m1) Introduction to Networks and Network Models Objectives 7 To understand Concepts in Data Communication To learn Network and Computer Network To study Basic Concepts of internet To learn Network Software To study Reference Models (OSI and TCP/IP) [ 10 [INTRODUCTION « Data communications and computer networks are two of the fastest growing technological areas in today’s modern world. This is because there is an almost unlimited demand for information transfer. + The word ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’, which _ Means 'to share’. Communication means the transfer of information between humans, computers or machines in a meaningful way. © Communication is the process of establishing connection or link between two entities for the transfer/exchange of information. * When we communicate, we share inform Local communication can be face to communication takes over distance. * Data communication is a process of exchan; m devices (a sender and a receiver) through some kind of transmission com) medium such as coaxial cable or fiber optic cable (wired) andlor air (wireless). A group of computers and other devices such as printers, fa ones ee connected together is called a network. The interconnected comp Tesources, which is called networking. : A computer network provides the facility of Computers, connected to i a vvvv ation. This sharing can be local or remote. face between individuals, while remote ging data or information between two munication information exchange/transfer among the Scanned with CamScannerSS A compa nora} introduction to Networks & Network Modes, ssc comp. Science) isa combination of hardware and software that sends data from one Poin, aneer other. one hardware consists of the Physical equipment . stto the network tO another. ron Oe i Fre software consists of instruction © expecttrom a network. ence model in networking is a conceptual layout that describes how A naunicadon betveen devices should occur. for amient communication, the reference rodel identifies the tasks involved in veceompter communication and divides them in logical groups called layers, with ach layer performing 2 specific function. ‘he purpose ofthe reference mode] was to define an architectural framework that defines the logcel communication tasks that are required to move information berwveen different computer systems. in networking the two most common reference models are Open Systems Interconnection (OSD reference model and TCP/IP (Transmission Control ProtocoV/Internet Protocol) reference model. In this chapter we will study basic concepts in data communications and networking, reference models network software, Internet and so on. that carries signals from one sets, that make possible the services that we eels A seven ee ee fe exchange of i : of generating processing and iapreingaee between two computers capabl ¢ The data communication process shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 1.1: Communication between Two Computers «Fig. 1.1 shows communication between one computer (senderisource) sending message to another computer (receiver/destination) over a wire or radio waves calle transmission media. «The data plays an important role in networking. Data is defined as ‘raw facts an figures before they have been processed’. «© The meaningful, logical and processed data is called information. Information can} defined as ‘meaningful data or processed date’. «Comparison between Data and Information: Message 2 Bo | i=l i | Communication is the co + Communication is define Sr.No. Data Information 1.1_| DATA COMMUNICATION 1. _| Data is a collection of raw facts and | information is processed data. Today, technol ; - figures oges related to data communications and networking may be the Se unorganized. fastest growing in our culture and/or our modern society. ‘The appearance of new social networking applications like Facebook, Twitter etc., every year isa testimony to this claim. People use the Internet more and more every day and they use the Internet for research, banki ‘ Saitoh ate hme ticket booking (bus, airplane, railway etc.), weather, Communication is the whether bevween i Information from a hasie process of information exchange. Communication, wuman beings or computer systems, involves transfer of Sender to a receiver. 2 transmitter of sender yr ome Of & Message from one entity, called the source or _ communication chamlineaie entity called the destination or receiver, using @ Detween. two entities, ‘das, transfer of information such as thoughts and messages ee Thi | points/entities of compyys PreeSS Of sending or receiving data between ‘wo ter Retwork is known as data communication. Se 3. | Data is a raw (meaningless) facts Information is meaningful. that required to be processed 10 make it meaningful i Information is output. 4. _| Data is input. S. [Data is raw material for Tnformation is the final product of date information. isupon dat 6. _ | Data depends upon the sources. Information depends upon data and a recei + Data communication refers tothe exchange of data berween a source via some form of transmission Mediu + The effectiveness of @ data communicate ven below: characteristics as gi aetiver data to the 0 1. Delivery: The system must received by the intended device oF et i tems depends on four fundame: rect destination. Data mus!Introduction to Networks Ot se. Comp. Selene) fhout any error, ver the dati a sm must ta accurately .€. 2 accuracy: THe tm must deliver data in a uely manner. Data delivered tay 3. Timeliness: The 8 Isa ceo the variation in te packet arrival time, Jer 5 the uneven + he dio or video packets. Ferny in the delivery of au i munic Definition of Data Com! ras ined as “the process of using computing ang , crnmureton technol one place to another, and vice versa” ie «+ pata communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver ia form of transmission media such as a wire cable (twisted-pair cable or coaxial cable) or wireless ( oR “The transfer or exchange of information from one computer to another is known as data communication”. 1.1.2 Components of Data Communication y_The purpose of data communications is to provide the rules and regulations that allow computers with different disk operating systems, languages, cabling and locations to share resources. + Data communication refers to the exchange of information/data between two devices through some form of wired or wireless transmission medium. + Data communication includes the transfer of data, the method of transfer and the preservation of the data during the transfer/exchange process. To initiate data communication, the communicating devices should be a part of a data communication system that is formed by the collection of physical equipment’s (hardware) and programs (software). data communication can be defi jogies to transfer data from A data communication system has five components namely sender, message, receiver, transmission medium, and protocol aré shown in Fig. 1.2. ¢ Receiver” Fig. 1.2: Components of Data Communications. 14 1.1.3 Data Representation + Data representation refers to the methods used internally to represent i stored in a computer. Information today comes in various forms video. 1 device that sends th Is the data message. tt can telephone handset andsoon. ne 6A Bet be ommn * Sound, or video- or any: ‘combination of these. om Medium: The transmiss ransmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. ea te ‘wire, coaxial cable, fiber tcoul ld be a twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that governs data commun represents an agreement eon the communtatng devs Miata proocl two devices may be connected but could not communicate, : A protocol refers to a set of rules (agreed upon by the sender and the rece ‘coordinates the exchange of information. A protocol isa set of data communication. Protocol is very important for networking communication cannot occur. A protocol is defined as, “a formal set of rules, conventions and data structure that governs how computers and other network devices exchange information over a network.” A protocol defines basic elements namely, Syntax (what is to be communicated?) Semantics (how it is to be communicated?) and Timing (when it should be communicated?) aan Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on. it can be computer, information like text, numbers, images, audio, and ‘Text; In data communication, text is represented asa bit pattern 2 stavenXe ce or Ie, Different sets of bit paterns have been designed to reDressn text symbols ‘The process of representing symbols i called coding. Today, Unicode Fc basa ‘i (ASCID) specifies « for Information Interchange : Aerie Sndard Ce Teale hrc en an ot lues in the world. ‘Numbers: Numbers are also 7 represent numbers. the number operations. patterns. ASCII is not used to ted by bit pas sted into binary to simplify is directly conve mathemé 1s Scanned with CamScanneried with CamScanner Scanni + Bsnpitot: Goo eee ec ¢ Bmp coe ee ey eed ee eee te seine Gee bor comer set © ees Ge & oie mee Ge ae Bg iSshmesisie oS Gee © Bo meee FGF a WW © fey Se eee emi mety Introduction to Networks Network Magy, 1 iecon of ata ae OE fi ee 4; > a Wonsaten 1.5: Full Duplex Communication Mode ynmunication simultaneously. ata communication. pensive and complex method. ‘Two bandwidth channels is required for data transmission. “A network is the interconnection of a set of devices (like a host (desktop, laptop, ‘workstation, smartphone) and/or connecting devices like router, switch, modem etc.). network is nothing more than two or more computers connected by a cable or by a wireless radio waves connection so that they can exchange information. + A communication network is a set of devices connected by channels on links and Drovides a service between users located at various geographical points. + Anetwork is defined as, “an interconnected collection of autonomous computers’. ‘Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are capable of exchanging information. 1.2.1 Computer Networks + Acomputer network isan in tion of computers and computing devices using elther wires or radio waves over small or large geographical areas, * Acomputer network refers toa collection of two or more com aputers (nodes) which are Connected together to share information and resources, +A network i Lae : the interconnection of a set of computing devices capable of + Anetworkis a Skin, (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication puter, printer, or any other device capabl le of t ‘nodes on the network, if ae are i called communication channels, The term™ mn Path between two communicating devices, Computer Networks 115.85. Comp. Slnes) Sotroduciono Network Hatwork Medals | Print d eN Scanned with CamScanner Fig. 1.6: Network Nodes and Links a set or collection of computing devi to communicate and share thelr resources with e @ group of interconnected computing can share resources, which is called + Computer network shows diagrammatic repre: Fig. 1.7: Computer Network (Wired and Wireless) 19eurodution to Networks & Network Moray like Ethernet, connected by cabl i 3 nodes cipnieh uses high-frequency Fado Ailes re eenreen ae wes comni e ecniee in compre nator ds ng Feflving Sree aan Suny i pel me _ acne terete, Bie um fi ots etlube ded the Munbet aor coro te newark component te intenance. ty: Defines th een them, Mean Time Between sured in a percentage based on the fore, uptime would be the number of inutes in a year. mn, and their reliability ofthe network components and the connectivity Failures (MTBF) is commonly used to measure jon of the network components and the data they .d between them. insmitted between network endpoints, (the data tuding Defines how well the network can adapt to new growth, new users, applications, and network components. Topology: Describes the physical cabling layout and the I between components. Integration: All the components of the network work in a coordinated manner for a searmless user experience. 9. Sharing: Computer networks enable sharing of files, and computing capabilities, 1.2.2 Definition of Computer Network + The old model of a single computer serving all of the organization's computational needs has been replaced by one in which a large number of separate but {interconnected computers do the job. These systems are called computer networks. * A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers and computing devices connected by communication channels that ‘facilitate communication among users and allow shared resources, * Acomputer network provides the facility of information exchange/transfer among th? - computers, connected toi. * Computer networking is a very important and crucial part of Information Technolo&Y (1D. Millions of computers are networked together to form the Internet. a FET) 1 way data moves software, hardware resources (51.85 Comp. Scinee) Introdcton te Network letwork Network Models * Networking plays an important role in medium sized, in banks, svhere computers are re be defined 28am interconnected Acoma evoke calleton of ttonomous on A computer network i "an inerconneetion of of computers nd computing equipment ke printer, scanner ete. using either wires or rad waves (riety wea hardware and software resources”. _ Fig, 1.8 shoves eyplel computer network Fig. 1.8: Typical Computer Network ‘+ The computer networks are playing an important role in providing services to large ot small or medium organizations as well as to the individual common man. ‘+ Network services are the things that a network can do. The major networking services are: 1. File Services: This includes file transfer, storage, data migr synchronization and achieving. 2. Printing Services: This service provides shared access to valuable printing devices. le update, us to centralize high profile applications to increase performance and scalability. 5. Database Services: This involves coordination of distributed data and replication. * To be considered effective and efficient, a’ computer network must meet a number of criteria. The most important of computer network criteria are performance, security and reliability. ind rellabhttey, iat Scanned with CamScanner+ Network se ; tine (propagation delay) end response 7 2 ee © Peres dace fom . Transitine isthe exoanftie eglred fr SETS eqwork. Response time in the necwor! ~ ingiy and aresponse. A ‘The performance of a newock depends on 2 number of fectors. Some of them ary exited below: © Type of Transmission Medium: which dete can travel through 2 are moving to faster and fase sssble fom mary poiey & oon be sucenchie wp A wifes is an Dicky octet cote Se demas Se megabits per second is 10 times ‘at only 10 megabits per second. pivteced fom vines ty heres acd sth & current users can slow response time in a computer sgced to coordinate heavy wefic loads. Wee pet rere ftmsperformance? = _all networks fall occasionally. & neneovk dat ts cen teneres Ss ficie wise (2 Sefowere: —— © ESSERE Sister proces daca at the sende,recever, and intermediate nodes Recovery Time ofa Network AfteraFalere: ce more perfarmance, © How lang does it ake t9 resire serve? A Ginscer nionck Get resees SoreES Siege fom nade ro node through a network requles procesing to cgoichy is mare useful han one that Goes oot Seer” {tt es tamminatie sigaks w mus thee gels we cnrstreghu Becta net THAT dee. andreas the gals nos Congures seuss mast he poweed fom eaergiit wes cot mE am earthquake or thet. ‘The sotiware that provides, ‘ —_ a oo Son Se nenreck ink A wel weed aes bath he speed andthe reais, © One protection again unforeseen Gamage i 2 nae geen = Rk Gesigned software can speed the process and ‘assniston more fecive and effienr - . a Scie 3.24 Physical Structures : Say faa fnhndet ina conpater network fet bath the speed and Before studying computer networks we need 1p define some nerweck =a OL Serene pee PA compe wid gener nonge _Oprefceanecenandehosctepogs as Scanned with CamScannersro or wore devices In & COMPLET NeRig > ransfers data from one device to anothe, be connected in some Way to the samy thwvay the link ‘or eommunieaton to occurs, wo devices mus re two yes of connections are Pol int and multipoint. Both types gy ss of connec connections describe a method to connect {WO Can ted devicesinodes is referred to as poiny. topoi + A poineto-point connection provides a dedicated link between the two devices/nodes as shown in Fig. 1.9. The entire capacity of the link is used for the transmission between those two devices. + The point-to-point connection is a unicast connection. There is a dedicated link between an individual pair of sender and receiver. 4 direct link between two devicesinodes such as a jon (See Fig. 1.9). change (elevision channels by using remote control, we int connection between the remote control and television. Workstation Fig. 18: Pointto-point Connection joint Connection: * Amultipoint connection is a ‘multidrop connection, © + In muleipoint connection, a single link i mimeo ae as shared by multiple devices, So, it can be said link between more than two devices. It is also known as Zxamples of multipoint connections are Ethernet and Bus topology based on LAN. 1s Fig. 1.10 shows a broadcast network. In Workstations share the common link bet 1.10 we can see that the three ‘mainframe and the workstations. Fig. 1.10: Broadcast Connection connection environment, the capacity of channel is shared, either iporally. called spatially shared ion. If users must take turns using the link, then it is called temporally shared or time shared connection. 1.2.4.2 Physical Topology Ee AI POR ONORY ase ttt . vord “topology” comes from “topos”, which is Greek word for “place.” The term ‘which a network is laid out physically + Network topology refers to the layout of a network and how different nodes in a network are connected to each other and how they communicate. + The topology of a network is defined as “the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (nodes) in a network”. + A physical topology describes the placement of network nodes and the physical connections between them. + The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. + Bus topology, star topology, ring topology, tree topology, mesh topology, etc. are the examples of physical topologies. 1.2.4.2.1 Star Topology + In star topology each device has a dedicated pointto-point link on it fo a central controller, usually called hub or switch. The devices are not directly connected to one another, ee : work first communicates with a central hub/switch th Each computer on a star network SS aia forwards the message either to all the computers or 0 ns Scanned with CamScannerconyers 18185 — central © Communication is controlled by # cent is generally’ ‘used in LANS. Fee. 4 Fig. L.11 shows star topolOgy ba. a ler (HublSWiteh) only. Star topo, Fig. 1.11: Star Topology 1, Easy to instal, reconfigure and wie. 2. Centralized management which helps in monitoring the network, 3. Fastas compared toring topology. 4. Multiple devices can transfer data without collision. 5. Eliminates traffic problems. 6. No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices. 2. More cabling is required than bus or ring topology, so more expensive. 3. Performance is dependent on capacity of the central device. 1.2.4.2.2 Bus Topology + Inbus topology, all nodes are connected to a central cable wh ich is called a bus. This bus als called Trunk or sometimes it was also referred toas Backbone cable, ‘which were further connected to * ‘ofa cable to create a contact with the ‘metallic core. gesagt a * Anode (computer) that wants to send data, _to the destination node, tputs the data on the bus which carries it * ii6 1.2.4.2.3 Ring Topology Sends a signal up the wire, al th , all the c the information, but only one accepts the information ‘The rest regrets the message, One computer can sen ‘must wait until the bus is free before itcan transmit, Fig. 1.12 shows a bus topology or network, mputers on the network n, Vda message ata time. A computer Fig. 1.12: Bus Topology Advantages: 1. Easy to install and setup. 2. Requires less cabling length than Mesh and star o cheaper in cost. 3. Fast as compared to ring topology, 4. Sufficient for a small network. Disadvantages: 1. Itcannot connect a large number of computers. 2. A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, 3. Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down, 4. Collision may occur. 5. Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably. 6. Used for only a small network. In ring topology, the computers in the network are connected in a circular feshion which form of a ring. In ring topology, each computer is connected to the next computer, with the last one ‘connected to the first or we can say each device is connected to other two devices with a dedicated link in one direction, from device to device. Each computer in the ring incorporates a repeater. When-a computer receives a signal intended for another computer, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them. a7 ee CL“ Scanned with CamScannerstent) 2 nt 18188 cong S808) Soognenenent tt 3. Adding or deleting a devie 4. Reduces chances of collision. 7 Fa tion 1. fone node goes dawn, it tak: 2. Slow in speed, 3. Reconfiguration is needed to a none dite ach computer has equal access to resources. 's performance is better than that of Bus topology. ces down the whole network, as Today Nghe Speed Lanyon Introduction te Network & Network Maa Depends on network | Yes, needs, Yes Network Depends o Dackbon« problematic node one by one, nodes fail, then each node has to be searched. Ease of adding or | Easy. Average, removing nodes ‘Number of nodes | Many. Limited. Limited, when extending network 1.2.4.2.4 Mesh Topology In a mesh network topology, each of the network nodes, computer and other devices, are interconnected with one another with dedicated point Kk. Dedicated means that a link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. So for N number of nodes, there will be a total n(n-1)/2 links required. ‘Mesh topology is usually implemented in fashion, as a backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid network include several other topologies. Fig. 1.14 shows a mesh topology. Mesh topology is used in WAN. dd nodes, the whe i Remntgurnton oe les the whole network must be down first. En i i jen Detween Bus, Ring and Star Topologies: “ { f | Terms B i ae pete Topology Ring Topology ‘Star Topology fl u I | Reece asin Allcomputers and | There isa central f a] other devices are ~ | host chub/swi 4 J {acbone and 1a) feonneced ina cide | and allnodes con __eenbeteimdcter | oring connect to it. (2) Full Mesh Topology (@) Partial Mesh Topology g 14; Mesh Topol 2 = Fig. 1.14: Mesh Topology = is Scanned with CamScannertworks & Ne Introduction to Nety LO wor 15185 Come, Sane ea ne of two connection arr $0 full mesh topo, 4 ‘+ -Amesh topology employs ed t0 ever other nog St becomes possible ¢, 1 Ina jement of nodes, the network, Due an sina rom one node to several other nodes, sieaneps transis mesh network, only some of the network nodes 3, aoe ar ee than one nade This is beneficial over a flly connected mesh» connected to more terms of redundancy cause bythe ponto-pont links berween all the nodes, ese cometion ancy iso data oa dv ta edt ink 2 linet pdms. 2 eth wang sous If on ik comes 4. Presta becaus of dds. lentification easy and simple. does not affect other 1, More cables are required than other topologies, 2. Overall cost ofthis network is very high, 3. Installation and recontfigu topology is very difficult. 5._Expensive due to hardware requirements such as cables, 1.2.4.2.5 Tree Topology + Asits name implies ‘ierarchical topology. ‘opology devices make a tree structure. Its also called . the characteristics of star and bus topology, works are connected using Bus, PY: 1 8 topoosy in cable seems like a main stem of a tee, topology, ‘Advantages: 1. Easy toinstall and wire, > Fast as compared to other topologies. Commonly used fn ths type of topology, Fig. 1.15 shows tree Computer Networks 5. Nodisruptions network then connecting or removing devices, 6. Easy to detect fi ts and to remove parts, °F pisadvantages: $ heavily onthe main bus cable, fit breaks the whole networks crippled, . More expensive than other topologies. The cabling cost is more. of the network depends on the typeof cable used. and more nodes and segments are added; the maintenance becomes Flg. 1.15: Tree Topology and other star networks as the 1.2.4.2.6 Hybrid Topology Hybrid, as the name suggests, is a mixture of two different things. A hybrid topology is 4 combination of two or more network topologies. The topology that combines more than one oploy called hyip, Two common examples for hybrid networks are star ring network and star of two or more star topologies connected using etek ee ‘Problems, ne b, : = mona \U) as a centralized hl : : A tw ected using a bus ; — sie é 2. A star-bus network consists of two or more star topologies connecte S ‘trunk (the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone) 120 12 Scanned with CamScannerGomputer Networks —115.¥.85. B.S Comp. Sconce) Introduction to | [ Nets 8 Network Modes ig. 1:46: Hybrid Topology cooting is easy in this type of topology. network by adding new components, withow tection and troubles se this topology can be designed according to the requirements ot the organization and by optimizing the available resources. 4. Hybrid topology isthe combination of two or more topologies, so we can design {in such a way that strengths of constituent topologies are maximized while the --——-— Fig. 1.18: Geographical Arrangement of LAN, WAN and MAN 1.2.5.1 Local Area Network (LAN) Weaknesses Disadvantages: + Local Area Networks (LANS) are privately-owned networks covering asmall 1. Hybrid topology i complex and dificult to design, seographical area, (less than 1 km) like a home, office or groups of buildings. 2 ‘Thehub seta connet ve dine networks are very expensive. + Depending on the needs of the organization and the type of technology used, a LAN 3. ashy : 4 canbeas simpleas two nd through . inieroreagneinarevancannate! , Shvnguraahmuninrrcearingacta 4. Hybrid topology also requires resources (printers, scanners) and exchange information. a lot se network devices, ete. Of ables, cooling systems, sophistt#™ . 1.1 ay computers housed locally within a bullding or a campus and interlinked by a single shared medium like cable (See Fig. 1.19). LANS are designed to allow resources to he shared between personal computers or Workstations, The resources to be shared can include hardware (eg, printer) software (e.g., an application program) or data. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics ie, thelr size, thelr transmission technology and their topology. 13 Scanned with CamScannerComputer Networke 148.¥s5 Generally, LAN w! snost common LAN topologles At fan LAN had data rates in the 10 | ess LANS a ‘wireless is called WI LWLAW helps us o ink single or multiple devices using wire t tmied aree like home, schoo}, or office bullding, Today most modern days Wlas systems are based on IEEE 802.11 standards. ‘On most LANs, cables are used to connect nodes like computers, showsa typcal LAN, + tanen a clty then this network is + MAN Is an extended! face of LA Interconnected with commuunteat + AMAN connects networks within a city or metropolitan s for MAN lies between 5 km to 50 km generally covers towns and cites + AMAN is designed for customers who need a high-speet Internet, and have endpoints spread over a ety or part of the ct + Im MAN networks data Is transmitted over one or two cables: A good @ MAN isthe part ofthe telephone company network that am provide a highspest St line to the customer. + ‘The MAN was designed and developed to cover an e greater compared to LAN setup. MAN can connect sever network (See Fig, 1.21). wr network that interconnects users printers, etc, Fig, Intemet ing devices spread over city are area, Geograph ‘and the range of MAN Is Ns to form a larger nti cl Scanned with CamScannerFig. 1.21: MAN * MAN can be owned by one private organization or public service comp: local telephone or cable television company. * By interconnecting smaller networks witht ‘aslly disseminated throughout the network, * Local libraries and rivate industries. * ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Modes) the technologies used in MAN, Advantages: 1. MAN spans a large connect many fast ne att ' fast LANs together. 1. Implementation 2. Speeds slow, . In MAN there are high chances of attackir LAN. So data ‘May be leaked, poe ae costs high. ‘Sovernment agencies often use a MAN Seographical area (to $0 km) than ween the LAN and W, handling data any such as "ge geographic area, information is to connect to citizens and ) FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) ete. are LAN, increases the efficiency of + WANs are characterized by the slowest di + WANs are commonly connect ‘+ The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the W * WAN contains a collection of machines used for running user Computer Networhs = (51.8 Se. Comp. Scenes) 1.2.5.3 Wide Area Networks (WAN) + TRenced forthe growth of computer neworks to Global roportions leads fo Area Network (Wan), Proportions leads tothe Wide umber of auton Ns SOMPUErS ore located over a large remote computers are loca main network, + A WAN provides long distance f data, voice image and video information over large geograpl may comprise @ country, a continent or even the whole world. MeN Lan eeeeraphlcally-spersed collection of LANs. A wide area network ts mply a LAN of LANs or Network of Networks, Ned in different geographical areas lata communication rates and the largest distances, either through ith phone companies or other service pro fernet or special arrangements made foday. Fig. 1.22 shows a typical WAN. Fig. 1.22: WAN programs. All the machines called hosts are connected by a communication subnet. * Fig. 1.23 shows communication Subnet and Host is WAN, Communication subnet Fig. 1.23: Communication Subnet and Host is WAN, 337 Scanned with CamScanneristo carry namely, m ane mac two or more trans hose a clther called as packet s 3 oF roUerS. router (0 store-forward oF pack jon devices, and ct polit WAN Is oft cenae in used (0 provide Internet access, Fig. 1.24 shows an ! Polntto-Polnt WAN ee *t WAN connects the end syste ackbone of global : ‘ystems and fs used in the bac f gl : ination of several poh “opolnt WANS that are connected by ed WAN, Exam .25 shows an example of a switch iples of do (ATM) network, Wireless WAN pence asynchronous transfor 3, Setting up a network can be an expensive and complicated experience, 1e network the more expensive Its. 4. Securlty 1s a real issue when many different people have the information from other computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and expense. 5, Slower than LAN and MAN. Difference hetween LAN, MAN and WAN: Parameters LAN WAN MAN 1. Stand for [Local Area Network. |Wide Area tan Area Network. Network. 2, Area covered Covers small area|Covers —_large|Covers larger areas hin the geographical [than LAN and! than| areas, ke|smaller. than WAN ke cles. country, state etc. = EP =) 129 Scanned with CamScannerModerate, Moderate. internet (with Fig. 1.11 show net const fice Fig. 1.26: An internetwork made up of Two LANs and One Point-to-Point WAN " most|Uses —_ moderay uses te expensive} expensive expensive | equipment. |ATM, FDDI etc, & Sark |Moderate, (i, Deana a Moderate, Diesen a Groene ‘Owned by private Ownership can be/Ownership can by] | a le ations. private or public. [private or public, . Complex and mor costly than LAN. | 1.25.4 Internetwork ear ‘+ When two or more separate networks are connected for exchanging data or resources, ro.Designingand | Easy | Maintenance e lation, they are connected to one 'n {Wo or more networks are connected, they become an internetwork of fernetwork is formed when distinct networks are interconnet cernet is nected. The int ection of individual networks, i an ons agen na comected by Sntermediate * For example, assume that an or y theotheron there coast” oBanlzation has two ofces, one on the east coast and + Bach 1s all employees in the office to communicate with each between employees at different offices : 2 possible, th sa ointt-pont dedicated WAN from a service provider see nes and connects the two LANs, om WANS is a switched WAN with four switches. coast office sends a message to anothe locks the message, but the switch directs the message to the — i WAN Mode " =o aoe Router pence = aos ie aimee QO oh tour WAN an Thee LA azrsameterogeneous Network mad Si ve th series of Tre Internet conn’ ‘+ Today most end users who want Service Providers (ISPs). There are international, national, providers. ‘gional and local service Scanned with CamScanner~—S Pee amen Slane cn he ee PS oem re that is set up within an organization and also controlled by the ner ‘anet is anetwork of internetwork or internetworking that is ore ae fa single organization or entity but which also has limited Sabet Ca networks of one or more other usually, but not necessarily, ee ocean or entities. Extranet is an extended intranet owned, operated ieee 1. Internetworks reduces network traffic. 1. The benefit of reduced traffic is optimized performance. ‘Network problems can be more easily identified and isolated in smaller networks, ‘8s opposed to one large network. 4, We can more efficiently span long distances by connecting multiple smaller 1.2.6 Switching * An internet is @ switched network in which a switch connects at least two links together. A switch needs to forward data from a network to another network when required. + The two most common types of switched ‘networks are circuit-switched network ané Packet switched network, 1.2.6.1 Circuit-Switched Network —— + In a cireuitswitched newon de : ile betraea ha re ety a dedicated connection, (called a circuit) is alway" + Fig. 1.28 sho aise + There are following two vari 1, Intra ‘Systems; the switch can only make it active or inactiv®: “very simple switched network that connects four telephones to e2 ‘We have used telephone sets instead of switching was very common in teepnon telephone network today is apackerewrn OmpULETS as an end system because circu! s etworks in the past, although part of ched network, oa Computer Networks -1(5:¥.8 $c. Comp.Scence) Introduction to an letwork Models the four telephones at each side are cone side ae connected taste, Th hone set at one side toa telephone set at the other side, ae ‘Tag switches used in this example have forwarding tasks but no storing ‘capability, — Tow-capacity ine = — Hoheapacty tne Fig. 1.28: A Circuit Switched Network Let us look at following two cases in a circuit-switched network: Case 1: In this case, all telephone sets are busy; four people at one site are talking with four people at the other sit; the capacity of the thick line is fully used. Case 2: In this case, only one telephone set at one side is connected toa tele- phone set at the other side; only one-fourth of the capacity ofthe thick line is used, * This means that a circuit-switched network is efficient only when itis working at its fall capacity; most ofthe time, itis inefficient because itis working at partial capacity. ‘+ The reason that we need to make the capacity ofthe thick line four times the capacity of each voice line is that we do not want communication to fll when all telephone sets at one side want to be connected with al telephone sets atthe other side. 1.2.6.2 Packet-Switched Network ee ire Network erat ig * Ina computer network. the communication between the wo ends is done in blocks of data known as packet ous communication we see between two telephone sets when they are being used, we see the exchange of individual data packets between the two computers. * This allows us to make the switches function for both storing and forwarding because 4 packet is an independent entity that can be stored and sent later. + Fig. 1.29 show a small packet-switched network that connects four computers at one computers at the other site. in a packet-switched network has a queue that can store and forward the Ea § § 3 FEry Scanned with CamScannerrouter when the thick lin he stored and forwarded in the order the} Dut the packets may en — Tow-capaciy line — high-capacity line uove Oo! Fig. 1.29: A Packet Switched Network 1.2.7 Internet, internet is derived from the words ‘interconnection’ and ‘networks’, The rk is a collection of two or more computers, which are connected together to share information and resources. ‘The Internet isa worldwide system of computer networks, je. network of networks. ‘Through the Internet, computers become able to exchange information with each ‘other and find diverse perspectives on issues from a global audience. TheInteretis the global system_of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCPIIP) to communicate between networks and devices. + The Internet is anetwork of networks that consists of private, public, academic, Fig. 1.30 shows a conceptual _ business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. ‘An internet (note the low is two or more networks that can communicate with {internet is called the Internet (uppercase 1) and is mmnected networks. 2s e t geographical) view of the Internet which shows the ernet as several békbones, provider networks, and customer networks, top level, the backbones are large network: i ‘companies like Sprint, Verizon (MCD, AT&T, and so. =— By some commanteaicn ometines to ohe provider rks at the edge of the ls actually use the services provided by + The customer networks pay fees to provid Backbones and provider networks ar ‘The backbones are often referred to ig. 1.30: The Internet Today 1.2.7.1 Accessing the Internet * Internet access is the ability of individuals and organizations to connect to computers, and other devices; and to access World Wide Web (WWW). sold by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) delivering connectivity at a transfer rates via various networking technologies. + The Internet today is an internetwork that allows any user to become part of it. The user, however, needs to be physically connected to an ISP. The physical connection is normally done through a point-to-point WAN. + Inthis section we will study various ways to access the Internet. leona amen eae 135 Scanned with CamScanner1. Using Telephone Networks: . rosy ‘a number of residences and small businesses/organizations have telephone service, which means they are connected to a telephone network. already connected themselves to the Internet, cone option for residences and small businesses/organizations to connect to the Internet is to change the voice line between the residence or business and the telephone center toa point-to-point WAN. + This can be done in following two ways: (@ Dial-up Service: Dial-up connection uses telephone lines to connect PCs to the internet. It requires a modem to set up dial-up connection. This modem works as an interface between PC and the telephone line. The modem connects the ‘computer through the standard phone lines, which serves as the data transfer medium. The modem converts data to voice. The software installed on the computer dials the ISP and imitates making a telephone connection, , the dial-up service is very slow, and when the line is used for it cannot be used for telephone (voice) connection. It is only useful for small residences, Fig. 1.31 shows typical dial-up connection. ‘Since, most telephone networks hi Intemet Service Provider Telephone Line Computer 4 Fig, 1.1: Dial-up Connection/Access of Internet Hea bar Line (DSL) service provides a connection ‘to the te telephone network. Unlike dial-up, DSL can operate using @ ities si without preventing normal use of the telephone line for voice “the line are let rec i Hequencies, while the low (eudible) frequencies of Internet, some nano Sula" telephone communication. Since the advent of the some telephone companies have upgraded their telephone lines to services to residences or vice “also allows the line to be used imunication. Faster forms of DSL, are als0 subscriber Line (HDSL), Very High Data Rate (i) DSL Service: _ simultaneously for voice and data com: available like High Data Rate Digital g Digital Subscriber Line «vj Symmetric DSL (SDSL) and s ‘ypical residential psi, HSL Asymmetric Digital subs ° on. Fig. 1.32 shows a sample ei Line (apst), inection diagram for DSL Modem Evemet cant inyour be. Fig. 132: Typical Residential DSL. Connectiow/Access of internet Here, are some key points to note in Fig. 1.32: © Connect your DSL modem's data connection to the phone jack ona © Connect the DSL modems Ethernet connection to the Ethernet card on your Pc. @ When you connect other telephones or fax machines on the same phone line, {install a micro-filter between the wall plate and each ofthese devices, .. Using Cable Networks: Now-a-days many cable television companies use some percentage of thelr network's bandwidth to provide internet access through prevailing cable television connections. * Since this connection uses a special cable modem, itis called “Cable Modem Service’, A cable modem can be added to or integrated with a set-top box that provides the TV set for Internet access. * Cable television systems transmit data via coaxial Much as 100 times faster than common telephone lines. * More and more residents over the last two decades have begun using cable TV services instead of antennas to receive TV broadcasting. * The cable companies have been upgrading their cable networks and connecting to the Internet, A residence or a small business can be connected to the Internet by using this service, ‘+ Itprovides a higher speed connection, but the speed varies depending on the number of neighbors that use the same cable. fences ee ee 137 le, which can transmit data as Scanned with CamScannerNetworks Bc Metwork Introduction to itworbs =... Comp. se perator. wo for Internet service Intornat a> y owas |8 4 Teno wart ayer y oy i Exinnaierart spam From ge ‘y Internet 8 growlng wireless WAN access, a hous ‘rontiected wo the Internet through» Wi * A WWAN aecepts and transmits dat on ve s connection offers high speed connection to te Jiernet connection namely one-way eo connection, Scanned with CamScannertroductlon to Networks & Network Mody Is & Wireless MAN (UMAN) technol logy. Waa can provide se tenet aces aeros whale cles orenuttes nn mar tame for a greater number of use WiMax Internet acess 42 used by busneses ed by busneseslorganizaions to dedicated service for Internet access as well as ieee sharing, web hosting, data backup video and won, 1.2.8 Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Network CConvenfonal Pron gabe ie «The ability to exchange data and communicate eff networking computers. Oh Advantages of Computer Network: 1. Easy Communication: A computer network Oh computers ata different locaton to communica [a ommunfeate with each other using em conferencing, chat rooms, blogging etc. 2. Ability to Share Files, Data and Information: The computer network has the ty to share datajfiles and information to users or computers connected to the network. ible Access: Access of files from computers throughout the world, and 247 environment. 4, Backup and Recovery: Generally, in networking the server is placed in a secure place and the good mechanism is providing for backup of data. Ifthe data fs lost accidentally or due to any other reason, then itis possible to restore them from the server. 5. Sharing Hardware: By using networking we can share the hardware resources in an organization and anywhere. For an example, @ printer can be shared among the users in a network so that there's no need to have individual printers for each and every computer in the organization. This will significa reduce the cost of purchasing hardware. 6. instant and Multiple Accesses: Computer networking enables multiple users 10 cece the same data-at the seme time from a same or remote yoxtlan. For example, a World Wide Web (WWW) in which everyone can acco ® web page frome different location and read the same information ta same time, 1. Sharing Software: Users can share software within the network cas Neuvorkable versions of software are availabe at considerable savings compat Business Fig. 1.36: Direct Internet Connection/Access of Internet + Today, Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WIMAX) is one of the popular wireless technology. Fig, 1.37: WiMax Internet Connection/Access of Internet TAL Scanned with CamScannerIntroductlon to Networks & Network Mody, er Networks 1(5¥.85e. Comp. Sten) omy o individually Heensed versions of the same software, Therefore, large s of re e by networking their organizations can reduce the cost of buying softwar computers. Security: Network secu protecting data from unauthorize network can be password protected. Only auth ‘a computer network. speed: Sharing and transferring files within networks is very rapid (fast, ending on the type of network. This will save time while maintaining the rity issues consist of prevention from virus attacks and 1d access. Sensitive files and programs on a rized users can access resources In ep integrity of files. Disadvantages of Computer Network: 1. Expensive to Build: Building a network {s complex and time consuming for large scale organizations. 2, Virus and Malware: Viruses can spread on a network easily, connectivity of workstations. 3. Lack of Robustness: If the mai the entire system becomes down and useless. 4, Needs an Efficient Handler: The technical skills and knowledge required to operate and administer a computer network. 5, High Cost: The investment for hardware and software can be costly for up of computer networks. 6. Security Threats: Security threats are always problems with computer networks. There are hackers who are trying to steal valuable data/information of large organizations for their own benefit, Applications of Computer Network: 1. Marketing and Sales: Computer networks are used extensively in both marketing and sales organizations. Marketing professionals use them to collect, exchange, and analyze data related to customer needs and product development cycles. Sales eae includes teleshopping, which uses order-entry computers or iones connected to order processing networks, and o services for hotels, aiines and so on. 7" ase <2. Financ ' . ae i eS Today's financial services are totally dependent on computer ‘Retworks. Applicaton includes eredit history searches, foreign exchange and feaeee nae ee fea transfer, which allow users to transfer ank (an Automated Teller Machin i - example of electronic nd transfer automatic pay-check i another), ete = ASE ———————____—— because of the inter- le server of a computer network breaks down, 1 set- [Computer Networks -1(5.¥.8 Se. Comp. Sconce) Introduction to Networks & Network Modes 3. Manufacturing: Computer networks are used in many aspect including the manufactring precers oat Twe then at oe meee provide esendal serves are CompiterAded Des (CAD) ad tence Aasisted Manufacturing (CAND, both of which allow mulpe esto work os & project simultaneously. 4, Directory Services: Directory services allo n to speed worldwide search opera ists of files to be stored in a central ludes bulletin boards offering technical specification for a new product is an information service. ;. Electronic Data Interchange (EDD: EDI allows business information, including documents such as purchase orders and invoices, to be transferred without using Scanned with CamScanner paper. Electronic Mail: Probably its the most widely used computer network application. : Teleconferencing allows conferences to occur without the participants being in the same jpplications include simple text conferencing (where participants communicate through their normal keyboards and monitor) and video conferencing where participants can even see as well as talk to other fellow participants. 9. E-Commerce: Computer networks have paved the way for a variety of business ‘and commercial transactions online, popularly called e-commerce. Users and organizations can pool funds, buy or sell items, pay bills, manage bank accounts, pay taxes, transfer funds and handle investments electronically. [2.3 [NETWORK SOFTWARE «© Incomputer networks, not only the hardware but software fs also very important. For communication between devices, hardware and software both are required. «Traditional networks were hardware based with software embedded. Network software is now highly structured. + Network software encompasses @ broad ra implementation, and operation and monitoring o! «Networking software, in the most basic sense, is so interacts with a computer network. while another type of networking software provides users access 0 shar m3 — «Networking software is a key component of today’s computer networks, ee ORE x |. Teleconferencit nge of software used for design, f computer networks. eware that facilitates, enhances orIntroduction to Networks & Network Mody, 115.8 Comp. Selene) computer Neon: emvork sofware Is a general phrase for software that is designed to help set up, + Netw KS. andlor monitor computer networ aaa a atare appeaten are avait manege and MONO NEOWORES Ar siaes, from ehe smallest home networks to the largest enterprise networks. Functions of Network Software: Helps to set up and install computer networks. 2, Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless manner. . 3. llows administrations to add or remove users from the network. 4. Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access that data. 5. Helps administrators and security systems to protect the network from data breaches, unauthorized access and attacks on a network. With the advent of Software Defined Networking (SDN), software is separated from the hardware thus making it more adaptable to the ever-changing nature of the computer network. 1.3.1 Protocol Hierarchies ESE Protocol Hlorarchles “sti ies tt nignied Maevanien 2 Ina computer network, many devices are connected to each other. Every computer is ‘working as a source or destination or intermediate machine. Itis also possible that a computer is simultaneously performing all these jobs. As a source, destination or intermediate machine certain predefined jobs a computer has to Perform. The entire structure of a computer network is complex. Zr reduce their design complexity, networks are organized as a stack of layers or levels, each one built upon the one below it. Ze number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer and the function of each layer differ from network to network. Each layer offers certain redefined services o higher layers and taking services from lower layers, The basic concept of layering network rest it neept ofl sponsibilities is that each I services provided by sets of lower layers. hel In this way, the highest level is distrbuted dats application, tM fll set of services needed to run a y the source logically (but not the destination and layer n of Computer Networks ~1(5.¥ 8.5. Comp. Seance) Iotroductlon to Networks Network Mode +A protocol is an agreement betwé communication is to proceed, + A ffivelayer network is shown in Fig. 1.38, Th layers on different machines are called peers. + The peers may be processes, hardware devic that communicate by using the protocol ‘+ Inreality, no data are directly transferred from la another machine, + Each layer passes data and control information tothe layer immediately below it, untit the lowest layer is reached. Below layer 1 is the physical medium through ‘which actual communication occurs. + In Fig. 1.38 virtual communi communication by solid lines. + Between each pair of adjacent layers 1s an interface. The interface defines which primitive operations and services the lower layer gives tothe upper layer. A set of layers and protocols i called a network architecture The details of implementation and the specification of the interfaces is not part o architecture because they are hidden inside the machines and not visible fron outside. A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called a protoce “~ a ‘een the communicating’ parties on how fe entities comprising the corresponding 5 or even human beings. Its the peers 'yer N on one machine to layer non fs shown by dotted lines and physical Lovers Jo Her Sprcocol > [avers Layer a intortac T Layer Tfe-—Laver 4 protec Tavera Layer 34 itortce t Layer) Layer Layer 29 neroco i Layer 2} -~Layec2 protocol ___,| tw vztaeia 7 7 Layer? Jo -—bevee potent i { Physical Medium Fig. 1.98: Layers, Protocols and Interfaces 145) Scanned with CamScannercomputer Networks 115.85. Comp, Senet) derstand the ide of multilayer communication, consider the example of poy + To unders office. Receiver 8 g = Thetis dom, Laermer Higher | removed tombe Geppecinaratvx| 0S | eibpedmad Thole scaled Thole cried fromtremarox | M86 | fom tye post oes Toapostonce | '7°. | "oem box Teles cehees ] age | TH Rani doled ‘otwearar | Lover | tome corer tye peste | 70% | tw posemee “The ete is cared fom the ‘source othe Gastnation| Fig. 1.39 * Now, we will discuss a more technical example of how to provide communication to the top layer ofthe fivelayer network. * A message M, is produced by an application process running in layer $ and given to Jayer4for transmission. Layer 4 adds a header parte. control information in front of the message and passes the message to layer 3, * The control information may include se i nati quence number, sourc address, total number of bytes etc, cee aa . if assume that layer 3 is not able to handle la coming messages into smaller units (Packets), a ding layer 3 head {olayer 2. In our example, Mis split into two. a + Layer 2 adds not only a header, but oe et, but also a trailer: irge data, so layer 3 breaks-up the wi layer no. 1 for physical transmi Ab a is also a control information) ‘+ At the receiving machine, the mes _from layer to layer. sage 's received by layer 1 and then moves: upward Computer Networks ~1(5.¥.8.5e. Comp. Slence) ‘+ Every layer removes the header sender's machine, None of the hes Layer 5 Introduction to Networks & Network Modala Part attached by the corresponding lay i layer from the ‘ders for layers below n are passed upto layer n. cacs mre sdae oy ‘Source machine Destination machine Fig. 1.40: Data Flow between Machines 1.3.2 Design Issues of the Layers ‘+ Anetwork consists of a series of levels called layers, The various Key design issues are Present in several layers in computer networks, ‘+ Some of the main design issues in layers are as fol 1 . Data Transfer Methods: ‘Addressing: Every layer needs a mechanism for identifying senders and receivers. In computer networks from many computers, some of which have multiple processes, some sort of mechanism is needed for a process on one machine to specify with whom it wants to talk. As a consequence of having multiple destinations, some form of addressing is needed in order to specify a specific destination. transfer means sending data from one compi another, In computer networks, data transfer can be of three modes i. half duplex and fall duplex. Error Control: Error control is an important issue because physical communication channels are not perfect. Many error-detecting and error- correcting codes are known, but both ends of the connection must agree on which one is being used. The receiver must have some way of telling the sender which messages have been correctly received and which have not. Flow Control: If the sender is fast compared to the receiver, the issue occurs at ‘every layer is how to keep a fast sender from swamping a slow receiver with data. mpl a ee eee ee a 1A7 Scanned with CamScannerIneroduction to Networks &NERWOrK Mody, enor 11518 5e Comp, EN) les agree upon the data rate to control the flow. Anothe, f feedback from the receiver to the sender about the i subject is called flow control. ne solution is both enti solution involves some kind of rent situation. Thi eanaerettng and Reassembling of Messages: Another problem that must be * ved at several levels isthe inability of all processes to accept arb sortages One solution isto divide long messages into multiple small messages, transmit them and combine them at the receiving end 6. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: When itis inconvenient or expensive to set up ‘a separate connection for each pair of communicating processes, the underlying layer may decide to use the same connection for multiple, unrelated conversations, This is known as multiplexing, Multiplexing is needed in the physical layer. Routing: When multiple paths between source and destination are available, a route must be chosen depending upon certain criteria, Criteria may be current traffic or situation of the subnet. Criteria is called a routing protocol and this process is called routing. Order of Messages: Not ali communication channels preserve the order of ‘messages sent on them. To deal with possible loss of sequencing, the protocol must make explicit provision for the receiver to allow the pieces to be reassembled properly. 9. Seal Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually ‘increasing leading to congestion, Also, when new technologies are applied to the added components, it may lead to incompatibility issues. Hence, the design should ‘be done so that the networks are scalable and can accommodate such additions ‘and alterations. 0, Security: A major factor of data communication isto defend it against threats like avesdropping and surreptitious alteration of messages. So, there should be idequate “mechanisms to prevent unauthorized access. to data through nuthentcation and cryptography. ee dieeatis Computer networks provide services in the form of network. TeICUEe toprocenanes me Tain design issue isto allocate ‘and deatocate hese 2 location/deallocation should occur so that minimal é we among the hosts occurs and there is optimal usage of the resources. 4.3.8 Connection-Oriented and Connection. ~ Layers can offer two types of ser + oriented service and connection te -less Services ices to the layers above them. i 0 name); tion- ss service, te Computer Networks -1(5:.85e. Comp. Selenca) todvetlon to Networks fe Hatwork 1 Models im 1.3.3.1 Connection-Oriented Services —seemenontrientedSerices In conn vorlented service, logical connection is established between communicating parties. Connection oriented service fs modeled after the telephone system. In the telephone system, when we want to make a dial the number, after that connection is estab phone. fe have to pick up the phone, |, use that connection and then oriented network service, the service user first establishes a connection, uses the connection and then releases the connection, Once, the connection is established between source and destination, the path is fixed. The data transmission takes place through this path established. The order of the ‘messages sent will be the same at the receiver end. Services are reliable and there is no loss of data, Most of the time, reliable service provides acknowledgement as an overhead and adds delay. Basic Working Concept of Connection-Oriented Service: ‘The connection-oriented service first establishes the virtual connection between the source and the des ‘Then transfers all data packets belonging to the same message through the same dedicated established connection and after all packets of a message are transferred it releases the connection. 1: Connection-oriented Service To establish a connection a source sends a request packet to the destination. 1p response to which destination sends the acknowledgement packet to the sourc confirming that the destination is ready to accept the data from the source, 149 Scanned with CamScannerInvroducion to Networks & Network Mog, eens = 1161 Se Comp. Seance) and acknowledgement packs ; the exchange of request + Theroutersinvolved in ne ath that will be followed by 3. penveen source and destination, define the virtual pi packets belonging tothe same message. “Advantages of Connection-oriented Services: 41, These services provide guaranteed delivery of data 2. This service is more reliable than connectionless services. 3, Some connection oriented services will monitor for lost packets and hand resending them. Disadvantages of Connection-oriented Services: 1, Aconnection must require. 2. These services have more overhead than connectionless service. 3. Complex method for data transferring. 1.3.3.2 Connection-less Services Connection-less service is modeled after the postal system. In this type of services, no connection: ablished between source and destination. Here, there is no fixed path. Therefore, the messages must carry a full destination address and each one of these messages are sent independent of each other. ‘Messages sent will not be delivered at the destination in the same order. Thus ‘grouping and ordering is required at the receiver end, and the services are not reliable. * There is No acknowledgement confirmation from the receiver. Unreliable connectionless service is often called datagram service, which does not return at acknowledg igement to the sender. : peer Bats connection to send one short message is needed. Bu! es and then acknowledgement data; ri these applica ge gram service can be used for Basic Working Concept of Connection-less Service: a different path. Fig. 1.48 Five Layers inthe TOPIP Reference Made! + TCPaP sands for Transmission Control ProtocoVinternet Protocol. The TCPAP moll _ Ted ree da cn PTERIN F Defense DoD) to connect muliplenewsows 3.4.2.3 Layered Structure of TCP/IP z © TepiPs an indusrystandard protec! suite for Wid je Area Networks GVANS) * ererandanns petal tel and set of communeatons protocols used on "developed inthe 150s and 180s by eS DeperementeéDefewe DED. + The TOPAP protoeal suite establish + TPP is not one protec, but is a suite of many protocis The protocis dene boca sults ais exted ies the technical foundation of the Internet. TCP? applications, controls nenworking, rowing and network manages ‘The TORT Seo led the Internet protocol sue «The TCPIP is a set of protocols, or a protoce! suite, that defines how al] ranszissions + The TCRAP ia protocol suite ; ; % a {2 sof protocols organized in diferent layers) used? are exchanged across the Internet. ae int itis a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each! * TCPIP protoccl suite contains five layers. To beter un layer, we need to think about the logical connectichs berween layers, e The term hierarchical means that each uj . |) connections in simple internet. ; ipper level protocol ee Fig. 1.49 shows logical conn services provided by one or marelowerlevel protocels, » is supported by 1 oe eee eee we seer proves = : ie Scanned with CamScannerDestination host AD Psteaten Tolinks Fig. 1.49: Logical Connection between Layers of the TCP/IP Protocol + Using logical connections in TCP/IP protocol suite makes it easier for us to think aboy * the duty of each layer. As the Fig. 1.49 shows the duty of the application, transport, and network layers is ers toend. However, the duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-to-hop, in which a hops @ host or router. In other words, the domain of duty of the top three layers internet, and the domain of duty of the two lower layers is the link. Transpot Network Neto Data fink Dats bot 1.4.2.2 Functions of Each Lay ‘+ Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable or ns Computer Networks -1(5:.85e. Comp, Selene) Introduction to Networks Network Modele + Another way inections in TCP/IP network-model is think, \ould not be changed by any router or ‘0 layers of TCP/P p: Dy the routers, not by th er of TCP/IP Reference Model —_——reNyEr OF TCPAP Reference Model + After understanding the concept of logical communication, we are ready to briefly diy ‘cuss the dutyifunction of each layer in TCP/IP network model. layer Gowest level) in TCP/IP network model is responsible for carrying (sin a frame across the link. 4s still a logical ation because there is another, hidden layer, the transmission media, under je need to know that the transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries electrical or optical signals. So the bits received in a frame from the data-link layer are transformed and sent ‘through the transmission media, but we can think that the logical unit between two physical layers in two devices isa bit. ‘There are several protocols that transform a bit to a signal, including Ethernet, Token ring (820.3), FDI, X.25, Frame relay. ‘An internet is made up of several links (LANs and WANs) connected by routers. There jon. The routers are responsible for choosing the best links * However, when the nest link to travel is determined by the router, the datadlink layer in TCPAP protocol suite is responsible the link, ‘The link can be a wited LAN with a link: a wireless WAN. We can also have different protocols used with any link type. In each case, the data- ink layer is responsible for moving the packet through the link. ‘TCPAP does not define any specific protocol for the data-link layer. It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols. taking the datagram and moving it across switch, a wireless LAN, a wired WAN, or ee se 187 Scanned with CamScanner; eng nwa SYS and ca taketh datagram an da .k layer takes a data-gram ‘+ Any protocol that ca and encapsulates network layer. The calleda frame. + Each linklayer protocol provide complete error detect «Examples of data-link layer protocols a Point Protocel (PPP) framing. 3. Network Layer: othe network layer In TCPMP protocol suite is responsible for creating a connecy, sae en the source computer and the destination computer. The communication» the network layer is host-to-host. + However, since there can be several routers from the source to the destination, ., routers in the path are responsible for choosing the best route for each packet, + The network layer is responsible for hostto-host communication and routing & packet through possible routes. +The network layer in the Internet includes the main protocol Internet Protocal ¢p that defines the format of the packet, called a datagram at the network layer. IP ax defines the format and the structure of addresses used in network layers. ‘+ \IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its source to its destination, which: achieved by each router forwarding the datagram to the next router in its path. ‘+ tPis a connectionless protocol that provides no flow control, no error control, and congestion control services. ‘+ The network layer in TCP/IP protocol suite also has some auxiliary protocols that he} IP in ts delivery and routing tasks. Some of them are: (© The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) helps IP to report son problems when routing a packet. Gi) “The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) helps IP in multitasking. Gil) The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) helps IP to get the net layer adress fora host. dv) The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) helps IP to find the link Jayer address¢ ‘a host or a router when its network-layer address is given, 4. ‘Transport Layer: . a pe connection at the transport layer in TCP/IP Protocol suite is also end-to-e" fe transport layer at the source host gets the message from the application encapsulates it in a transportlayer packet (called nd different protocols) and sen¢ SAgrisnE OF aypses,daiabTe fitters through the logical (imaginary) connection, (0 ~ transport layer at the destination host, = 168 may provide a different service. Som tian and correction, some provide only error correc wre Ethernet, IEEE 802.2 framing and Po) of ye + In other words, the transport layer in TCP/IP protocol sulte is responsible for giving @ message from an application program the corresponding application program on lesigned for some ‘There are a few transport layer protocols in the Internet, specific task. The main protocol of transport layer is Transmission Control Protocol rer). TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that first establishes a logical connection between transport layers at two hosts before transferring data. TCP creates a logical pipe between two TCPs for transferring a stream of bytes. ‘TCP provides flow control (matching the sending data rate of the source host with the receiving data rate of the destination host to prevent overwhelming the destination), (0 guarantee that the segments arrive at the destination without error reduce the loss of the corrupted ones), and congestion control segments due to congestion in the network. + The other common transport layer protocol is User Datagram Prot connectionless protocol that transmits user datagrams without first creating a logical connection. In UDP, each user datagram is an independent entity without being related to the previous or the next one (the meaning of the term connectionless). UDP isa simple protocol that does not provide flow, error, or congestion control. UDP's simplicity, which means small overhead, is attractive to an application program that needs to send short messages and cannot afford the retransmission of the packets involved in TCP, when a packet is corrupted or lost. Anew protocol, Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is designed to respond to new applications that are emerging in the multimedia, Application Layer: Fig. 1.49 shows the logical connection between the two application layers is end-to- end. The two application layers’ exchange messages between each other as though there were a bridge between the two layers. However, we should know that the communication is done through all the layers. nat the application layer is between two processes (two programs xyer). To communicate, a process sends a request to the other process (UDP), UDP is a + Communi running and receives a response. + Process-to-process communication is the duty of the application layer. The appli in the Internet includes many predefined protocols, but a user can also create a ‘of processes to be run at the two hosts. tion, 16 Scanned with CamScannerIntroduction to Networks 8 Netw he the Wong compute Networks (SBC CE accessi wy is a vehicle fo The HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Web avww ‘or Web). The Simple Mail ‘Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the main Prot, used in electronic mail (e-mail) service. ; \ «|The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for transferring files from one host to anon, Presetaton Sai fad waa > ‘The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH) are used for accessing = roo 2 remot 5 «The Simple Neqwork Management Protocol (SNMP) is used by an administra, Transport Taween_] } Servers 2 manage the Internet at global and local levels. Tela oo & «The Domain Name System (DNS) Is used by other protocols to find the networks, woot] } hort proton = address of a computer. The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is Used ‘ae ‘Dean 3 collect membership in a group. == — rca Lan an at g 4.4.3 Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Models ‘O51 Model ‘TePnP Protocol Sue 8 «Following table compare OSI reference model and TCP/IP model: uly F%8: 2-51: Compmrtves Discreet 0 OS ae Reference(Models a 14.4 Connection Devices in different Layers a7 OSI Reference Model TCP/IP Model a es — a gE A an meee Ge! No. + Computer network connecting devices are physical devices which are required for Jost refute Open Systems| TCP refers to Transmission coon , communion and interaction between devices on a computer network. aati rosacal hiersiet Protocdl, +The network devices are playing an important role in network communication, each device has a different role. 2. | OSI model had Seven (7) layers. ‘TCP/IP model has five (5) layers. Network Connecting Devices for OSI Model: 3.__| OSLis less reliable. ‘TCP/IP is more reliat «Fig. 1.52 shows positions of network devices in OSI model. 4. [Developed by ISO (International | Developed by the Department of Defers coor Ca i eee ‘Standard Organization). (ob). ais Le os Sesten 5. J ostisa conceptual model. TCP/IP is a client-server model, i. Whe — | eae the client requests for service it is provide! Trecepert ao . by the server. nore | ef = | Fees ink, | Bridge _J 6. | Protocol independent standard, _| Protocol dependent standard. Bae fed | ropeater LEE) pst 7._Josttollows a h Prysical - . follows a horizontal approach. | TCP/IP follows a vertical approach. Fig, 1.52: OSI Model and Position of Networking Devices 8. [OSI model follows a. bottom-up] TCP/IP follows a top-bottom approach. + Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines and approach. other electronic devices to a network are called network devices. th the" O5r- mle modal'was|tn the TCeIP model, protocol wet, °, Without network devices a computer network cannot be made and work. F Following developed before the development | developed first and then the model ™™ T° the list of network devices shows thelr ned and importance in neo ne a . 1. Hub: Hub is important because it broadcasts data from one port 10 0" © er of protocols. developed. in the network. A hub works on the physical ayer (Layer 1) of the OSI model. La Go. [Model describes any type of|Model only describes TCP/IP which "| dene lobe with 4, 8; 12, 24, 48 ports A hub is & networking device whi useful for describing any other networls <1 mnds it to multipl receives signal from the source, ampules andl sends Itt0 multiple desing, ‘computers. meaning directly from, this a small hardware ge mone Local Area Nene (LAN). Network switches operate at layer two Link Layer) of then Inodel. A network switch canbe defined as the device that connects the neg’ devices or network segments. Switches available with 4, 8, 12, 24, 48, 64 ports. of input sign, that operates ¢, model. A repeater is an electronic device that recen Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that, signal can cover longer distances. 4. Router: A router is a networking device that forwards data packets betvey computer networks. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on g Internet. A router operates in the Network, Data link, and Physical layers of Ost model. 5. Gateway: Needed when two differ Gateway acts as translator switch-intel Particular port, Gateway works on all seven. a network device used lar networks, In networkiy parlance, networks that use different protocols are dissimilar networks: 6 Bridge: A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates aggregate network from multiple communication networks or network segmers ‘his function is ealled network bridging. Bridging Is distinct from routing, Rov! allows multiple networks to communicate independently and yet remain sept whereas bridging connects two separate networks as if they were a 4 Damon K works at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model and connect aaa ee tog bean Sete ormunfetlon between them fone eure ‘ork arewireless, the device 1s known 1s used in to send data point to poi 3, Repeater: The repeaters are used it necessary. A repet etwork technologies are being usd device which sends data 191 f the OSI model. Gateway: when its being recelved by the computer, . ae ae ——————_— Intrduction to Networks Network Models Network Connecting Devices for TCP/IP Model: Interface Cards ‘The devices used in the Network layer of TCP/IP model are Router, Brouter ete. The devices used in ‘The devices used in the Application layer of TCP/IP model are Phones, Servers, The TCP/IP model is based on a five-layer model for networking. of two devices. teal layer are, Ethernet, Hub, Repeaters etc. k layer of TCP/IP model are Bridges, Modem, Network insport layer of TCP/IP model are Gateway, Firewall etc. Gateways etc. PRACTICE QUESTIONS 1. A network of networks is called an ile Choice Questions: ‘Which {s refers to the exchange of data between two devices through some form of wired or wireless transmission media? (@) Data communication (©) Data transfer Which is an interconnection of computers and co! wires or ratio waves and can share data and compt (a) Data Communication () Comput (© Data Transmission Which means the transfer of information between humans, computers or machines in a meaningful way? (@) Communication (©) Data exchange (b) Networking (@)_ None of these ing equipment using either (b) Networking (@)_ None of these ernet (@)_ None of these ludes () Protocol and Receiver @ Altormese (@ jernetwork and (b) Components of data communtcatior a Scanned with CamScanner