HUMAN ANATOMY

& PHYSIOLOGY

:
Composition and
Functions
 INTRODUCTION
• The normal pH range of blood is 7.35 to 7.45,which is slightly
pH of blood alkaline. The venous blood normally has a lower pH than the arterial
blood because of presence of more Carbon dioxide.

Temperature • The temperature of the blood is 38°C(100.4°F)

• ‘Viscosity’ means thickness or resistance to flow. Blood is about 3-5

times denser & more viscous(thicker) than water & feels slightly
Viscosity
sticky. Viscosity is increased by the presences of blood cells & plasma
proteins. This thickness contributes to normal blood pressure.

• The colour of blood varies with its oxygen content. Arterial blood is
Colour bright red due to it’s high level of oxygen. Venous blood has given up
much of it’s oxygen in tissues & thus has a darker, dull red colour.

• Blood constitutes about 20% of extracellular fluid, amounting to 8%

Amount of total body mass. The blood volume is 5L to 6L(1.5gal) in average
sized adult male & 4L to 5L(1.2gal) in an average sized adult female.
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

plasma (55%)

red blood cells

(5-6-million /ml)

white blood cells

(5000/ml)

platelets
 PLASMA
When formed elements are removed from blood, a straw coloured liquid
called blood plasma is left. The table below describes the chemical
composition of blood plasma-

Liquid portion of blood. Acts as solvent and suspending medium for

WATER(91.5%)
components of blood; absorbs, transports and releases heat.

PLASMA Exert colloid osmotic pressure , which helps maintain water balance
PROTEIN(7.0%) between blood and tissues and regulates blood volume.

Smallest and most numerous blood plasma proteins; produces by

ALBUMIN liver. Transports proteins for several steroid hormones and for fatty
acids.

Produces by liver and plasma cells, which develop from B lymphocytes.

GLOBULINS Antibodies help attack viruses and bacteria. Alpha and beta globulins
transport iron, lipids and fat soluble vitamin.

FIBRINOGEN
Produces by liver. Plays essential role in blood clotting.
 Inorganic salts. Positively charges ions(cations) include
Na+,K+,Ca+,Mg2+;
OTHER SOLUTES(1.5%)
Negatively charged ions(anions) include Cl-,HPO42-,SO42-,HCO3-.
ELECTROLYTES
Help maintain osmotic pressure and plays essential roles in
function of cells.

Products of digestion pass into blood for distribution to all body

cells. Includes amino acids(from proteins), glucose(from
NUTRIENTS
carbohydrates), fatty acids and glycerol(from triglycerides),
vitamins and minerals.

Oxygen, Carbon dioxide and Nitrogen. More O2 is associated with

GASES hemoglobin inside red blood cells; more CO2 is dissolved in
plasma. N2 is present but has no known functions in the body.

Enzymes, produces by body cells, catalyze chemical reactions.

REGULATORY Hormones, produced by endocrine glands, regulate metabolism,
SUBSTANCES growth and development. Vitamins are cofactors for enzymatic
reactions.
Most are breakdown products of protein metabolism and are
WASTE PRODUCTS carried by blood to organs of excretion. Include urea, uric acid,
creatine, creatinine, bilirubin and ammonia.
 Components of Blood: Formed Elements

Erythrocytes or RBCs
Anucleate - they lack a nucleus
Filled with hemoglobin which carries oxygen
Biconcave discs = greater surface area for gas exchange.
 5X106 cells/mm3 of
 Half-life ~ 120 days.
 Contain 280 million hemoglobin with 4 heme chains
(contain iron).
 Red blood cells specialisations

1) biconcave shape 2) no nucleus

 extra space inside

3) contain haemoglobin
 the oxygen carrying
molecule
 250million molecules
increases the / cell
surface area so
more oxygen can be
carried
Haemoglobin

gives red blood cells

their colour
can carry up to 4
molecules of O2
associates and
dissociates with O2
contains iron
Red blood cells (RBCs)

transport oxygen
Also carry some CO2
 Function of Haemoglobin

When there is a high concentration of oxygen e.g

in the alveoli haemoglobin combines with oxygen to
form oxyhaemoglobin. When the blood reaches the
tissue which have a low concentration of oxygen
the haemoglobin dissociates with the oxygen and
the oxygen is released into body tissues
Anemia: a decrease in the oxygen-carrying
capacity of the blood
Anemia results from:
Lower # RBCs
Deficient hemoglobin
 Excessive RBCs (erythrocytes)

Polycythemia - abnormal increase in erythrocytes,

caused by:
Bone marrow cancer
High altitudes
Thickens and slows blood, impairs circulation
 Leukocytes or White Blood Cells (WBCs)
 Complete cells (nuclei, mitochondria and organelles)
 Move in amoeboid fashion. Can squeeze (leave the blood vessels
through) capillary walls (diapedesis), respond to chemicals
 Almost invisible, so named after stains.
 Neutrophils are the most abundant WBC, accounts for 50 – 70% of
WBCs.
 Involved in immune function. Crucial for defense.
 White blood cells

 the bodies “defence”

 part of the immune system
 much larger than RBCs
 far fewer
 have a nucleus
 4000-13000 per mm3
 2 types: phagocytes and
lymphocytes
 Leukocytes
Have nucleus, mitochondria, & amoeboid ability
Can squeeze through capillary walls (diapedesis)
Granular leukocytes help detoxify foreign substances &
release heparin
Include eosinophils, basophils, & neutrophils
 Leukocytes
Agranular leukocytes are phagocytic & produce
antibodies
Include lymphocytes & monocytes
Types of Leukocytes
 Types of Leukocytes
Granulocytes
 Granules in their cytoplasm can be stained
 Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
Agranulocytes
 Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
 Include lymphocytes and monocytes
 Granulocytes
 Neutrophils
 Multi-lobed nucleus with fine granules
 Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection

 Eosinophils
 Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules
 Found in response to allergies and parasitic worms

 Basophils
 Have histamine-containing granules
 Initiate inflammation
 Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes
 Nucleus fills most of the cell
 Play an important role in the immune response
Monocytes
 Largest of the white blood cells
 Function as macrophages
 Important in fighting chronic infection
Lymphocyte
 Lymphocytes
Provide a specific immune response to
infectious diseases.
There are 2 types: -
- T-cells & B-cells
They produce antibodies.
Monocytes
 Platelets
 Also called thrombocytes.
 Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells (megakaryocytes)
 Smallest of formed elements.
 Are fragments of megakaryocytes.
 Lack nuclei.
 Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3
 Survive 5-9 days
 Have amoeboid movement.
 Important in blood clotting:
 Constitute most of the mass of the clot.
 Release serotonin to reduce blood flow to area.
 Secrete growth factors
 Maintain the integrity of blood vessel wall.
 FORMED ELEMENTS

NAME AND
NUMBER CHARACTERSTICS* FUNCTIONS
APPEARANCE
Red Blood Hemoglobin within RBCs
4.8 million/µL in 7-8 µm diameter,
Cells(RBCs) or transports most of the
females biconcave discs,
Erythrocytes oxygen and part of
4.5 million/µL in without nuclei; live for
carbon dioxide in the
males about 120 days.
blood.
Most live for a few
White Blood hours to a few days. Combat pathogen and
Cells(WBCs) or 5000-10,000/µL Some called T and B other foreign substances
Leukocytes memory cells can live that enter the body.
for many years.
Phagocytosis.
10-12µm diameter;
Destruction of bacteria
Granular nucleus has 2-5 lobes
with lysozymes,
Leukocytes connected by thin
60%-70% of all defensins and strong
strands of chromatin;
WBCs oxidants, such as
Neutrophiles cytoplasm has very
superoxide anion,
fine, pale, lilac
hydrogen peroxide, and
granules.
hypochlorite anion.
*Colors are those seen using Wright’s stain
 10-12µm diameter; Eliminates parasites, such as
nucleus usually has 2 lobes worms which are too big to be
2-4% of all connected by s thick strand phagocytosed; phagocytes
Eosinophils
WBCs of chromatin; large, red- antigen-antibody complexes &
orange granules fill the combat the effects of
cytoplasm. histamine in allergic reactions
8-10µm diameter; nucleus Liberate heparin, histamine
0.5-1% of all has 2 lobes; large and serotonin in allergic
Basophils
WBCs cytoplasmic granules reactions that intensify the
appear deep blue-purple. overall inflammatory response.
Medium immune response,
Small lymphocytes are 6- including antigen-antibody
Agranular
9µm in diameter; large reactions. B cells develop into
Leukocytes
lymphocytes are 10-14µm plasma cells, which secrete
in diameter; nucleus is antibodies, T cells attack
Lymphocytes
20-25% of all round or slightly indented; invading viruses, cancer cells,
(T cells, B
WBCs cytoplasm forms a rim and transplanted tissue cells.
cells &
around the nucleus that Natural killer calls attach a
natural killer
looks sky blue; the larger wide variety of infectious
cells)
the cell, the more microbes and certain
cytoplasm is visible. spontaneously arising tumor
cells.
 Acts on the
12-20µm hypothalamus, causing
diameter; nucleus the rise in body
is kidney shaped temperature with
or horseshoe microbial infections;
3-8% of all
Monocytes shaped. stimulates the production
WBCs
Cytoplasm is blue- of some globulins by the
grey and has liver; enhances the
foamy production of activated T-
appearance. lymphocytes;
Phagocytosis
2-3µm diameter
Form platelet plug in
cell fragments
homeostasis; release
150,000- that live for 5-
Platelets(Thrombocytes) chemicals that promote
400,000/µL 9days; contains
vascular spasm and blood
many vesicles but
clotting.
no nucleus.
 RBC Antigens & Blood Typing

The most well known and medically important blood

types are in the ABO group. They were discovered in 1900
and 1901 at the University of Vienna by Karl Landsteiner in
the process of trying to learn why blood transfusions
sometimes cause death and at other times save a patient. In
1930, he belatedly received the Nobel Prize for this discovery.
All humans and many other primates can be typed for
the ABO blood group. There are four principal types: A, B, AB,
and O. There are two antigens and two antibodies that are
mostly responsible for the ABO types. The specific
combination of these four components determines an
individual's type in most cases.
 ABO Antigen Antigen Antibody Antibody
Blood Type A B anti-A Anti-B

A yes no no yes

B no yes yes no

O no no yes yes

AB yes yes no no
People with type A blood will have the A antigen on
the surface of their red cells . As a result, anti-A
antibodies will not be produced by them because
they would cause the destruction of their own blood.

However, if B type blood is injected into their systems,

anti-B antibodies in their plasma will recognize it as
alien and burst or agglutinate the introduced red cells
in order to cleanse the blood of alien protein.
 Individuals with type O blood do not produce ABO
antigens. Therefore, their blood normally will not be rejected
when it is given to others with different ABO types. As a
result, type O people are universal donors for transfusions,
but they can receive only type O blood themselves. Those
who have type AB blood do not make any ABO antibodies.
Their blood does not discriminate against any other ABO
type. Consequently, they are universal receivers for
transfusions, but their blood will be agglutinated when given
to people with every other type because they produce both
kinds of antigens.
It is easy and inexpensive to determine an individual's ABO
type from a few drops of blood. A serum containing anti-A
antibodies is mixed with some of the blood. Another serum
with anti-B antibodies is mixed with the remaining sample.
Whether or not agglutination occurs in either sample indicates
the ABO type. It is a simple process of elimination of the
possibilities. For instance, if an individual's blood sample is
agglutinated by the anti-A antibody, but not the anti-B
antibody, it means that the A antigen is present but not the B
antigen. Therefore, the blood type is A.
 RBC Antigens

Each person inherits 2 genes that control the

production of ABO groups.
Type A:
 May have inherited A gene from each parent.
 May have inherited A gene from 1 parent and O gene
from the other.
 RBC Antigens
Type B:
 May have inherited B gene from each parent.
 May have inherited B gene from 1 parent and O gene
from the other parent.
Type AB:
 Inherited the A gene from one parent and the B gene
from the other parent.
Type O:
 Inherited O gene from each parent.
People with blood group 0 Rh - are called "universal donors" and people with blood group AB
Rh+ are called "universal receivers."

Rh+ blood can never be given to someone with Rh - blood, but the other way around works.
For example, 0 Rh+ blood can not be given to someone with the blood type AB Rh -.
 Rh Factor
Another group of antigens found on RBCs.
Rh positive:
 Have these antigens.
Rh negative:
 Do not have these antigens.
Significant when Rh negative mother give birth to Rh
positive baby.
 At birth, mother may become exposed to Rh positive
blood of fetus.
 Mother at subsequent pregnancies may produce
antibodies against the Rh factor.
 Transfusion Reactions
 If blood types don't match,
recipient’s antibodies
agglutinate donor’s RBCs
 Type O is “universal donor” • Insert fig. 13.6
because lacks A & B antigens
 Recipient’s antibodies won’t
agglutinate donor’s Type O RBCs
 Type AB is “universal
recipient” because doesn’t
make anti-A or anti-B
antibodies
 Won’t agglutinate donor’s RBCs
 Hematopoiesis

Is formation of blood cells from stem cells in bone

marrow (myeloid tissue) & lymphoid tissue

Erythropoiesis is formation of RBCs

Stimulated by erythropoietin (EPO) from kidney

Leukopoiesis is formation of WBCs

Stimulated by variety of cytokines
= autocrine regulators secreted by immune system
 Hematopoiesis

Formation of blood cells

2 types of hematopoiesis:
Erythropoiesis:
 Formation of RBCs.
Leukopoiesis:
 Formation of WBCs.
Occurs in myeloid tissue (bone marrow of long bones) and
lymphoid tissue.
Stem cells differentiate into blood cells.
 Types of Blood Vessels
Arteries and Arterioles
 Carry blood away from heart to body.
 Have high pressure.
 Have thick muscular walls, which make them elastic and contractile.
 Vasoconstriction: Arteries contract:
 Reducing flow of blood into capillaries.
 Increasing blood pressure.
 Vasodilation: Arteries relax:
 Increasing blood flow into capillaries.
 Decreasing blood pressure.
 Capillaries
 Only blood vessels whose walls are thin enough to permit gas
exchange.
 Blood flows through capillaries relatively slowly, allowing sufficient
time for diffusion or active transport of substances across walls.
 Only about 5 to 10% of capillaries have blood flowing through them.
Only a few organs (brain and heart) always carry full load of blood.
 Blood flow to different organs is controlled by pre capillary sphincters
of smooth muscle.