction)

5. Epistemic modality
- degree of knowledge and certainty (probability, possibility, necessity,
impossibility)
- argumentative function (acting on the interlocutor)

- MAY :
28. John may have missed his bus. 37
29. He said, " This is beautiful." I said, " It may be beautiful, but I can't stand
it."
= whether it is beautiful or not, which is not important to know as a fact, I
can't stand it. (concession)
30. He may be young, but he already has a lot of experience.
31. I might (just as well) have been talking Russian.
(= as far as I could see, they may have supposed that I was speeaking
Russian, because they obviously did not understand a word of what I was
saying)
32. His father stared round his own shop so carefully; he might have been
seeing it for the first time. (It was as if it were the first time.)

- argumentation.
33. This time next week I shall be swimming in the Pacific.
34. (Three knocks on the door) This will be the man upstairs again.
35. This must be the man upstairs.
36. The book you're looking for should be over there. Have a look.
37. That book must be over there.

37
- context:
38. She didn't buy it but she *?? might / could have bought it.
39. He must have called at around 10 o'clock…Well, in fact, it might / could have
been earlier.

- negation: MAY NOT and CANNOT

40. He may not be late.
( = it is possible that he is not late, but I cannot decide)
41. He cannot be late.
(= It is clearly impossible that he is late. I decide that one possibility is excluded)

6. Aspect
- base verbale (bare infinitive): no aspect: reference to an act or the notion
- BE+ING : uncompleted event
- HAVE+EN : completed event, anteriority

6.a. interpretation
42. He must go.
43. He must be quiet.
44. He must be watching tv.
45. He must have finished his work
46. He must have finished his work by next Monday / next week . 38
47. He must be working when Dad comes home.

48. He must have finished his work before 6.

49. He should be working.

50. He may be working when Dad comes home.

6.b. CAN
51. * He can be swimming.
52. He may be swimming.
53. * He can have given the right answer.
54. He may have given the right answer.
55. He could meet them if he wanted to. (il pourrait…)
56. She lifted her eyes and he could have sworn there was amusement in them.
57. He could be working in his room instead of talking with them.
58. He can’t have given the right answer.
59. He can’t be working at this hour.
60. He can’t work properly.
61. He can’t speak English.
62. He can swim very fast.
63. You can smoke now.

38
64. You can open that door now that you’ve found the key.

6. c. fact
65.You needn't have come. (but you did).
66. He should have arrived at 10. (→ but he did not)
67. He was to have met her at the station (but they did not)

7. ED (past form)

Indirect speech hypothesis attenuation

68.I asked him if I 69.If he knew it, 70.You should see that film.
might smoke he would / could/ 71. Sooner or later, a ship
(= si je pouvais) might help us will come and the sailors
(= pourrait) might see us.
Tense agreement ED modal = unreal Tentative use (attenuated)
(accord des temps) (prétérit modal) (préterit modal)
(ED temporel)

72.In those days, I could buy a proper meal and still have some money left.
(past)
73.If he worked harder, he could pass the exam. 39
(unreal)

- past form: will/would shall/should can/could may/might

- MUST, modal NEED: no past form

74. He didn't know who was knocking on the door. It must be John.
(free reported speech: discours indirect libre)

****************************************************************

39
 THIS – THAT

1- It is not that difficult.

2- We never thought you could arrive this late.
3- He thought THAT it was difficult.
4- The carpet THAT he bought at the auction sales is very nice.

1 – the referent is already identified, it is distinguished from other elements

(le référent dont il est question est déjà identifié, il se distingue d’autres
référents possibles)
2 – it is related with the situation of speech (la situation d’énonciation)
- THIS:
- connection with the situation of speech
- moment of speech T0: this day = now
- the utterer S0: this table = the object in the utterer’s
presence
- THAT:
- disconnection from the situation of speech
- that day = future / past
- that table = the table related to someone else, in another
place… 40
référence
5- Look at that. (that = object, event, not a person).
6- Who is this?
7- Those are my nephews.
8- This is my uncle.
9- This is my sister.
10- I'm very grateful to all those who support us.
11- Those born this year will be registered.
12- I’d like cakes. How much are those that are over there?
13- I generally don’t like cakes, but those you made are very nice.
14- The true circle is that which the magician creates mentally.
15- Our survey programmes have been extensive and we have found nothing of a
type similar to that which has been found in Derbyshire.
16- She tells me the only freedom is that of the imagination.
17- When this happened the traffic was held up for three of four days whilst the
track was repaired.
18- However, also in 1964, China announced that it had exploded their first
nuclear device, and that caused worldwide concern, particularly to their close
neighbours, the U.S.S.R.
19- Look at that!

40
Meaning - THIS/THAT
20
a- this town
b- that town

- space-time :

21- This country needs waking up. (the country where we are)
22- The market for the rest of this year will be reasonably healthy (the present
year)
23- This is John. Is that you, Mary? (phone conversation)
24- Formula Three was born in 1950 but more significantly, that year saw the
birth of the Formula One driver's championship.

- modal distance :
25- Look at that mess! (disapproval)

- information:

26a- This is my uncle.

26b- I walked in with David and there was this guy with a mass of curly hair siting
behind a desk… (beginning of a story) 41
27- What he means is this: if someone is truly a ruler — an ideal ruler —, he
makes no mistakes.
28- This is the news [.............]. That was the news.
29- That’s the end of our weather forecast.
30- I’m going to resign, and that’s that! (conclusive remark)
31- That’s a good girl! (conclusion)
32- That’s it for tonight. (c’est tout pour aujourd’hui)

33- In the meantime, plans had been afoot for a combined British and American
force, known as the Allied First Army, to land on French North African shores —
this occurred on 8th, November 1942, and those forces moved eastward towards
the advancing British Eighth Army.

34- I'm very grateful to all those who support us.

35- Both individually and collectively we are given many opportunities to achieve
that part of the Association's Dedication that announces ‘We shall remember
them.’ (relative restrictive)

41
36a- The most obvious of these reasons are political ones, in the pure, party, vote-
catching sense of that / this term.

36b- And by the way,’ said Elinor as she handed round tea and biscuits. ‘I found
out that the Chatwin kid was traced to a gypsy camp at the Appleby Horse Fair
but before the police could pick him up he'd disappeared again’. ‘When was that?'
asked Otley.

36c- (dialogue between S1 and S2)

S1: How did the two of you come to team up?
S2: We met under a bet. I wanted him badly and he hated my guts, and I said all
right, I'll leave you alone if you can beat any of the guys on the Australian spring
tour. If not, come over to me and I'll make you a world champion in five years.
And that was the bet.
S1: When was this?
S2: Five years ago.

Conclusion
- referent: already identified, distinct
- relative to the situation (deictic identification)
- relative to the tex (cotext): anaphora/cataphora
42
- point of view:
- the utterer (this)
- disconnection from the utterer (that):
- modal disconnection (pejorative connotation)
- shared knowledge
- conclusion
- référent déjà identifié (distingué) :
- par rapport à la situation (identification purement déictique)
- par rapport au cotexte (identification cotextuelle)
- retour en arrière dans le texte (anaphore)
- présentation d’un contenu (cataphore)
- point de vue :
- le repérage se fait uniquement par rapport à l’énonciateur (THIS)
- l’énonciateur établit une rupture (THAT)
- rupture modale
- information partagée
- valeur conclusive

****************************************************************

42
 Types of speech indicated in a text

1- I know what is being said about me and you can take my side or theirs, that’s your own
business. It’s my word against Eunice’s and Olivia-Ann’s, and it should be plain enough to
anyone with two good eyes which one of us has their wits about them. I just want the citizens
of the USA to know the facts, that’s all.
The facts: On Sunday, August 12, this year of our Lord, Eunice tried to kill me with her papa’s
Civil sword (…)
(Truman Capote, “My Side of the Matter”, POV: 163).

2- He was sitting there on the waterfront, and off and on I watched him while he read the
newspaper. He looked a frail old man, I don’t mean feeble, just frail. Delicate. You see such
old men about and you wonder how it is they’ve lived so long, how it is that some sickness
hasn’t carried them off long ago.
(Frank Sargeson, “Old Man’s Story”, MSS2: 49)

3- “So here you are!” exclaimed Mrs Vesey to the newcomer who joined the group on the lawn.
She reposed for an instant her light, dry fingers on his. “Henry has come from London,” she
added.
(Elisabeth Bowen, “Sunday Afternoon”, MSS2: 33)

4- “I want you to come away with me,” I said to him. “We must get you to America.”
“Very nice idea,” he said. “What for?”
“We’re going to finish ‘The Confessions’” (…)
I found Karl-Heinz a place to stay (…) I bought him some clothes, gave him money for food,
had him deloused and medically examined (…) 43
(W. Boyd: 460)

5- Toni dresses up. It’s four o’clock in the afternoon. Leo worries the lots will close. But Toni
takes her time dressing. She puts on a new white blouse, wide fancy lacy cuffs, the new two-
piece suit, new heels. She transfers the stuff from her straw purse into the new patent-leather
bag. She studies the lizard makeup pouch and puts that in too. Toni has been two hours on her
hair and face. Leo stands in the bedroom doorway and taps his lips with his knuckles, watching.
“You’re making me nervous,” she says. “I wish you wouldn’t just stand,” she says. “So tell me
how I look.”
“You look fine,” he says. “You look great. I’d buy a car from you anytime.”
“But you don’t have money,” she says, peering into the mirror.
(R. Carver, “What is it?”: 152)

6- My husband eats with a good appetite. But I don’t think he’s really hungry. He chews, arms
on the table, and stares at something across the room. He looks at me and looks away. He wipes
his mouth on the napkin. He shrugs, and goes on eating.
“What are you staring at me for?” he says. “What is it?” he says and lays down his fork.
“Was I staring?” I say, and shake my head.
(R. Carver, “So much water…”: 235)
***

43
 JE narrant situation de discours, prise en charge des énoncés, identification
de l’énonciateur
JE narré récit, délocution, le narrateur est présenté de l’extérieur en tant
que personnage dans une scène

narrating I - situation of discourse, subjective commitment relative to the

utterance, identification of the utterer
narrated I narration, the narrator is presented from the outside as a
character in a scene
- the pronoun “I” may be seen in 3 different ways:
- direct speech: identification of the utterer with the talking person (talking or writing),
the speaker is identified as the utterer responsible for the utterance, the speaker
constructs a subjective perspective in the speech,
- narration: “narrated I”, considered as a character in the scene, (person outside the
locution: “personne délocutée”),
- narrative intervention in the narration: the “narrating I” seen as being outside the story
itself and as being responsible for the utterance (seen as the subjective locating point for
what the text refers to, as the modalizer).
- the form “I” may have different interpretations depending on the context:
- dialogue, direct speech: “I” is a sign of subjective involvement, (identification of the
utterer with the speaker, construction of a subjective locating point),
- narration: “I” as an actor in the story,
- narratorial intervention: the narrator’s voice, reference to the narrator seen as being
outside the frame of the story.
44
Text 5-
- a present tense narration (the story is narrated in the simple present form).
- third person (Toni, Leo, he, she)
- no explicit modalization (assertions: statements of facts)
- succession of events in narrative sequences:
She puts on a new white blouse, wide fancy lacy cuffs, the new two-piece
suit, new heels. She transfers the stuff from her straw purse into the new
patent-leather bag. She studies the lizard makeup pouch and puts that in
too.
- rewritten in the past: (modification of the relationship between the text and the reader, receiver
of the message, not of the chronology)
She studied the lizard makeup pouch and put that in too. Toni had been two hours
on her hair and face. Leo stood in the bedroom doorway
- narrative present tense (historical present) → closeness and immediacy:
- “Toni dresses up”:
- the event = a point in time (simple aspect: a global view of the event)
- neutrality (assertion),
- the utterance is valid in the reader’s situation (intersubjective
relationship) → the event is immediate and instantaneous.

- narrative past form → disconnection (a narrative scene with no sense of immediacy)

- other cases of the simple present:
- general meaning (oil floats on water), neutral viewpoint
- stage directions in a play (bare facts)

44
 - sports reports (reference to bare facts as they happen with a vivid sense of actual
presence)
- sudden event (Here come the bus!)
- performative sentence (I declare the meeting open): statement of fact +
a sense of immediacy (the act takes place immediately).
- BE+ING: - Toni is dressing up. → development of the process (unaccomplished aspect); a
descriptive utterance +it may imply the presence of a witness describing the scene.
TEXT 6- BE+ING
- development of the process in the situation of speech (direct speech)
- presence of a witness (viewpoint)
- note: BE+ING and subjectivity:
- When you act that way, it means that you are in fact looking for trouble.
(personal interpretation)
- Introduction to a Linguistic Grammar of English
Chap 3- an attempt to characterize different types of utterances
- l’analyse textuelle en anglais
T. Hughes, C. Patin, Dunod, 1998 (83..)
- syntaxe anglaise
F. Dubois-Charlier, B. Vautherin, Vuibert, 1997
Chap 6 : Discours direct, indirect et indirect libre
Corpus- Points of View, An anthology of Short Stories
J. Moffet, K.R. Mc Elheny, Mentor Books, 1966
- Modern Short Stories 2, 1940-1980
G. Gordon, Dent & Sons, 1982
- Boyd W., The New Confessions, Penguin Books, 1988
- The Stories of Raymond Carver, Picador, 1983

45
****************************************************************

FOCALIZATION

- Focalization → Who sees? Who perceives?

- Narration → Who speaks?
- diegesis (narrated world) + a perspective.
- Perceptions:
- physical perception (seeing, hearing…)
- cognition (knowledge, belief, memory, imagination, dream,
hallucination…)
- emotion
- He had something in his hand./he had a knife in his hand.

- the focalizer: the focalizer may be identified

- with the narrator
- with the character
- with no one in particular.

45
 “The choice of the point(s) of view from which the story is told is arguably
the most important single decision that the novelist has to make, for it
fundamentally affects the way readers will respond, emotionally and
morally, to the fictional characters and their actions. The story of an
adultery, for instance - any adultery - will affect us differently according to
whether it is presented primarily from the point of view of the unfaithful
person, or the injured spouse, or the lover - or as observed by some fourth
party. Madame Bovary narrated mainly from the point of view of Charles
Bovary would be a very different book from the one we know.”
David Lodge, The Art of Fiction (“Point of View”: 25-29)
- scope
-limited view
- panoramic, extended view
- simultaneous views (different focalizers): multifocalizations

- three types of focalization

- external focalization: knowledge is limited to what is visible and
perceptible.
- internal focalization: scene perceived through the eyes of a character.
- zero focalization: unlocated omniscient focalizer (consistent with
omniscient narration)
46
External focalization
- little information (the narrator says less than the character knows)
- observable information
Internal focalization
- the point of view POV = a character. (the character = the focalizer)
- It is possible to use multiple focalizers in the same text.
Zero focalisation
- unrestricted access to information.
→- Character = C
- Narrator = N (may be represented in the text, or be totally unidentified)

Zero focalization Internal focalization External focalization

Unrestricted POV Restricted, limited POV Restricted, limited POV
The text adopts the The POV is anonymous,
POV of a character (or impersonal (there is no
group of characters) identification with any
character), only observable
suface events are described.
N>C N=C N<C
N= focalizer C= focalizer Impersonal focalizer

46
3 parameters:
- restriction of POV (access to information may be restricted or
unrestricted)
- identification of POV (the POV may be identified with the POV of a
character or may be impersonal)
- relationship with the diegesis (the POV may be linked with an
intradiegetic actor or it may be outside the diegesis)

Examples:
- Zero focalisation

- The man kept his distance in front of the woman purposely, though perhaps
unconsciously, for he wanted to go on with his thoughts.
(V. Woolf « Kew Gardens »)

- It must not be supposed that her ladyship’s intermissions were not qualified
by demonstrations of another order – triumphal entries and breathless pauses
during which she seemed to take of everything in the room, from the state of
the ceiling to that of her daughter boot-toes, a survey which was rich in
intentions.
(Henry James, “What Maisie Knew”)
47

- Internal focalization

- ‘Fifteen years ago, I came here with Lily,’ he thought. […]

- From what Harley and I put together later, that’s all they had left after the
bank in Minnesota took their house, their pickup, their tractor, the farm
implements, and a few cows.

- He watched as she entered the room, handed her coat to the doorman, and
was greeted by the hostess. Her beauty left him breathless and made him feel
new again. He knew he had to speak to her, but what would he say? It didn’t
matter. He was tired of feeling like a frightened child, so he politely excused
himself and made his way across the crowded room.

- External focalization
- The old station wagon with Minnesota plates pulls into a parking space in
front of the window. There’s a man and a woman in the front seat, two boys
in the back. It’s July, temperature’s one hundred plus. These people look
whipped. There are clothes hanging inside; suitcases and boxes, piled in the
back. (Raymond Carver « The Bridle »)

47
 - She walked into the room, and he watched her. He stood within a small
circle of men, all lawyers from the firm, but his eyes were across the room
with her as she handed her coat to the doorman, greeted the hostess, and
took a glass of wine from a wandering waiter. After some time, he finally
left his circle and began to cross the room.

Complements

- text → VOICE (modalization), PERCEPTIONS (focalization).

- MODALIZER (jugdments? neutral?)
- FOCALIZER (perceiver - what is the amount and degree of information
available? )
- the POV may be embodied (character(s)) or impersonal.
- degrees:
- no focalizer: zero-focalization (any information is accessible from any
perspective)
- unidentified focalizer (unidentified witness)
- personified focalizer (intra- or extra-diegetic)
- access to (diegetic) information:
- limited or unrestricted (open access),
- mediated through a figure (character-focalizer, narrator-focalizer) or 48
direct.
- The described referent (object/person/scene) → some aspects of the referent →
angle of perception + domain of perception:
- perceptual (senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch)
- mental (psychological):
- cognition (knowledge, conjecture, belief, memory, dream,
hallucination)
- emotivity/sensation
- ideology (norm)
a) - perception through senses: the referent is perceived in space terms and in time.
- perception; global, panoramic, unrestricted (a bird’s eye view), limited
(limited observer).
- *? I don’t know that John is behind the door,
- *?? I can’t see that there are people in the house
(I can’t see IF there are people in the house.).
- space localizations (to the left, on the right, below, behind, in front of, far
from…).
- time
- time localizations (after, before, while, at the same moment, two days
earlier, not-yet, alternation present tense/past tense…).

48
b) mental domain
b1- cognition mental activities (knowledge, hypothesis, belief, memory,
hallucination…).
- Zero focalization (unrestricted access)
- Internal focalization (restricted access)

- information → missing (ellipsis), unexplained, or indefinite (“he noticed

she was holding something in her hand”, “a dark figure was standing in the
middle of the room”, …)

B2- emotion/sensation
- he felt that… that tasted salty, there was something weird about him, she
saw him as… , it seemed to her that…, apparently, as if…,

c) ideology
- the focalizer’s norms (ethic, political, esthetic norms).

****************************************************************

49

49
II. Grammaire textuelle (Text grammar)

50

50
 TEXTUALITY- coherence/cohesion/connection

1- Conditions of textuality
- cohesion : - repetition - progression
- coherence : - non-contradiction - congruence (relevance = la pertinence)

2- coherence and cohesion

2.1. cohérence
Coherence is based on textual properties that guarantee the interpretability
of the text. A text may be coherent without explicit formal relationships
between utterances. These relationships may be recovered through
inference (entailment), either through a contextual hypothesis or through a
standardized pattern of events (script, scenario). Moeschler Jacques & Reboul
Anne, Dictionnaire encyclopédique de pragmatique, Seuil, 1994 : 463.

EX.1. Mary was hungry. She opened the Michelin Guide.

EX.2. The water is too cold. I’ll stay on the beach.

2.2. cohesion
The concept of cohesion is a semantic one; it refers to relations of meaning that
exist within the text, and that defines it as a text.
51
Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse
is dependent on that of another. The one presupposes the other, in the sense
that it cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse to it. When this
happens, a relation is set up, and the two elements, the presupposing and
the presupposed, are thereby at least potentially integrated into a text.
(Halliday, M.A.K; and Ruqayia Hasan (1976): Cohesion in English.
London: Longman:4.)

Cohesion refers to linguistic tools that construct intra- and inter-sentential

links that turn oral and written utterances into texts […] Trans-sentential
linguistics and text grammar focalize on linguistic markers (cohesive links)
that produce cohesion. (Patrick Charaudeau et Dominique Maingueneau :
Dictionnaire d’Analyse du Discours, Seuil, 2002 : 99).

- reference
- lexical cohesion → isotopy (isos = same, topos = place), (lexical field)
A redundant class of semantic categories that made possible a uniform reading of
the narration as it emerges from a series of local readings of the utterances forming
the text and from the resolution of ambiguities aiming at a global unified reading
of the text. (A.J. Greimas, Du sens – Essais sémiotiques, Seuil, 1970)
- ellipsis

51
- conjunction
- tense agreement
- referential chains (repetition of the same referents through series of utterances,
relationships between the referents)
- anaphoric chains (relationships between referents and form of substitution
PROforms)
- connectors (discursive connectors that construct relationships between clauses)
(coordination, subordination)
- information processing (thematic progression: from old information to new
information, relationship between neutral information and focalized information)

EX.3. John decided to spend his holidays at the seaside. He thinks that nice
weather and swimming will do him good. I think he is right and that is an excellent
idea.

3. connection
Connection covers all types of linkage between utterances made with linguistic
constructions. Classically, interconnection may be illustrated with pragmatic
connectors such as but, and, so, all the same, yet, however, in fact, incidentally,
etc. […] Connection is a formal property and does not seem to be a necessary
condition for cohesion and coherence. (Moeschler Jacques & Reboul Anne, Dictionnaire 52
encyclopédique de pragmatique, Seuil, 1994 : 465)

4 - synthesis
EX. 4.
- What time it it?
- The baker’s van has just left.

EX.5.Since Jane is a widow, her husband collects sewing machines.

Ex. 6. Move forward, I get my gun.

Ex 7. John left earlier than expected, he was tired.

52
PROGRESSION AND CONTINUITY
Progression and continuity

1. Coherence, cohesion, connection

- cohesion : - repetition - progression

- coherence : - non-contradiction + congruence (relevance)
connection connectors
- space-time (first, then, in front of, above…)
- enumeration (besides, furthermore, first and foremost…)
- reformulation (in other terms, namely…)
- argumentation (however, although, since, due to, to
conclude…)

2. Information processing (Progression thématique)

- predicative relationship: relationship between a predicate and a subject:
- the subject = the basis of the relationship (support de la relation) = the
operand on which the predicate is applied.
- the predicate (verb phrase) = what is given as being true (to varying
degrees) about the subject (apport prédicatif)
+ modalization: the predicative relationship is modalized as being validated,
uncertain, necessary… (expression of the utterer’s judgement) 53

EX = John wrote a letter.

John wrote a letter
subject noun phrase verb phrase
operand predicate
(support) (apport)
This element is qualified by the This element qualifies the subject
predicate. (operand).

- contextualized predicative relationship

The same predicative relationship may be realized as different utterances in terms
of information (some information may be seen as old (taken for granted) (theme)
or as new, as neutral or as salient) (rheme).

John wrote a letter.

a- Who wrote a letter? → JOHN wrote a letter.
(the predicate is thematized as old information, the subject is rhematic as
new information)
b- What did John do? → He WROTE A LETTER.
(the subject is thematized as old information, the predicate is rhematic as
new information)
53
c- What happened ? → John wrote a letter.
(the whole utterance is rhematic)
- types of predicative relationship :

NOTE
- categorical predication (prédication catégorique) = the predicate is about the subject.
- thetical predication (prédication thétique) = the relationship is taken as a whole (ex.c) (the utterance is
about a situation).
- types of judgements:
- analytical judgement (jugement analytique) = the predicate is an inherent property of the
subject (ex: A triangle has 3 sides, Material bodies are extended in space…)
- synthetic judgement (jugement synthétique) = the predicate adds a characteristic ( ex : John is
rich.)

Three major types of progression:

- linear progression (progression linéaire)
John wrote a letter. It was quite long.
- constant theme (progression à thème constant)
John wrote a letter. He was nervous and he lit a cigarette. He immediately
stubbed it out in an ashtray that was already full. He looked through the
window.
- hypertheme (development of a hypertheme) (progression dérivée)
A computer is a complex machine. The keyboard may be classical or tactile.
The screen may be of varying sizes. The electrical supply system must also 54
be taken in consideration…

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54
 SYNTAX AND INFORMATION PROCESSING
(INFORMATION PACKAGING)
- indicators of information processing: syntax and prosody
- special stress (emphatic stress: un accent d’insistance)
- John WROTE that book.
- John wrote THAT book.
- JOHN wrote that book.
- syntactic structure
- That book was written by John.
(to underline JOHN)
- It was John who wrote that book.
(to highlight JOHN)
- It is that book that John wrote.
(to highlight THAT BOOK)

Two types of syntactic structures:

- canonical structures (the basic structure of the sentence)
- non-canonical structures (the basic structure of the sentence is modified
for informational reasons).

The informational organization takes into account two major elements:

- thematization 55
the information that is already given (old, taken for granted, shared
knowledge, obvious, not at-issue, predictable, logically inferable
from the context)
- rheme
the information that is not given (new information, at-issue in the
context)

- Information status and intersubjectivity:

- sender, speaker, addresser, utterer (émetteur du message)
- received, hearer, addressee, co-utterer (destinataire du message)
→two interconnected levels:
- discourse-old information (already mentioned)
- discourse-new information (newly introduced)
- hearer-old information (already known by the receiver: shared knowledge)
- hearer-new information (this information is totally new for the receiver of the
message)

Ex: The president will make a speech tomorrow.

[the President] may be discourse-new (not mentioned before) and hearer-
old (shared knowledge).

55
- reactivated thematized information (given information may be reactivated to
become focalized and re-actualized):

EX: JOHN will make a speech tomorrow.

[John] may be old information, but it may need to be focalized depending
on the context (ex: even if John has been mentioned, he may not be expected
to make a speech tomorrow).

- The complete clause may be thematized (the whole sentence is given

information) or be rhematic (the whole sentence is new). Only some elements of
the sentence may be given as opposed to new elements.

Ex:
a)- When shall we know what Mary is going to do?
- an open proposition (some information is already established but
some is missing and should be completed).

- information structure and syntax:

- standard (canonical) structures, the last constituent = rhematic, hightlighted.
- We’ll know next week.
(the rhematic information is placed in the end)
56
→ end-focus (the rheme is placed in the end of the construction)
+ end-weight (more complex constituents tend to be placed in the end
because they contain more information).

- non-canonical structures (marked, non-canonical):

- fronting (a constituent is placed at the beginning)
- They certainly had a lot to talk about and talk they did.
(TALK is thematic)
- inversion (the subject is placed at the end, the order of the constituents is
reversed)
- To this list may be added ten further items of importance.
(focalized rhematic subject in the end)
- cleft-sentences (phrase clivée)
It is John who stole my wallet.
- [someone stole my wallet]: thematic
- [John]: highlighted (focalized, salient, underlined)
- pseudo-cleft sentence (pseudo-clivée)
- What I want is a good book.
- [I want something]: clearly established, thematic
- [a good book]: focus

56
- dislocation
- One of the guys I work with, he said he bought over $100 in tickets.
- He said he bought over $100 in tickets, John.
One constituent is added (at the end or the beginning of the complete
sentence to indicate that it is thematic: it is known but may need to be
mentioned again)

- extraposition:
A clause (which is the real subject of the sentence) is placed at the end to be
underlined:
- It is unlikely that John will make a speech tomorrow.
- IT = impersonal structure (construction impersonnelle)
- subject: that john will make a speech tomorrow
- The subordinate clause: at the end to be highlighted.

- canonical structure = Subject + Verb phrase:

[That John will make a speech tomorrow] is unlikely.

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57

57
 Syntax and information processing
(information packaging)

- a sentence (= une phrase)

- a clause (= une proposition)
- information structure of the message.

- continuity of information in the text

- salient (prominent) information in the message (saliency)

- John wrote that essay in 1920.

- In 1920, John wrote that essay.
- It is in 1920 that John wrote that essay.
- What John wrote in 1920 is that essay.

Processing information:
- it orients the reader’s attention on salient information,
- it guarantees textual continuity (cohesion).

- The INFORMATION STRUCTURE of a sentence

Processing information:
- defining some information as thematic and as rhematic: 58
- thematic information (theme)
- rhematic information (rheme)

The theme is established information: it is used as the topic under

discussion (some information may be topicalized, that is to say turned
into the topic of a sentence).
The rheme is the new part of the message: it is additional information
regarding the topic.
thematic information rhematic information
established, already identified new information,

- highlighting (focusing, focalizing) some information which is given more

prominence relatively to other elements of the text:
Focalized information is given more significance.
Terminology: (souligner une information)
- focalization - foregrounding
- highlighting - emphasis
- focus - underlining, underscoring
information

58
 → Tendency
thematic information rhematic information
established, already identified new information
basis of the message focus
However, it may sometimes be useful to focalize some information that is
already identified to show its prominence, to reactivate its significance or
to clarify the message.

The form of the sentence

canonical structure non-canonical structure
standard rules, ordinary syntactic reorganization of the standard
order order

Example:
- The cab is coming. (canonical order)
- Here comes the cab! (non-canonical order)
NOTE
There are two aspects of the information structure of a message:
- prosody/intonation
- syntax (canonical / non-canonical)
Intonation may change the information structure of the message.
Intonation is not systematically indicated (with italics).
59
- Basic types of information

thematic information rhematic information

old information new information

given information information under discussion: at-issue
shared information
presupposed information
not at-issue (not under discussion)
obvious information

Given information - already identified in context.

- mentioned in the previous context (old information).
- obvious or predictable according to the context.
- shared knowledge (facts and realities that are generally known in a community).
- taken for granted and not at-issue (pris comme allant de soi, information non
problématique). It is then shared as something obvious for the speaker (locuteur)
and the addressee (destinataire du message).

59
 - When shall we know what Mary is going to do?
- (We’ll know) next week.
- She will decide next week.

- presupposition

Thematic information Rhematic information

- “we will know what she is going to “NEXT WEEK” (is the moment
do” at a certain moment suggested in the question).
- “she is going to do something” at a
certain moment

- information structure and sentence structure: end-focus, end-weight

END-FOCUS

The new focalized information tends to be placed at the end of the structure.

1- When shall we know what Mary is going to do?

→ We shall know what Mary is going to do NEXT WEEK. 60

- This generally implies that longer structures with more informative weight are
normally placed at the end of the structure. This is known as end-weight.

END-WEIGHT

A complex structure contains a lot of information, which is likely to be new

information. It tends to be placed in the end of the structure.

2
a- She visited him that very day.
b- She visited her best friend that very day.
c- She visited that very day an elderly and much beloved friend.
d- She visited that very day an elderly and much beloved friend she had not
seen for a long time because of a lot of complicated reasons.

60
It is also possible to put the time indication at the beginning:

- That very day, she visited an elderly and much beloved friend she had not
seen for a long time because of a lot of complicated reasons.

- What will happen next week?

→ Next week, we will know her decision.
→ a frame of reference: the information “we will know her decision”
must be understood relatively to another item of information “next
week”.

- Syntax (canonical / non-canonical)

- The non-canonical order indicates the information order more explicitly.

- basic standard organization is:
- topic (what the sentence is about) → subject
- comment (what is added to the topic) → verb phrase

EX.1.- John wrote that essay in 1920.

EX.2. - Someone stole my car.

EX.1.- John wrote that essay in 1920. 61

John wrote that essay in 1920.
topic comment
subject verb phrase

- information structure:
-the fact of writing of the essay in 1920 is about John.

EX.2. - Someone stole my car.

The canonical order is neutral as far as the information structure of the message
is concerned.
Modifying the canonical order indicates the information structure of the
message.

61
- beginning of a structure (fronting)
- in the end (postponing).

- FRONTING (an element is placed at the beginning) and

POSTPONING (an element is in the final position):
- change of the canonical order inside the sentence
- inversion.
- use of a complex syntactic structure

FRONTING - POSTPONING

1. change of the canonical order

- In principle, he is capable of carrying out or determining the accuracy of

any computation. Some computations he may not be able to carry out in his
head. Paper and pencil are required to extend his memory.

- standard structure:
- He may not be able to carry out some computations in his head. 62

thematic focus
some computations he may not be able to carry out in
his head.
fronting postponing

The focalized final element may be linked with some other information in
the following sentence to guarantee continuity in the text.

2. inversion
- To this list may be added ten further items of importance.

- the subject is placed at the end of the sentence (with an inversion with the verb
phrase).

to this list may be added ten further items of importance.

complement verb phrase subject
first position final position (end-focus)

62
- standard version:
- Ten further items of importance may be added to this list.

The non-canonical construction explicitly focuses on the subject placed in the end
(end-focus).

- USE OF A COMPLEX SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE

- cleft sentence (phrase clivée):

- It was John who wore a white shirt at the dance last night.

- pseudo-cleft sentence (pseudo-clivée):

- What I mean is that he could not do it.
(What I want is a good detective story.)

In the cleft sentence, the moved constituent is highlighted:

- It was John who wore a white shirt at the dance last night.

a- It was in 1924 that Virginia Woolf wrote that famous essay.

It is taken for granted that V.W wrote that famous essay; the structure
emphasizes the information “1924”.
- Other sentences: 63
- It was Virginia Woolf who wrote that famous essay in
1924.
(focus on V. Woolf)
- It was that famous essay that Virginia Woolf wrote in
1924.
(focus on the essay)
b- Virginia Woolf wrote that famous essay in 1924.
The information structure is not explicit.
c- In 1924, Virginia Woolf wrote that famous essay.
- time complement [in 1924] a frame to localize the event.

- pseudo-cleft
a- What I mean is that he could not do it.
b- What the country needs is to bring back military service.
c- What you need most is a good rest.
This structure means that something is presupposed and that another content is
focalized.

What you need most It indicates that something is presupposed:

you need something (presupposed information)
a good rest focalized new information

63
- standard order: - You need a good rest.

- ALL: - All you need is a good rest.

NOTE
It is possible to reverse the order:
- What you need most is a good rest.
- A good rest is what you need most.

- What you need most is a good rest.

presupposing construction presupposed information

what you need most a good rest
initial position final position → focus

- A good rest is what you need most.

presupposed information presupposing construction

a good rest what you need most
initial position final position → focus
64
Extraposition
- It was difficult to write that essay.

The clause [to write that essay] is the subject of the sentence in:
- To write that essay was difficult.

In the extraposition, the clause is moved to the final position and the subject
of the sentence is the impersonal IT. The subordinate clause is put in the
end to carry the end-focus.
- The subordinate clause may be complete:
- It was difficult for V. Woolf to write that essay.
- The subordinate clause may be conjugated:
- It is true that she wrote the essay in 1924.

If it is placed in the initial position, it is thematic:

- That she wrote the essay in 1924 is no doubt true.
- That she could write that essay was quite surprising.

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 - dislocation (oral, substandard structure):
An element of the clause is placed before or after the clause:
- He is really stubborn, John.
- That was quite unexpected, his being elected.
- That book, it was so good.
- It was not a good idea, that movie.
- That was unpleasant, meeting them.
The external element is thematic (already mentioned in the context). It is
placed in the utterance as a reminder of the reference.

- He is really stubborn. (canonical construction)

This clause is complete, but the reference of the pronoun HE may be
unclear. The external element clarifies the reference:
- John, he is really stubborn.
- He is really stubborn, John.

- That was quite unexpected, his being elected. (dislocation)

- His being elected was quite unexpected. (canonical construction)

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FOREGROUNDING DEVICES
65
Passive form
- short passive (no BY-complement)
- It was discovered last year that this drug had side effects. (impersonal
passive)
- This asteroid was discovered in 1898.

- elimination of some information: the cause or agent of the event is

either irrelevant or obvious.

- long passive (BY-complement)

- According to this account, the mind-body distinction as we know it was

invented by Descartes.
- focus on some significant information.

- This ruse was invented by pirates and smugglers who wanted to deter
people from walking along the shore on a brightly moonlit night.
- end-weight (heavy constituent placed in the end)

________________________________________________________________

65
Cleft sentence
- It was John who wore a white shirt at the dance last night.
- It was in 1924 that Virginia Woolf wrote that famous essay

- Canonical constructions:
- John wore a white shirt at the dance last night.
- Virginia Woolf wrote that famous essay in 1924.

- One constituent is extracted from the sentence and placed in a position where it
is highlighted:
- It was John who wore a white shirt at the dance last night.
- It was in 1924 that Virginia Woolf wrote that famous essay

- It was John who wore a white shirt at the dance last

night.
-It was in that Virginia Woolf wrote that famous
1924 essay.
foregrounding construction focus thematic information

________________________________________________________________
66
- Pseudo-cleft sentence
- What I mean is that he could not do it.
- All I mean is that he could not do it.

- What you need is a good rest.

- All you need is a good rest.

- canonical constructions:
- I mean that he could not do it.
- You need a good rest.
- the sentence is cleft in two parts, the verb BE is used to identify the two parts:

what you need be a good rest

- The segment [what you need] means that the information [you need something]
is taken for granted (presupposition).
- The segment [a good rest] refers to some new information that completes the
presupposed information.

what you need be a good rest

presupposed relationship new information

66
- The new information is focalized (end-focus):

presupposing construction new information

what you need most a good rest
initial position final position → focus

- Normally, the new information is focalized. However, it is possible to reverse

the order:
- A good rest is what you need most.

new information presupposing construction

a good rest what you need most
initial position final position → focus

________________________________________________________________

Extraposition
- It was difficult to write that essay.

- The subordinate clause [to write that essay] is the subject of the sentence in:
- To write that essay was difficult.
67
- subordinate clause as subject: thematic information
- That she wrote the essay in 1924 is no doubt true.
- That she could write that essay was quite surprising.

- extraposition:
- the subordinate clause is placed in final position
- the subject of the sentence is impersonal IT
- the subordinate clause bears the end-focus
- IT was difficult to write that essay.
- IT is no doubt true that she wrote the essay in 1924.
- IT was quite surprising that she could write that essay.

________________________________________________________________
- Dislocation (oral, substandard structure):
- An element of the clause is placed before or after the clause:
- He is really stubborn, John.
- That was quite unexpected, his being elected.
- That book, it was so good.
- It was not a good idea, that movie.
- That was unpleasant, meeting them.

67
- The canonical order is modified:
- John is really stubborn. → He is really stubborn, John.
- His being elected was quite unexpected → That was quite unexpected, his
being elected.

- The external element is thematic (old information mentioned in the context,

obvious information). It is placed in the utterance as a reminder of the reference.
- John, he is really stubborn.
- He is really stubborn, John.
[John] clarifies the reference of [he]
- That was quite unexpected, his being elected.
[his being elected] clarifies the reference of [that]

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