Module 4 B1 2014-15

Faculty of Transport Engineering Technologies
School of Aeronautical Engineering
Module 4 B1 Electronic Fundamentals

These notes are intended for training guidance only and are not to be used as an authoritative
document for use in the civil aviation industry. In all cases, reference must always be made to
the current documents for the most up to date information.
Amendment and Annual Review Record
Amendment Incorporated Date Annual Completed by Date

No by Review
2011 C.GIBSON 04/08/2011
2012 C.GIBSON 31/08/12
2013 C. Gibson 13/05/13
2014 S Fowler 15 July 2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
4.1SEMICONDUCTORS 6
ATOMIC NUMBER ................................................................................................................................................................. 7
THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS IN EACH SHELL ........................................................................................................................ 7
VALENCE ELECTRONS .......................................................................................................................................................... 8
INSULATORS ........................................................................................................................................................................ 9
SEMICONDUCTORS .............................................................................................................................................................. 9
IONISATION ........................................................................................................................................................................ 10
ENERGY BANDS ................................................................................................................................................................. 10
COMPARISON OF A SEMICONDUCTOR ATOM TO A CONDUCTOR ATOM .................................................................................... 11
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS 12
SILICON AND GERMANIUM................................................................................................................................................... 12
COVALENT BONDS ............................................................................................................................................................. 13
INTRINSIC SILICON ............................................................................................................................................................. 13
N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS ............................................................................................................................. 14
DOPING ............................................................................................................................................................................ 14
N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR .................................................................................................................................................. 14
P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR .................................................................................................................................................. 16
HEAVY AND LIGHT DOPING OF N AND P TYPE CRYSTALS ...................................................................................................... 17
4.1.1P-N JUNCTIONS AND THE DIODE 18

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................................. 18
DEPLETION REGION FORMATION ......................................................................................................................................... 18
BIASING A DIODE ............................................................................................................................................................... 20
CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF A PN JUNCTION .................................................................................................. 21
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK ...................................................................................................................................... 24
DIODE SYMBOLS ................................................................................................................................................................ 25
EASA Module 4 B1 Electronics Page 3 of 89

DIODES AS RECTIFIERS 26
THE BASIC DC POWER SUPPLY .......................................................................................................................................... 26
HALF-W AVE RECTIFIER ...................................................................................................................................................... 27
AVERAGE VALUE OF THE HALF-W AVE OUTPUT VOLTAGE ...................................................................................................... 28
HALF-W AVE RECTIFIER WITH TRANSFORMER-COUPLED INPUT .............................................................................................. 28
CENTRE TAP FULL W AVE RECTIFIER ................................................................................................................................... 29
FULL W AVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER........................................................................................................................................... 30
DIODES IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL.................................................................................................................................... 32
OTHER DIODES 33
ZENER DIODE .................................................................................................................................................................... 33
VOLTAGE REFERENCE DIODE ............................................................................................................................................. 33
VOLTAGE REGULATOR DIODE ............................................................................................................................................. 33
OPERATING PARAMETERS .................................................................................................................................................. 33
BASIC VOLTAGE REFERENCE ZENER DIODE CIRCUIT ............................................................................................................ 34
LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDS) ........................................................................................................................................ 35
PHOTOCELLS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 36
PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS................................................................................................................................................. 36
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS ....................................................................................................................................................... 36
PHOTODIODES ................................................................................................................................................................... 36
VARACTOR DIODE .............................................................................................................................................................. 37
SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (THYRISTOR) ................................................................................................................... 39
BI-DIRECTIONAL TRIODE THYRISTOR (TRIAC) ....................................................................................................................... 42
FUNCTIONAL TESTING OF DIODES ....................................................................................................................................... 45

4.1.2TRANSISTORS 46
TRANSISTOR ACTION ......................................................................................................................................................... 47
BIAS CONDITIONS FOR TRANSISTOR CONDUCTION ............................................................................................................... 49
TRANSISTOR CURRENTS .................................................................................................................................................... 49
CONFIGURATIONS .............................................................................................................................................................. 50
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION ............................................................................................................................. 51
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT) MODES OF OPERATION ............................................................................................ 53
4.1.3INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (ICS) 54
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................................. 54
DIGITAL ICS ...................................................................................................................................................................... 56
LINEAR ICS- THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER .......................................................................................................................... 58
4.2PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS 64
4.3 SERVOMECHANISMS 66
CATEGORIES OF SERVO SYSTEMS ...................................................................................................................................... 66
DAMPING .......................................................................................................................................................................... 70
VELOCITY CONTROL SERVOMECHANISMS ............................................................................................................................ 74
A.C. SERVOMECHANISM COMPONENTS ............................................................................................................................... 75
SYNCHRONOUS DATA TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS (SYNCHROS) ............................................................................................... 79
DESYNN ............................................................................................................................................................................ 79
A.C. SYNCHRO SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................................................... 80

4.1 Semiconductors The nucleus contains positively charged particles called protons
and uncharged particles called neutrons. The orbiting electrons
As we saw in Module 3, all matter is made of atoms. You will have negative charge. Normally the number of negatively
recall that an atom is the smallest particle of an element that charged electrons equals the number of positively charged
retains the characteristics of that element. Each atom of the protons, so the atom is electrically neutral.
known 109 elements is different from those of all other
elements. Each element has a unique atomic structure. The simplest atom is hydrogen, which has one proton and one
According to Bohr, atoms have a planetary type of structure, electron, as shown in figure 1.2 (a). The helium atom, figure 1.2
with electrons orbiting a central nucleus (Figure 1.1). (b), has two protons and two neutrons in the nucleus with two
orbiting electrons.

Atomic Number The Number of Electrons in Each Shell
The periodic table lists the elements in order of their atomic The maximum number of electrons (Ne) that can exist in each
number. This is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus; shell of an atom is a fact of nature and can be calculated by the
so hydrogen has an atomic number of 1 and helium an atomic formula: Ne = 2n 2
number of 2. (Fig 1.2)
where n is the number of the shell.
Energy Levels
The maximum number of electrons that can exist in the
Electrons have energy, but the amounts of energy can only be innermost shell (shell 1) is:
of a fixed set of values. These energy levels correspond to the
orbits around the nucleus. Electrons close to the nucleus have Ne = 2n2 = 2(1)2 = 2
less energy than those further out. For an electron to travel from
a lower to a higher orbit its energy must increase. An electron The maximum number of electrons that can exist in the second
going to a lower orbit must give up energy. shell is:
Electron Shells and Orbits
Ne = 2n2 = 2(2)2 = 2(4) = 8
Each energy level corresponds to a certain orbit. These orbits
are grouped into energy bands known as shells. Each atom of The maximum number of electrons that can exist in the third
an element has a fixed number of shells; with a maximum shell is:
number of electrons in each shell. There are only very small
differences in energy levels within a shell compared to the Ne = 2n2 = 2(3)2 = 2(9) = 18
difference in energy between shells. The space between each
shell is known as the ‘forbidden gap’. The shells are designated and so on.
1 ,2, 3 and so on, with 1 being closest to the nucleus.
Figure 1.3, shows a Carbon atom with 6 protons, two electrons

in shell 1 and four electrons in shell 2. Different elements have
more or less shells in their atoms.

Valence Electrons
Electrons in orbits further from the nucleus have more energy

and are less tightly bound to the atom than those closer to the
nucleus. (The force of attraction of the positively charged
nucleus on the negative electron decreases as distance from
the nucleus increases). The electrons in the outermost shell
have the highest energy levels and are the most loosely bound
to the atom. The outermost shell is known as the valence shell
and electrons in this shell are called valence electrons. These
valence electrons contribute to chemical reactions and bonding
within the structure of a material and determine its electrical
properties. (Fig 1.3).

Electrical Properties of Materials Conductors
All materials are made up of atoms. These atoms contribute to A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current.
the electrical properties of a material, including its ability to The best conductors are single-element materials, such as
conduct electrical current. copper, silver, gold, and aluminium, which are characterized by
atoms with only one valence electron very loosely bound to the
For the purposes of discussing electrical properties, an atom atom. These loosely bound valence electrons can easily break
can be represented by the valence shell and a core that away from their atoms and become free electrons. Therefore, a
consists of all the inner shells combined with the nucleus. This conductive material has many free electrons that, when moving
concept is illustrated in Figure 2.1 for a carbon atom. in the same direction, make up the current.
Insulators
An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical

current under normal conditions. Most good insulators are
compounds rather than single-element materials. Valence
electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore, there are
very few free electrons in an insulator.
Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and

Carbon is used in many types of electrical resistors. Notice that insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current. A
the carbon atom has four electrons in the valence shell and two semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good
electrons in the inner shell. The nucleus consists of six protons conductor nor a good insulator. The most common single-
and six neutrons so the +6 indicates the positive charge of the element semiconductors are silicon, germanium, and carbon.
six protons. The core has a net charge of +4 (+6 for the nucleus Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide are also
and of -2 for the two inner-shell electrons). commonly used. The single-element semiconductors are
characterized by atoms with four valence electrons.

Ionisation amount of energy that a valence electron must have in order to

jump from the valence band to the conduction band. (Fig 2.2
When an atom absorbs energy from a heat source or from light, refers).
for example, the energy levels of the electrons are raised. The
valence electrons possess more energy and are more loosely
bound to the atom than inner electrons, so they can easily jump
to higher orbits within the valence shell when external energy is
absorbed.
If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy, it

can actually escape from the outer shell and the atom's
influence. The departure of a valence electron leaves a
previously neutral atom with an excess of positive charge (more
protons than electrons). The process of losing a valence
electron is known as ionization, and the resulting positively
charged atom is called a positive ion. The escaped valence
electron is called a free electron. When a free electron loses
energy and falls into the outer shell of a neutral atom, the atom
becomes negatively charged (more electrons than protons) and
is called a negative ion.
Fig 2.2 Energy Gaps Valence to Conduction Bands
Energy Bands
Insulators have a very wide energy gap. Valence electrons do
The valence shell of an atom represents a band of energy not jump into the conduction band except under breakdown
levels and the valence electrons are confined to that band. conditions, where extremely high voltages are applied across
When an electron acquires enough additional energy from an the material.
external source, it can leave the valence shell and become a
free electron and exist in what is known as the conduction
band. The difference in energy between the valence band and
the conduction band is called an energy gap. This is the

Semiconductors have a much narrower energy gap. This gap indicated by the overlapping of the valence band and the
permits some valence electrons to jump into the conduction conduction band in fig 2.2.
band and become free electrons.
The energy bands in conductors overlap. In a conductive
material there are always a large number of free electrons.
Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom to a Conductor

Atom
Let's examine why silicon is a semiconductor and copper is a

conductor. Diagrams of the silicon atom and the copper atom
are shown in Figure 2.3. Notice that the core of the silicon
atom has a net charge of +4 (14 protons - 10 electrons) and
the core of the copper atom has a net charge of +1 (29
protons - 28 electrons).
The valence electron in the copper atom "feels" an attractive

force of +1 compared to a valence electron in the silicon atom Figure 2.3 Silicon and Copper Atoms Compared
that "feels" an attractive force of +4. So, there is four times
more force trying to hold a valence electron to the atom in
silicon than in copper. The copper's valence electron is in the
fourth shell, a greater distance from its nucleus than a silicon
valence electron in the third shell; so the copper valence
electron has less force holding it to the atom than one in
silicon. The valence electron in copper has more energy than
one in silicon, so it is easier for the copper valence electron to
acquire enough additional energy to escape from its atom and
become a free electron in the conduction band. In fact, at
normal temperatures large numbers of valence electrons in
copper have sufficient energy to be free electrons, as

Semiconductor Materials Germanium has its valence electrons in the fourth shell while
those in silicon are nearer the nucleus, in the third shell. The
Silicon and Germanium valence electrons in germanium are at higher energy levels
than those in silicon, so need less additional energy to escape
The atomic structures of silicon (atomic number 14) and from the atom. Germanium is therefore more unstable at
germanium (atomic number 32) are shown in Figure 3.1. higher temperatures, this being the basic reason why silicon is
Silicon is the most widely used material in diodes, transistors, the most widely used semiconductor material. Most of the rest
integrated circuits, and other semiconductor devices. Notice of this module will describe silicon semiconductors; differences
that both silicon and germanium have the characteristic four for germanium will be covered as required.
valence electrons of a semiconductor.
You may recall from module 3 that as temperature increases
the resistance of a conductor increases also (positive
temperature coefficient).
In a semiconductor the number of free electrons increases

with temperature (additional energy), so the resistance falls
(negative temperature coefficient).
Figure 3.1 Silicon and Germanium Atoms Compared

Covalent Bonds
Atoms are held together by covalent bonds, to form a solid

material called a crystal, according to the ‘octet rule’. Covalent
bonding only occurs within the valence shells of adjacent
atoms. If an atom has either actually, or effectively, eight
electrons in its valence shell it is chemically stable.
If we consider, for simplicity, five atoms within a silicon

crystal (Fig 3.2). The central silicon atom has combined with
its four neighbours, sharing an electron with each of them to
form a silicon crystal.
This effectively creates eight valence electrons for each atom

and produces a state of chemical stability.
Sharing valence electrons produces the covalent bonds that
hold the atoms together; each shared electron is attracted Figure 3.2 Covalent Bonds within a 3 Dimensional Crystal
equally by the two adjacent atoms which share it.
Intrinsic Silicon Figure 3.3 shows how room temperature can add sufficient
heat energy to a valence electron, in an intrinsic silicon crystal,
If we have a crystal of pure silicon (or pure germanium) it is to make it jump into the conduction band. In doing so, it will
said to be intrinsic. leave behind a ‘hole’ in the valence band. This creates what is
called an ‘electron-hole pair’. When the free electron loses
At absolute zero Kelvin the energy gap between the valence energy it falls back into a hole, this being called
and conduction bands would be so large that the crystal would ‘recombination’.
be an insulator. As the temperature rises heat energy is
added.

N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors
Semiconductor materials are of little value in their intrinsic

state. Because of the limited number of free electrons in the
conduction band and holes in the valence band, they do not
conduct current well. To be useful in electronic devices we
must modify intrinsic silicon (or germanium) by increasing the
free electrons and holes, to increase its conductivity. We can
do this by adding impurities to the intrinsic material, so making
extrinsic (impure), n-type and p-type semiconductor materials.
Doping
Controlled addition of impurities to intrinsic semiconductor

material, called doping, increases the number of current
carriers (electrons or holes) and hence the conductivity
dramatically. The two categories of impurities are n-type and
p-type.
N-Type Semiconductor
Pentavalent atoms, such as arsenic (As), phosphorus (P),

Figure 3.3 Electron Liberated at Room Temperature bismuth (Bi), and antimony (Sb) have five valence electrons. If
we add a pentavalent impurity to intrinsic silicon, each
pentavalent atom will form covalent bonds with four adjacent
silicon atoms, leaving one extra electron. This extra electron is
not attached to an atom and so becomes a free (conduction)
electron. The pentavalent atom which has given up an
electron has become a positive ion; and is called a donor
atom. The number of conduction electrons can be carefully

controlled by the number of impurity atoms added to the The conduction electron created by this doping process does
silicon. (Fig 3.4). not leave a hole in the valence band, and is balanced by the
positive ion locked into the crystal structure.
This is called an n-type semiconductor as the majority

carriers of current are negatively charged electrons, although
overall the material is still electrically neutral.
Note: There will be a small number of holes created when

electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. These holes are
not produced by the addition of the pentavalent impurity
atoms. Holes in an n-type material are called minority
carriers.
Figure 3.4 Pentavalent Doping of a Silicon Crystal

P-Type Semiconductor
Trivalent atoms such as aluminium (Al), boron (B), indium

(In), and gallium (Ga) have three valence electrons. If we add
a trivalent impurity to intrinsic silicon, each trivalent atom
forms covalent bonds with four adjacent silicon atoms.(Fig
3.5). The trivalent atom only has three valence electrons, so a
hole results where each has been added. This trivalent atom
can take an electron, when it does it effectively becomes a
negative ion; it is referred to as an acceptor atom. The
number of holes can be carefully controlled by the number of
trivalent atoms added to the silicon. Holes created by this
doping process do not give up a conduction (free) electron.
This is called a p-type semiconductor as the majority

carriers of current are positively charged holes, although
overall the material is still electrically neutral.
Note: There will be a small number of electrons created when

electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. These electrons
are not produced by the addition of the trivalent impurity
atoms. Electrons in a p-type material are called minority
carriers.
Figure 3.5 Trivalent Doping of a Silicon Crystal
Let us now look at how we can use these properties of
semiconductors to make useful devices. First we will consider
larger crystals of silicon with different doping levels.

Heavy and Light Doping of N and P Type Crystals
Figure 3.6 at left represents

a heavily doped n-type Figure 3.8 at left represents a
silicon crystal. The white heavily doped p-type crystal.
dots represent free electrons The white circles represent
with the resulting positive free holes with the resulting
ions locked in the crystal negative ions locked in the
structure. crystal structure.
Figure 3.9 at right

represents a lightly doped
Figure 3.7 at right p-type crystal.
represents a lightly Note: The intrinsic silicon
doped n-type crystal. It is doped with impurities in
can be seen the amount the range of parts per
of doping controls the thousand (very heavy
number of majority doping) down to parts per
current carriers in the billion for very light
semiconductor material. doping.

4.1.1 P-N Junctions and the Diode

Introduction
A diode lets current flow through it in one direction only

dependant on the bias. Bias is a dc voltage which sets the
operating conditions. When referred to a diode, these are
forward bias and reverse bias. More on these later, but first we
will examine how a diode is made.
Depletion Region Formation
A diode is made by joining a p-type and an n-type region to

make a pn junction. At the instant of joining both materials are
electrically neutral. In the n-type region there is a high
concentration of electrons; whereas in the p-type material
there is a high concentration of holes (Fig 4.1 opposite).
Electrons near the junction on the n side will tend to diffuse

across the junction into the p side. They will move only a short
distance into the p region before disappearing by Figure 4.1 PN Junction
recombination (Small red arrows in Fig 4.1).
The same situation occurs with the holes in the p side near the
junction, which tend to diffuse across the junction in the
opposite direction into the n side and recombine with electrons
as they move in. (Small yellow arrows in Fig 4.1).

When the electrons diffuse over the junction into the p-type
region, they leave behind the fixed pentavalent donor atoms,
making it a positive ion. Thus a net positive charge is built up
on the n side of the junction. Similarly a net negative charge is
established on the p side due to the remaining negatively
charged trivalent acceptor atoms. Once these net charges
have been established by the initial diffusion they reduce
further diffusion, the positive charge on the n side now
repelling holes and the negative charge on the p side repelling
electrons. The junction region is depleted of conducting holes
or electrons and is known as the depletion region.
A state of equilibrium will be reached when the depletion

region is so wide that no more diffusion can take place. A
barrier potential has been established against further
movement of carriers. (Fig 4.2)
The barrier potential of a pn junction depends on several

factors, including the type of semiconductor material, the
amount of doping, and the temperature. Typical barrier
potentials are approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for
germanium at 25°C. These potentials must be overcome by
the forward bias before the diode can conduct. Figure 4.2 PN Junction at Equilibrium

Biasing a Diode Current flow is by majority carriers (electrons in the n-type,

holes in the p-type), with conventional current flowing from the
Forward Bias positive to the negative battery terminals.
When a diode is forward biased it will pass current; i.e. it will Reverse Bias
be conducting. To enable this, the barrier potential must first
be overcome. We recall that typical barrier potentials are Reverse bias stops current flow through the diode. If we
approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium at connect a negative voltage to the p-type and a positive to the
25°C. To overcome this we must make the p-type at least 0.7v n-type, the depletion region will be reinforced and so will
positive with respect to the n-type. Fig 4.3 shows this, with the widen. This prevents majority carrier flow of current.
depletion region reduced to zero.
There will still be a very small amount of thermally generated
electron/hole pairs in the depletion region. This causes a
reverse leakage current of minority current carriers, in the
order of mA for germanium and nA for silicon diodes, to flow.
This current will increase as temperature increases. (Fig 4.4)
Figure 4.3 Forward Biased PN Junction

As you continue to increase the bias voltage, the current will

increase very rapidly. The voltage across the pn junction
increases very gradually above 0.7 V, due to the voltage drop
across the dynamic resistance of the semiconductive material.
If you plot this on a graph, you get the I - V characteristic curve

for a forward-biased pn junction, as shown in Figure 4.5. The
forward current increases very little until the forward voltage
across the junction reaches approximately 0.7 V at the knee of
the curve. After this point, the forward voltage remains at
approximately 0.7 V, but IF increases rapidly.
As previously mentioned, there is a slight increase in VF above

0.7 V as the current increases due mainly to the voltage drop
across the dynamic resistance. Normal operation for a
forward-biased pn junction is above the knee of the curve.
Figure 4.4 Reverse Biased PN Junction
The IF scale is typically in mA, as indicated. In reality, the
Current-Voltage Characteristics of a PN Junction forward voltage can be as much as 1.0V, depending on the
forward current. These figures will be a lot lower for
Forward Biased Junction Germanium, typically 0.3V to 0.6V.
When a forward-bias voltage is applied across a silicon pn

junction, there will be forward current, designated IF. As the
forward-bias voltage is increased positively from 0V the
forward current gradually increases. When the applied bias
voltage across the pn junction reaches approximately 0.7V
(barrier potential), the forward current begins to increase
rapidly.

I-V Characteristic for Reverse Bias
When a reverse-bias voltage is applied across a pn junction,

there is only an extremely small reverse current (IR) through
the junction. As the applied bias voltage is increased
negatively (VR) it reaches a value at which reverse
breakdown (VBR) occurs. Minority carrier electrons acquire
sufficient energy to accelerate through the depletion layer. As
they do so they collide with atoms, knocking valence electrons
into the conduction band. These in turn collide with more
atoms giving a rapid build-up of reverse current. This is known
as the avalanche effect; most diodes should not be operated
in reverse breakdown and will be damaged if they are. The
maximum reverse bias potential that can be applied before
entering this region is called the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV).
If you continue to increase the bias voltage, the current

continues to increase very rapidly, but the voltage across the
Figure 4.5 I V Characteristic of a Forward Biased Diode pn junction increases very little above VBR.
Dynamic Resistance If you plot this on a graph, you get the I-V characteristic curve
for a reverse-biased pn junction as shown in Figure 4.6. The
The resistance of the forward-biased pn material is not reverse current (IR) increases downward along the vertical axis
constant over the entire curve. Because the resistance and the pn junction reverse voltage (VR) increases to the left
changes as you move along the I-V curve, it is called dynamic along the horizontal axis. As you can see, there is very little
or ac resistance. Below the knee of the curve the resistance reverse current (usually μA or nA) until the reverse voltage
is greatest with the current increasing very little with voltage. across the junction reaches approximately the breakdown
The resistance becomes smallest above the knee, where value (VBR) at the knee of the curve. After this point, the
there is a large change in current for a small change in reverse voltage remains at approximately VBR, but IR increases
voltage. very rapidly resulting in overheating and possible damage.

The breakdown voltage for a typical silicon pn junction can The Complete I-V Characteristic Curve
vary, a minimum value of 50 V is not unusual, although they
can be made to withstand as much as 1,000V; with a typical Combine the curves for both forward bias and reverse bias,
maximum of 100V for germanium junctions. and you have the complete I-V characteristic curve for a
silicon pn junction, as shown by the blue line in Figure 4.7.
Notice that the IF scale is in mA compared to the IR scale
in nA.
Temperature Effects on the I-V Characteristic
For a forward-biased pn junction the barrier potential

decreases as temperature increases. Thus, as temperature
increases, the forward current increases for a given value of
forward voltage, and, for a given value of forward current, the
forward voltage decreases. This is shown by the orange line in
Figure 4.7.
For a reverse-biased pn junction, as temperature is increased,

the reverse current increases. The difference in the two curves
is exaggerated on the graph in Figure 4.7 for illustration. The
reverse current remains extremely small, typical values being
1 – 100 A for germanium diodes and 0.01 – 0.02 A for
silicon diodes.
Diodes are limited by the maximum forward current and

Figure 4.6 I V Characteristic of a Reverse Biased Diode reverse voltage they can withstand. This mostly depends on
their physical size and construction.

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Figure 4.7 Silicon Diode I V Characteristics

Diode Symbols Uses
Figure 4.8 Typical Diode Symbols Junction diodes are used as rectifiers to change a.c. to d.c.
in power supplies. To do this effectively and efficiently they
must have a low resistance to current in the forward direction
and a high resistance to current in the reverse direction,
together with a high breakdown voltage. Because of this,
almost all semiconductor rectifier diodes are silicon junction
types.
Fig. 4.8 shows typical diode circuit symbols. Whether the

arrow is filled in or not depends only on the drawing office
preference. The anode (a) is the p-type and the cathode (k)
the n-type semi-conductor material. The arrow indicates
the direction of conventional current flow (+ to - ; opposite
to electron flow).
Identification of Diode Orientation
The base of the triangle is the end where conventional current

enters the diode; this end is called the anode (a). The end
through which current leaves the diode is the cathode (k). In Figure 4.9 Diode Orientation Identification
some cases the arrow symbol is marked on the diode; where it
is not, the cathode is identified by a band or distinctive shape.

Silicon can also work at higher temperatures. Rectifiers

usually have a junction area that is large relative to their size
to assist in the dissipation of heat. In large rectifiers, special
cooling arrangements are needed to ensure heat dissipation,
normally by mounting the diode on a heat sink.
Radio Signal diodes need to rectify very low level signals, so

are normally made from germanium and are physically very
small to reduce contact capacitance.
Figure 5.1 Block Diagram of a DC Power Supply
Diodes as Rectifiers
A basic block diagram for a power supply is shown in Figure
Because of their ability to conduct current in one direction 5.1. The rectifier can be either a half-wave rectifier or a full-
and block current in the other direction, diodes are used in wave rectifier. The rectifier converts the ac input voltage into a
circuits, called rectifiers that convert ac voltage into dc pulsating dc voltage, which is half-wave rectified as shown.
voltage. Rectifiers are found in all dc power supplies that The filter eliminates the fluctuations in the rectified voltage
operate from an ac voltage source. A power supply is an and produces a relatively smooth dc voltage. Power supply
essential part of all electronic systems from the simplest to filters were covered in module 3. The regulator is a circuit that
the most complex. maintains a constant dc voltage output regardless of variations
in the input line voltage or in the load. Regulators vary from a
The Basic DC Power Supply single device to more complex circuits. You will study a single-
device regulator later in these notes and cover voltage
The U.K. power standard is 240 V, 50 Hz ac available at wall regulation in greater detail in modules 11 or 13. The load
sockets. This voltage is much too high for most modern block is the circuit for which the power supply is producing the
electronic equipment, which also requires dc as opposed to ac dc voltage and load current. We will look at these blocks now
for its power supply. The dc voltage produced by a power in more detail.
supply is used to power all types of electronic circuits, such as
television receivers, stereo systems, VCRs, CD players, and
laboratory equipment.

Half-Wave Rectifier value that is 0.7V less than the peak value of the input,
(commonly called the Diode Drop).
Figure 5.2 illustrates the process called half-wave
rectification. A diode is connected to an ac source which
provides the input voltage, Vin, and to a load resistor RL,
forming a half-wave rectifier. Remember that all ground
symbols represent the same point electrically.
Let us see what happens during one cycle of the input voltage.
When the sinusoidal input voltage (Vin) goes positive, the
diode is forward-biased and conducts current through the load
resistor, RL. This current produces an output voltage across
the load RL, which has the same shape as the positive half-
cycle of the input voltage.
During the second half of its cycle the input voltage goes
negative, and the diode is reverse-biased. There is no current,
so the voltage across the load resistor is 0 V. The result is that
only the positive half cycles of the ac input appear across the Figure 5.2 Operation of a Half-wave Rectifier
load resistor.
It is usually acceptable to use the ideal diode model, which
Since this output does not change its polarity it is a pulsating neglects the effect of the barrier potential, when the peak
dc voltage with a frequency of 50 Hz as shown in fig 5.2 lower. value of the applied voltage is much greater than the barrier
A negative output can be obtained by reversing the diode potential (at least 10 V, as a rule of thumb). We will always
connections. use the practical model of a silicon diode, taking the 0.7V
barrier potential into account unless stated otherwise.
In a practical rectifier the input voltage must overcome the
barrier potential before the diode becomes forward-biased. For
a silicon diode this results in a half-wave output with a peak

Average Value of the Half-Wave Output Voltage Half-Wave Rectifier with Transformer-Coupled Input
The average value of the half-wave rectified output voltage is A transformer is often used to couple the ac input voltage to
the value you would measure on a dc voltmeter. Mathe- the rectifier, shown at right above in Fig 5.4.
matically, it is determined by finding the area under the curve
over a full cycle, as illustrated in Figure 5.3, and then dividing
by 2πr, the number of radians in a full cycle. The result of this
is 0.318 VP, (approximately 32% VP ), where VP is the peak
value of the voltage.
You may recall from module 3 that for a complete cycle of an

ac, the average voltage is 0V (the sum of the positive and
negative half cycles). A more representative measure is the
Mean value, which effectively inverts the negative half cycle
before summing it with the positive half cycle.
Figure 5.4 Transformer Coupled Half-wave Rectifier
Transformer coupling provides two advantages. First, it allows

the source voltage to be stepped up or stepped down as
needed. Second, the ac source is electrically isolated from the
rectifier, thus preventing a shock hazard in the secondary
circuit. The peak value of the output voltage equals the peak
value of the transformer secondary voltage. The mean value
Figure 5.3 Average Value of a Half-wave rectified A.C. of the output is 32% of the peak value.
The pulsating dc is of little use in electronic equipment and the

basic circuit is in common use only for battery charging.

Centre Tap Full Wave Rectifier Current in the transformer secondary flows in opposite
directions during alternate half cycles resulting in no
The full-wave centre-tapped rectifier uses two diodes polarisation of the transformer core and lower transformer
connected to the secondary of a centre-tapped transformer, as losses.
shown in Fig 5.5. The input voltage is coupled through the
transformer to the centre-tapped secondary, so half of the total As the output current is shared between two rectifier diodes,
secondary voltage appears between the centre tap and each the full wave circuit is used where larger load currents are
end of the secondary winding. required.
During positive half-cycles of the input voltage, the upper

diode D1 is forward-biased and the lower diode D2 is reverse-
biased. The current path is through D1and the load resistor R,
as indicated by the red arrows.
For a negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the voltage

polarities on the secondary are reversed. This reverse-biases
D1 and forward-biases D2 with the current path through D2
and R, as indicated by the blue arrows.
The output current during both the positive and negative

portions of the input cycle is in the same direction through the
load; so the output voltage developed across the load resistor
is a full-wave rectified dc voltage, as shown.
The peak output voltage is equal to the peak amplitude across

half the transformer secondary winding. (Note that if this is a
relatively small voltage, the Diode Drop must be taken into
account). The mean dc level is 64% of this peak value.
Figure 5.5 Centre Tap Full-wave Rectifier Circuit
The frequency of the output ripple is twice the input frequency.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
The full-wave bridge rectifier uses four diodes, as shown in

Figure 5.6. When the input cycle is positive diodesD1 and D2
are forward-biased and conduct current, in the direction
shown. A voltage is developed across R which looks like the
positive half of the input cycle. During this time, diodes D3 and
D4 are reverse-biased.
When the input cycle goes negative, diodes D3 and D4 are

forward-biased and conduct current in the same direction
through R as during the positive half-cycle. During the
negative half-cycle, D1 and D2 are reverse-biased. A full-wave
rectified output voltage appears across R as a result of this
action.
During the positive half-cycle of the secondary voltage, diodes

D1 and D2 are forward-biased. Neglecting the diode drops,
the full secondary voltage appears across the load resistor.
The same is true when D3 and D4 are forward-biased during
the negative half-cycle. The peak output voltage is equal to the
peak voltage amplitude across the whole of the secondary
transformer winding.
Figure 5.6 Full-wave Bridge Rectifier Circuit
The circuit shown does not use a centre tapped transformer
and is therefore lighter and cheaper.
The output ripple frequency is the same as for the centre
tapped full wave rectifier.

Smoothing Circuits ‘smoothed’.
The half wave and full wave rectifier circuits discussed above
produce pulsating d.c. outputs. A smoothing circuit (see filters
in module 3) changes these outputs into a steady d.c. voltage
level. (Fig 5.7)
Figure 5.7 Reservoir Capacitor Smoothing Circuit
Current through the low forward resistance of the diode rapidly

charges capacitor C. As the input a.c. voltage falls, the diode
is reverse biased and C now discharges at a slow rate through
the high load resistance R. The resultant d.c. output has been

Diodes in Series and in Parallel
Series Connected Diodes

In a high voltage circuit, one diode may not be enough to block
the high reverse voltages that may occur. In such cases two
(or more) similar diodes can be used to meet the
requirements. Two diodes, however, even from the same
batch, will not necessary have the same voltage & current
characteristics. When in forward bias, both diodes carry the
same current and will have the same forward voltage drop.
But when connected in reverse bias, the reverse voltages
across each individual diode could vary drastically dependant
on the characteristics of each diode. If we require the same
reverse voltage drop to be applied across each diode, we will
have to connect resistors in parallel with each diode to ensure
they share the reverse voltage equally. (Fig 5.8 right, upper).
Parallel Connected Diodes

Connecting diodes in parallel can increase the current carrying
capability in a circuit, as the current is divided in this
configuration. Parallel-connected diodes are commonly used
in high power applications where a single diode cannot
accommodate the high current generated. To ensure equal
current sharing is achieved, resistors are connected in series
with the diodes. (Fig 5.8 right, lower).

Operating Parameters
Other Diodes
These devices are all silicon diodes (to satisfy the temperature
Zener Diode requirement) that are specifically manufactured to operate in
the reverse bias region.
The operation of voltage reference and voltage regular diodes
is very similar, in that they are designed to operate under From the characteristic it can be seen that the reverse current
reverse bias conditions in the 'breakdown' region. They have is very small and is virtually independent of voltage up to the
to be manufactured to operate in this region without damage breakdown point (a few mA). At breakdown the reverse
being caused. The differences are: current increases rapidly for very little increase in voltage. The
maximum amount of current that a device can pass will vary
Voltage Reference Diode but for voltage reference diodes it is in the order of 40 mA
whereas some voltage regulator diodes can handle currents in
This develops, and holds across its terminals a very stable excess of 15 A without destruction.
reference voltage when conducting within a narrow current
range. They have very low temperature coefficients so that the
designed reference voltage stays constant with variations in
temperature. They typically operate within a range of 4v to
75v.
Voltage Regulator Diode
The voltage developed across its terminals remains within a

certain range for fairly wide variations in current through it. Its
main use is in circuits where it is necessary to hold voltages
reasonably constant as variations occur in circuit conditions.
These devices are normally referred to as Zener diodes; other
names that have been used are 'breakdown' and 'avalanche'
diodes.
Figure 6.1 Zener Diode Characteristic

Figure 6.2 shows a typical zener diode together with its Basic Voltage Reference Zener Diode Circuit
symbol and I/V characteristic graph.
Figure 6.3 Zener Voltage Reference Circuit
Figure 6.2 Zener Diode with I/V Characteristic Assume that the diode has a breakdown voltage of 6.2V at a
working current of 7.5mA and a dynamic resistance of 1kΩ
These diodes are manufactured with breakdown voltages from (typical figures). To provide an output of 6.2V the value of R
about 2V up to 100V. This range can be extended by must be such that the diode will operate in the breakdown
connecting diodes in series. region.
One of the main uses of this circuit is where it is necessary to
hold the output voltage reasonably constant for changes in the R = V = 28-6.2
supply voltage and also changes in load conditions. I 7.5x10-3
= 2906 Ohms

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
A light emitting diode is a specially constructed and doped

diode type device which emits light when operated in the
forward bias condition. The colour of light emitted depends on
the semi-conductor material used, amongst them are:
Gallium arsenide phosphide - red light

Gallium phosphide - green light
The LED symbol is shown in Fig 6.4.
Unless an LED is the constant current type, which

incorporates an integrated circuit regulator, it must have an
external resistor connected in series to limit the forward
current which, typically may only be 10mA.
The voltage drop across a conducting LED is about 1.7 volts.

LEDs can be used to replace filament lamps, with the
advantage of less current consumption, less heat and no
filament to burn out. They are often found on aircraft fault
panels.
Figure 6.4 LED Symbol and Operation
In seven segment LED displays, each segment is a separate
LED and depending on which segments are energised, the
display lights up the number 0 to 9. Such displays are usually
designed to operate from a 5V supply - each segment needs
a separate current limiting resistor and all the cathodes or
anodes are joined together to form a common connection.

Photocells Photodiodes
Photocells change light into electrical signals. There are two Photodiodes are operated under reverse bias conditions. This
basic types, Photoconductive cells and Photovoltaic cells. device is a normal PN junction with a transparent case or
window. All semi-conductor diodes are subject to some
Photoconductive Cells movement of hole/electron pairs when the junction is at room
temperature and this gives rise to a small leakage current,
The resistance of certain semiconductors even with the diode reversed biased but the current is
decreases as the intensity of light falling on measured in microamperes. The leakage current increases in
them increases. They are therefore light proportion to the amount of light falling on the device. When
sensitive resistors and are sometimes light falls on the junction, its energy produces a much larger
referred to as light dependent resistors or number of hole/electron pairs and the leakage current is
varistors. They operate in either direction greatly increased. These devices have a rapid response to
(Bidirectional devices). light and are used in the encoding altimeter to convert the
binary grey code into a digital electrical signal.(Fig 6.5)
Photovoltaic Cells
When illuminated, a photovoltaic cell

produces a voltage. If an external circuit
is connected to the cell, current flows
through it. The source of energy is the
light.
The voltage available depends on the

material used, the intensity of the light and the amount of
current drawn from the cell. For a silicon cell in full sunlight
Figure 6.5 Photo-diode Symbol and Construction
the voltage on open circuit is 0.45V; with a maximum current
of 35mA for each square cm of cell. Only about 10% of the
light is turned into electrical energy.

Varactor Diode
Varactor diodes provide a variable capacitance, which is

controlled by increasing or decreasing the voltage being
applied across them. Accordingly they are used in circuits
including “Voltage Controlled Oscillators” (VCOs) and filters.
Sometimes these diodes are referred to as “Varicap” or “Vari-
cap” diodes.
They operate on the principle that a reverse bias connected P-

N junction acts as a small variable capacitor. (The depletion
layer forming the dielectric). Altering the reverse bias voltage
alters the capacitance of the junction.
Ordinary P-N junction diodes can be used in this way, but

specially manufactured devices offer controlled, higher levels
of capacitance.
The varactor diode employs a standard P-N junction. With the

device connected in the reverse bias sense, a depletion layer
is formed and no current flows through it. The depletion layer
can be considered as two plates of different charges with the
gap between them acting as a dielectric. Figure 6.6 shows the Figure 6.6 Varactor Diode Symbol and Operation
capacitance across a P-N junction diode.
The greater the level of reverse bias that is placed across the
diode, the greater the depletion layer becomes. The further
apart the “Plates” become, the smaller is the capacitance.
Varactor diodes are always operated under the reverse bias
condition, so there is no conduction.

The capacitance range obtained depends on the area of the

junction and the width of the depletion layer for a given bias
voltage. The latter is governed by the doping concentration.
These diodes typically operate with reverse bias voltage from

around a couple of volts up to 20V or more. At the top end of
the range, there is comparatively little change in the
capacitance created.
Two voltage points are usually specified with relation to this

device, one at the top of its range and the other near the
bottom at the minimum useable voltage. The higher of the two
figures is normally the maximum reverse bias voltage and this
should not be exceeded otherwise breakdown may occur.
There are three main uses for varactor diodes:
 As remotely controlled capacitors in RF tuned circuits.

 As variable capacitors in amplifiers.
 As variable capacitors in frequency modulator circuits.
It can be seen from figure 6.7, the greater the reverse Figure 6.7 Varactor Diode Characteristic
voltage applied, then the larger the depletion layer and the
smaller will be the capacitance.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (Thyristor) the cathode and anode respectively while the central P region
is connected to the gate. (Fig 6.10).
The SCR, or thyristor, is a semi-conductor device made up of
both N and P materials. It has two stable states, “OFF” or In the off condition with the circuit connected to a supply, the
“ON”, and is used as a switching device. junction from the gate towards the anode is reverse biased
whilst the junction between the base and the anode and the
base and the cathode are forward biased. For all practical
purposes, current flow is blocked, although a small leakage
current will flow.
The SCR is switched on either by increasing the supply

voltage to a value known as the break-over voltage, or by
application of a positive current pulse to the gate. In this state
both inner regions are saturated with carriers and the junction
between them is forward biased. In consequence, the potential
difference across the SCR is very low. Beyond the break-over
point the current increases rapidly, limited only by the
resistance of the circuit.
If the current should fall below a value termed the ‘holding

current’, the SCR reverts to the off or forward blocking
position. It should be noted that once the gate is pulsed it no
longer controls the current so that its supply can be removed
Figure 6.10 SCR Construction and Symbol without affecting the operation of the SCR.
The SCR is made up of four regions of semi-conductor

material. There are three connecting electrodes, the anode,
cathode and gate. The outer N and P regions are connected to

Figure 6.11 shows a typical SCR characteristic with 0 Figure 6.12 shows a SRC used to control a simple dc lamp
milliamps on the gate (Red curve). When the anode voltage supply circuit. When S1 is closed, the lamp will remain OFF.
reaches the break-over point, in this case 360 volts, the When S2 is closed, the gate current flows and the SCR will
current through the device goes to a maximum. switch ON, i.e. “Fires”. The anode current is large enough to
light L1.
If the gate current is increased, (Blue curve, 40mA through the
gate), then the break-over point occurs at lower anode
voltages. The advantage of the SCR can be seen from the fact
that a large current can be switched with a very small
controlling current.
Figure 6.12 SCR Light Control Circuit
L1 will remain illuminated even when S2 is opened and will

only switch OFF when S1 is opened.

As well as a high current switching device (up to 1000A), the

SCR can be used as a current controlling device.
When a thyristor is used with an ac supply it can only conduct

on the positive half-cycles like a rectifier. This means that a
trigger pulse would be necessary to fire the thyristor every
half-cycle. By varying the firing point (phase shift) the current
can be controlled. (Figure 6.13).
On the positive half cycles the thyristor will be in its off state
and all of the applied voltages will be dropped across CSR1
and there will be no voltage developed across the load. The
voltage applied to the anode will also be applied to the gate
but will be delayed due to the charging time of the capacitor.
Once the gate voltage is high enough CSR1 will conduct and
voltage will be applied to the load.
By varying the CR time we can control when CSR1 switches

on. To increase the average power to the load decrease the
value of R1 and to decrease the average load increase the
value of R1.
When the anode voltage reduces to zero the device will switch
off and it will remain off throughout the negative half cycle of
the input waveform.
Thus, R1 gives control over the firing point, so controlling the
power to the load.
Figure 6.13 SCR Current Control Operation

SCR Used as a Pulse Generator Bi-directional Triode Thyristor (Triac)
This is a very common use of SCRs in radio and radar circuits. To make use of both half cycles of the input waveform it is
The capacitor C1 is charged via RI to a voltage less than the necessary to have two SCR's connected in inverse parallel.
break-over voltage of CSR1.
Figure 6.15 Triac Represented by Two SCRs
The name TRIAC is often used for this type of device. The
triac is manufactured with a single gate terminal which
simplifies the triggering for ac controllers. The terminals are
Figure 6.14 SCR Used as a Pulse Generator called Gate, Main Terminals 1 and 2 (MT1 and MT2). The
correct symbol is shown in Figure 6.16.
A suitable trigger pulse is applied and CSR1 will conduct,
which discharges C1 through the pulse transformer T1.

Triac A.C. Power Controller Bi-directional Breakdown Diode (Diac)
The most common The diac is a two terminal three layer device and therefore is
use for this type of not a member of the thyristor family. Its main use is to provide
circuit is in motor the gate triggering waveform for triacs. (Fig 6.17).
speed control and
as a solid state
relay contactor.
The arrangement
is such that
switching at a low
power level can be
used to apply high
power to a load.
Figure 6.16 Triac A.C. Power Control Circuit
When no gating signal is applied, the gate terminal of the triac

is shorted to MT1 by the secondary of the gate transformer
and the load is switched off.
When a gating signal is applied the load is then switched on. Figure 6.17 Diac Construction, Symbol and I/V
Advantages of this type of circuit over electro-mechanical Characteristic
relays include No contact bounce at switch on; no arcing at
switch off: small size; lightweight; no moving parts; no routine
maintenance
However the main disadvantage is that they can only be used

with ac loads.

When an increasing voltage of either polarity is applied,

initially only a small leakage current will flow. When a certain
voltage is reached the reverse biased junction will breakdown
and current will flow with a corresponding reduction in the
voltage dropped across the device. The current in the device
is limited by other components connected in series with it. The
two p type regions are doped the same to give a symmetrical
breakdown characteristic.
Diac Operation (Figure 6.18).
The main use of the diac is to provide suitable triggering

current pulses into the gate terminal of a Triac. The capacitor
C charges at a rate dependant on the value of R1 during each
half cycle.
When the voltage reaches the breakdown voltage (either

positive or negative) of the Diac the capacitor will rapidly
discharge through the Diac and the gate circuit of the Triac
causing it to switch on. Figure 6.18 Diac Trigger for a Triac Speed Control
The Triac will switch off when the input voltage falls to zero.
Typical uses for these devices include speed controllers for
a.c. motors and light dimmers.

Functional Testing of Diodes Digital meters, on the other hand, have a positive output
voltage on their red leads and negative on the black lead.
To test a diode an ohmmeter is applied as in Figures 6.19 and Shown in figure 6.20.
6.20. The principle is that when forward biased the resistance
should be about 1 kΩ and when reverse biased it should be in
the order of several MΩ.
Problems arise because analogue meters (Avometer type

meters) feed out a positive voltage on the black lead and
negative on the red lead. This is shown in figure 6.19.
Figure 6.20 Result of Testing a Serviceable Diode with a

Digital Type Multimeter on Ohms Range
Figure 6.19 Result of Testing a Serviceable Diode with an

Analogue (Avo Type) Multimeter on Ohms Range

4.1.2 Transistors base +ve with respect to emitter for an n-p-n device, and base
–ve relative to emitter for a p-n-p device).
The transistor can be a high or low resistance device, hence
the name, which is derived from TRANSfer resISTOR. It is If you find it simpler, you can think of a transistor as two
used in many switching and amplifier circuits where its diodes connected back to back, with the arrow representing
resistive properties are controlled by small currents. Most of the base-emitter diode.
the theory from diodes can be extended to describe the
operation of the transistor. The base layer is physically very thin (less than 10 -6 metre)
and is lightly doped. The emitter is very heavily doped, with
The bipolar junction transistor is a three layer device with two the collector heavily doped and also physically much larger
p-n junctions. There are two possible types of arrangement: than the emitter. (Fig 7.1).
 The n-p-n transistor, which consists of a thin region of

p-type material sandwiched between two n-type
regions.
 The p-n-p transistor, which consists of a thin region of

n-type material between two p-type regions.
The three portions of the transistor are called the Emitter (e),
the Base (b) and the Collector (c). Although the emitter and
collector regions are the same type of extrinsic semiconductor
(N-type in n-p-n and P-type in p-n-p), they are constructed and
doped differently and are not interchangeable on a practical
device. The circuit symbol for both p-n-p and n-p-n are shown
in figure 7.1. The only difference between them is the
direction of the arrowhead on the emitter. For either type, the
arrowhead indicates the direction of “Conventional” current
flow when the base/emitter junction is forward biased (i.e. Figure 7.1 Construction and Symbols of Transistors

Transistor Action
If R1 is a low value compared to R2 current will flow from the +
For simplification of the explanation I will describe the side of the left hand battery through R1 and then to e.
operation of an npn transistor. Instead of conventional current let us think of electron flow.
Electrons will flow from e to b; a small amount will flow out to
First let us examine Fig 7.2. I have represented the emitter- the battery junction and the rest continue to c. The total
base (e-b) and base-collector (b-c) regions as resistors. We electron current from e will equal the sum of the two electron
can see that conventional current would flow from c through b currents leaving b.
to e, with electron flow in the opposite direction.
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.2
In the above examples we have used fixed value resistors.
Now let us consider Fig 7.3. I have split the battery in two, and Now we will see what happens when they are replaced by an
connected the centre to point b. We can see that c is still npn transistor. We will forward bias the base emitter junction
positive with respect to (w.r.t.) b and b is still positive w.r.t. e. (effectively forming a small variable resistance) and reverse
Conventional current will still flow from c to b and from b to e. bias the base collector junction to make this a very high
Depending on the value of the resistors, there will be current resistance. In Fig 7.4 I have drawn the npn regions such that
either from the + side of the left hand battery to point b and we can see the electron and hole movements within them.
thence to e, or from b to the junction of the batteries.

emitter) and the base-collector junction is reverse biased

(collector is several volts positive with respect to the base).
(This equates to R1 having a low and R2 a very high value as
in Fig 7.3). Fig 7.4 (a) shows the internal effects of this
forward-reverse bias; the forward bias, base to emitter,
narrows the be depletion region, whilst the reverse bias, base
to collector, widens the bc depletion region. (Red and blue
circles representing positive and negative ions respectively).
In Fig 7.4 (b) we see the result of the forward bias b to e. The
heavily doped emitter is teeming with majority carrier electrons
(blue dots) which diffuse into the very lightly doped base
region. The base is very narrow and so has very few holes
(red dots) for the electrons from the emitter to combine with.
Those that do so give the very small base current Ib.
Fig 7.4 (c) shows what happens to the remaining electrons

which diffused into the base. They are pulled across the
reverse biased bc junction by the attraction of the positive ions
in the collector, together with the large positive voltage of the
external battery; this being the collector current Ic.
The number of electrons available to form the collector current

depends on the size of the base current. The more forward
Figure 7.4 Transistor Action (base width greatly biased is the base-emitter junction the more electrons will be
exaggerated) available in the base to form the collector current, essentially
independent of collector voltage.
Figure 7.4 (a) shows an n-p-n transistor which has its two
junctions biased such that the base-emitter junction is forward The result is a very small variation of Ib causes a large
biased, (base approx. 0.6 to 0.7 v positive with respect to the variation in Ic, thus giving power gain across the transistor.

Bias Conditions for Transistor Conduction For this to occur, the base-emitter junction must be forward
biased with the base-collector junction reverse biased. The
As shown in the previous notes and in fig 7.4; for an npn pnp transistor conducts in a similar manner, but the polarities
transistor to conduct transistor action must take place. of the applied voltages are, of course, reversed. See Fig 7.5.
Transistor Currents
Figure 7.6 shows conventional current flow through an npn

and a pnp transistor, both physically and schematically.
You will note that the emitter current (Ie) is the sum of the
base (Ib) and collector (Ic) currents: Ie = Ib + Ic
Electron flow is in the opposite sense.
Figure 7.6 Conventional Transistor Current Flow
Figure 7.5 Bias Conditions for Transistor Conduction

Configurations
Before a transistor can be used it must be connected into an

input circuit (by two wires) and an output circuit (two wires).
Because the transistor only has three terminals one must be
common to both input and output.
The common base and common collector (often called an
emitter follower) configurations are mainly used for buffering
and impedance matching. The common emitter configuration
is the one used mostly, as this provides gain of both voltage Figure 7.8 Common Base Configuration
and current, and will be studied further in these notes.
Common Base gives current gain <1 (about 0.99)
voltage gain high; low input resistance (50Ω).
Figure 7.7 Common Emitter Configuration
Common Emitter gives large current gain (50-500); high Figure 7.9 Common Collector Configuration
voltage gain; medium input resistance (2kΩ). There is also a
180º phase shift between the input and output signals.
Common Collector (often called Emitter Follower) gives large
current gain; voltage gain less than 1and a very high input
resistance (1MΩ).

Current and Voltage Amplification

Current Amplification (β) = Peak to Peak Variation of Ic
Consider the transistor as shown in fig 7.10. In order to get Peak to Peak Variation of Ib
current flow through the device the two PN junctions have to
be biased, with the forward bias of the base emitter junction In practical terms the amplification required is voltage
approximately 0.7V and the reverse bias on the base-collector amplification
junction much higher.
Figure 7.11 Voltage Amplifier
If a sinusoidal voltage is now applied to the base: To convert changes
On the positive half cycle the forward bias of the base emitter in Ic into voltage
junction is increased which causes a corresponding large then a load
increase in collector resistance is
current. inserted into the
On the negative half collector lead. The
cycle the base emitter load resistor and
voltage is reduced and the transistor form a
the transistor will cut-off, potential divider
as the junction is no circuit. With the
longer forward biased. base emitter
junction forward
biased to 0.75V and
Figure 7.10 Common Emitter Transistor the collector at 9V
the transistor is
In order to make the transistor respond to both half cycles the switched on and
initial forward bias voltage needs to be greater than the 0.7V collector current will be flowing. There will be a volts drop
required to switch the transistor on. If it were increased to across RL and this plus the voltage across the device (Vout)
0.75V, then on the negative half cycle of the input waveform will equal the supply voltage Vcc.
the base current will reduce, causing a large reduction in
collector current. Current amplification has now been
achieved;

If an ac signal is input, on the positive half cycles Ib will

increase and Ic will increase; the voltage across RL will
increase and Vout will decrease.
On negative half cycles the reverse will occur and Vout will
increase.
The voltage gain will be = Peak to Peak value of Vout

Peak to peak value of Vin
It is important to note that there is now a 180 degree

phase shift between the input and output signals.

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Modes of Operation collector current flow, there will be no voltage drop across Rc.
Output ‘A’ will be at Vcc, a high level representing a ‘1’ out.
Transistors are in one of three states, being either ‘CUT-OFF’;
‘SATURATED’ (fully on); or ‘AMPLIFYING’ (controlling the Changing switch A to the ‘0’ position now biases the transistor
size of the output signal). to saturation (from Vcc through Re). The collector of the
transistor and hence the output will fall to about 0.7V (the
Cut-Off is when the base-emitter junction is not forward voltage drop across the transistor) representing a ‘0’ out.
biased. The transistor is switched off.
Saturated means the transistor is in full conduction. Both the

base-emitter and base-collector junctions will be forward
biased; any increase in base current will have virtually no
effect on the collector current. Changing the bias between
that for cut-off and for saturation enables the transistor to be
used as a switch.
When Amplifying the bias is set between the two extremes

above. For linear amplification (distortion free) the bias must
be chosen carefully. This point is called the Quiescent Point
(Q-Point) and is the static d.c. state of the transistor with no
signal input. The a.c. signal superimposed on this bias will
make the transistor conduct more during the positive half
cycle and less during the negative half cycle.
Transistor Used as a Switch
If we examine figure 7.15 and consider the effect of switch A

on the transistor’s bias voltage. With the switch as shown, the Figure 7.15 A Transistor Used as a Switch
bias will be zero volts and the transistor is cut-off. With no

4.1.3 Integrated Circuits (ICs) The first ICs were made in the early 1960s and consisted of
fairly simple circuits with fewer than 100 components per chip.
Introduction They were small-scale integrated (SSI) circuits. The
complexity increased rapidly, through medium-scale
An IC is a complete electronic circuit (containing transistors, integrated (MSI) and large-scale integrated (LSI) circuits, until
and perhaps diodes, resistors and capacitors) made from, today very-large-scale (VLSI) ones may have millions of
and on, a chip of silicon about 5 mm square and no more than components.
0.5 mm thick.
Compared with circuits built from separate components ICs
In Fig. 8.1 it is in its protective plastic case which has been are very much smaller, lighter, cheaper and more reliable.
partly removed to reveal the IC ('chip') and the wires radiating However their small size limits the power and voltage
from it to the pins that enable it to communicate with the (typically 30 V maximum) they can handle. In addition,
outside world. ICs are packaged in different ways; that shown although silicon is ideal for making diodes and transistors, it is
here is the popular dual-in-line (d.i.l.) arrangement with the not so good for high value resistors and capacitors (where the
pins (often 8, 14, 16 or more) 0.1 inch apart, in two lines on present limits are about 50 kΩ and 200 pF respectively)
either side of the case. Circular metal packages, similar to because they need too much space. Also, inductors and
those used for some transistors, are also common. transformers cannot be produced on a silicon chip.
Silicon containing no more than I in 1010 parts of impurity (i.e.

99.9999999% pure) is produced chemically from silicon
dioxide, the main constituent of sand. It is then melted in an
inert atmosphere and crystallization starts when a small
crystal of 'pure' silicon (a 'seed') is inserted into and then
slowly withdrawn from it. A cylindrical bar, up to 10 cm in
diameter and 1 metre or so long, is formed as a single, near
perfect crystal.
Figure 8.1 Typical DIL Integrated Circuit

The bar is cut into ¼ to ½ mm thick wafers whose surfaces Integrated capacitors are either reverse biased p-n junctions
are ground and highly polished. (Fig 8.2). or two conducting areas (e.g. of aluminium or doped silicon)
separated by a layer of silicon dioxide as dielectric. Each chip
Depending on their size, several is tested and faulty ones discarded; up to 70% may fail. The
hundred identical circuits (the wafers are next cut into separate chips; each chip is then
'chips') may be formed side by side packaged and
on the surface of one wafer by an connected
extension of the planar process (automatically) by
used for transistors. This first gold wires to the
involves depositing an insulating pins on the case.
layer of silicon dioxide on the The complete
wafer, then using a pattern of process, which
photographic masks, designed can require up to
from a large drawing of one chip, to three months,
create 'windows' in the oxide by must be done in a
exposure to ultraviolet light, followed by developing and controlled,
etching away with acids, Fig. 8.3. absolutely clean
environment. As
Doping then occurs, by exposing the wafer at high with discrete
temperature to the vapour of either boron or phosphorus, so component
that their atoms diffuse through the 'windows' into the silicon. circuits there are
The p- and n-type regions so produced for the various two broad groups
components are next interconnected to give the required of integrated
circuit by depositing aluminium, again using masks. Several circuit; - linear (or
layers can be built one on top of the other in this way. The analogue) and
construction of integrated diodes and transistors is similar to digital. The earliest ICs were digital, because they are easier
that of their discrete versions. Integrated resistors are thin to make and the market for them was larger.
layers of p-type silicon whose value depends on their length,
cross-sectional area and degree of doping. These are covered in Module 5. Linear ICs are the subject of
this Unit, particularly operational amplifiers, which were the

first linear type (1964). Most linear ICs are based on bipolar Figure 8.4 shows the AND gate truth table, logic circuit
transistors, but in some cases FETs are used either symbol and a corresponding circuit to carry out this function.
exclusively or in addition to bipolar types. The AND gate has an output of 1 only when all of its inputs
are equal to 1. The schematic circuit shows two switches
Types of Integrated Circuit connected in series. Unless both switches are closed, there
is no current flow to the output. The AND function is written
Integrated circuits are placed into two general groups, these as: X = A.B
are:
 Digital ICs.
 Linear ICs.
Digital ICs
Digital circuits are covered in much more detail in the Module

5 notes. I will briefly describe here what is required for the
syllabus. Digital circuits use discrete values (0 or 1) to
perform 3 general functions. These are:
 AND Function.
 OR Function.
 NOT Function.

These three functions are performed by logic circuits that are
called the AND, OR and NOT logic gates. These gates or
circuit configurations can be combined to make decision
based on digital input information. In a digital logic gate it is Figure 8.4 AND Gate
only possible to have an output of either a 0 or 1.
AND Gate

OR Gate NOT Gate
Figure 8.5 shows the OR gate truth table, logic circuit symbol The NOT gate provides an output that is always the opposite
and a corresponding circuit to carry out this function. The OR of the input. This is called an inversion or 180 phase shift.
gate has an output if any input is a 1. The scematic shows The NOT gate is commonly referred to as an inverter. Figure
switches in parallel. The OR function is written as : X = A + B 8.6 shows the NOT gate truth table and logic circuit and a
corresponding circuit to carry out this function. The NOT
function is written X = Ā.
Figure 8.6 NOT Gate

Figure 8.5 OR Gate

Linear ICs- the Operational Amplifier An operational amplifier (OP AMP) is a direct coupled
amplifier with a very high open loop voltage gain (A). It uses
Introduction feedback techniques to control both its operating
characteristics and its overall function. It can be used to
Operational amplifiers (Op Amps) were originally made from perform most general purpose amplifier duties as well as a
discrete components. They were designed to solve number of mathematical operations.
mathematical equations electronically, by performing
operations such as addition and division in analogue Properties of an Ideal Op Amp.
computers. Nowadays in IC form they have many uses, one
of the most important being as high gain d.c. and a.c. voltage Although the characteristics of an ideal op amp are
amplifiers. An Op Amp can contain twenty transistors or so, unattainable, modern IC types can provide a close
as well as resistors and small capacitors. A typical Op Amp is approximation. The ideal characteristics are:
shown in fig. 8.7; the physical size can be seen in fig 8.1.
 Infinite Open Loop Voltage Gain (Ao).
 Infinite Bandwidth i.e. 0 to infinity.
 Infinite Input Resistance.
 Zero Output Resistance.
 Zero Offset i.e. is output should be zero when the input

is zero.
Figure 8.7 Internal Structure of an Op Amp IC

Properties of a Practical Op Amp If an input is applied to the inverting input (with non-inverting
input grounded) the resulting output voltage is in anti-phase
As an indication of how near the practical op amp achieves with the input. If an input is applied to the non-inverting input
the ideal properties, listed below are the characteristics of the (with the inverting input grounded) the output voltage is in
SN741 op amp which will be used in the laboratory phase with the input.
experiments:
Operation is from a dual balanced d.c. power supply giving
 Ao = 200,000 equal positive and
negative voltages,
 Bandwidth depends on amount of NFB applied but in the range +5 v
gain falls to 0dB at just less than 1 MHz. to + 15 v. (Do not
confuse the input
 Rin = 2MΩ signs with those
for the supply
 Rout = 75Ω polarities, which,
for clarity, are
 Input offset voltage = 1 mV i.e. this is the voltage which often left off
must be applied between the input terminals through circuit-diagrams.)
two equal resistors to obtain zero quiescent output Most of the
voltage. terminals are self-
 NB. More modern ICs using FETs will approximate explanatory or will
closer to ideal properties. be explained in
the course of
Operation these notes.
The op amp has a differential amplifier first stage with two

inputs and one output. The non-inverting input is marked + Figure 8.8
and the inverting input is marked -. (Fig 8.8) The output Op Amp Symbol and Pin-Out
voltage is proportional to the difference between the voltages
applied to the two input terminals.

Offset Null supply is the same as that from a +9V to 0V to -9V one,
however, if a single power supply is used, extra components
Terminals 1 and 5, the offset null terminals require further are required.
explanation. If the same input signal is applied to the input
terminals 2 and 3 the output (terminal 6) should be zero, in Output Voltage Limits
practice it is not. For d.c. amplification this is not acceptable.
The output is zeroed by The output voltage of an amplifier cannot rise above the
connecting a resistor supply voltage. If the op amp output needs to be allowed to
between terminals 1 & 5 as swing positive and negative then the op amp has to have both
shown, and adjusting it until positive and negative voltage supplies. These determine the
the output falls to zero. For limits of output voltage, and if they are exceeded cause
a.c. amplification a coupling distortion.
capacitor in series with the
output removes any If the voltage applied to the inverting input (-) is positive
unwanted d.c. offset. (Fig relative to the other input, the output voltage is negative. If
8.9). the voltage applied to the inverting input (-) is negative
relative to the other input, the output voltage is positive. That
is, the inverting input and the output are anti-phase.
Figure 8.9 Offset Null
Basically an op-amp is a differential amplifier. It amplifies the
Power Requirements difference between the two input voltages.
Operation is from a dual balanced d.c. power supply giving There are 3 cases:
equal positive and negative voltage + Vs in the range +5V to If V+ > V- the output is positive
+15V. The centre point of the power supply, i.e. 0V is If V+ < V- the output is negative
common to input and output and is taken as their voltage If V+ = V- the output is zero
reference.
In general the output is given by Vout = Ao  ((V+) - (V-))
An op-amp can be operated from a single power supply. The where Ao is the gain.
voltage difference available from, for example, a 0V to 18V

Negative Feedback The relatively small loss in gain is far outweighed by the
As already advantages
mentioned, and as obtained.
can be seen from A simple feedback
the transfer network is shown in
characteristic in the diagram of an
figure 8.10; there inverting amplifier
is only a very in figure 8.11. The
small range of signal to be
input values giving amplified is applied
an output that is to the inverting
directly input via the
proportional (A to resistor; the output
B). It takes very little input to drive the amplifier into saturation is therefore
due to its extremely high gain. antiphase with respect to the input. The non-inverting input is
connected to ground. Negative feedback is provided by
Assuming a gain of 105, the maximum input voltage swing (for resistor Rf, called the 'feedback resistor', it feeds back a
linear amplification) is 9V/105 = 90V. This is of little certain amount of output voltage to the inverting input.
practical use. To reduce this gain and allow larger input
signals requires the use of negative feedback. Part of the Using this arrangement the gain can be calculated from;
output is fed back to the input in such a way that it produces a
voltage at the output that opposes the one from which it was -Rf/R1; therefore if Rf = 1M and R1 = 10k
taken. This basically means taking part of the output and 1M
feeding it back to the inverting input. (Feedback applied to the gain A = = -100
10k
the non-inverting input would be positive and would increase
the output). an input of 0.01V will cause an output change of 1.0V.
The application of negative feedback also gives greater It should be noted that the gain depends entirely on the
stability, less distortion and increased bandwidth; it also values of resistors Rf and R1, and is totally independent of
becomes possible to exactly predict the gain of the amplifier. the parameters of the operational amplifier.

Comparator (Difference Amplifier)
Figure 8.12 shows the circuit for an Op amp “Difference”

amplifier; often called a “Comparator”.
Voltages V1 and V2 are applied to its two input terminals and
the difference between these voltages is amplified. The output
voltage is given by
Vout = Ao x (V1 – V2)
V1 is the inverting and V2 is the non-inverting input

The difference in voltage is amplified and appears at the
output, depending on Ao, the ratio of Rf to Rin(R1).
If the feedback resistor were omitted, the gain of the amplifier

would be so large that only a very small voltage difference
between the two inputs (approximately 90 μV) would cause
the output to fall or rise to the supply voltage limit. The op
amp would now behave like a 2-state switch, switching high
or low depending on the difference in the inputs.
Figure 8.12 Comparator (Difference Amplifier)
If a reference voltage were connected to the inverting input,
the output would swing to +Vs when the signal was greater
than the reference voltage and to -Vs when the signal was
smaller than the reference.

Op Amp Summing Amp
When connected as multi-input inverting amplifier (see  Rf Rf Rf 

Vout = - R1  Vin 1 + R2  Vin 2 + R3  Vin 3
previous topic on feedback), an op amp can be used to add a  
number of voltages, either a.c. or d.c.
The input voltages are added and amplified if Rf is greater
than each of the input resistors.
If R1 = R2 = R3 = Rin, the input voltages are amplified

equally
-Rf
and Vout = Rin (Vin 1 + Vin 2 + Vin 3)
If R1 = R2 = R3 = Rin = Rf
then Vout = (Vin 1 + Vin 2 + Vin 3)
The output voltage is the sum of the input voltages but is of

the opposite polarity.
Figure 8.13 Op Amp Summing Amp
This device can be used as a digital to analogue
In figure 8.13, 3 input voltages, Vin 1, Vin 2 and Vin 3 are converter by making R2 twice the size of R1, and R3
applied through resistors R1, R2 and R3 respectively. At twice the size of R2. If a 3 bit digital word is then
point P an ideal Op Amp has infinite input impedance, so no
current will flow into the amplifier and the input currents at applied to the resistors, with the least significant bit
point P are I1 + I2 + I3 = It. (Kirchoff) applied to R1 and the most significant bit applied to
R3, the output will be the analogue equivalent of the
-V0ut Vin 1 Vin 2 Vin 3 binary word.
Hence: Rf = R1 + R2 + R3

4.2 Printed Circuit Boards avionics bay, saving the weight of LRU cases and mounting
trays. Failure normally means PCB replacement.
The assembly of the various circuits, which form part of the
units employed in aircraft electronic systems, necessitates the
interconnection of many components by means of electrical
conductors. Before the introduction of printed wiring, these
conductors were formed by wires, which connected to the
components either by soldering, or by screw and crimped
terminal methods.
In the development of circuit technology, micro-

miniaturisation, rationalisation of component layout and
mounting, weights saving, and the simplification of installation
and maintenance, become essential factors. As a result, the
technique of printing the required circuits was adopted.
In this technique, a metallic foil is first bonded to a base board

made from an insulating material, and a pattern is then
printed and etched on the foil to form a series of current
conducting paths, the pattern replacing the old method or
wiring. Connecting points and mounting pads, for the
soldering of components appropriate to the circuit, are also
formed on the board. As a single assembly the board satisfies
the structural and electrical requirements of the unit of which it Figure 9.1 Typical Printed Circuit Board
forms a part. If the circuit is a simple one, the wiring may be
formed on one side of a board, but, for more complex circuits Base Material
the wiring is continued on to the reverse side, which also
serves as the mounting for components. In addition, complex The base material, or laminate as it is sometimes called, is
circuits may be incorporated in multi-layer assemblies. the insulating material to which the conducting material is
Modern aircraft have PCBs fitted directly into racks in the bonded. The base material also serves as a mounting for the

components which comprise the circuit. The base material is After cooling has taken place, the individual copper-clad
commonly made up either of layers of phenolic resin boards are trimmed to the required size, inspected, and
impregnated paper, or of epoxy resin impregnated fibre glass packed in sealed polythene bags.
cloth which has been bonded to form a rigid sheet, which can
be readily sawn, cut, punched or drilled. The thickness of the Masking and Etching
base material depends on the strength and stiffness
requirements of the finished board, which, in turn are dictated Modern PCBs are designed using specialised software to
by the weight of the components to be carried, and by the automate the siting of components and tracks on the finished
size of the printed conductor area. board. Photographic masks are produced and the board has
the unwanted copper etched away in a similar manner to that
Conductor Material used to produce integrated circuits. (Figure 9.2)
The most commonly used conducting material is copper foil,

the minimum purity value of which is 99.5%.
Bonding of Conductor Material
For the manufacture of a typical circuit board, the base

material and copper foil are cut into sheets, and are then Component insertion into the board, soldering and testing are
inspected and assembled inside a clean room in alternate all done automatically by computer controlled machines.
layers with stainless steel separator plates (known as cauls)
interposed between the layers. The steel plates, which are After manufacture, all boards are inspected, and tests are
accurate in thickness to within 0.001 inch, are very hard, and carried out on selected samples, in accordance with the
have a delicately grained surface which is imparted to the relevant specifications.
finished boards.
The layered are then bonded in a hot press, with each layer of Handling Precautions
the base material reaching the fully cured state with the
copper foil firmly bonded to it. You should always assume any PCB is Electro-Static
Sensitive and treat it accordingly. (Refer to Module 3 and 5
notes on ESDS precautions.

4.2 Servomechanisms Open Loop
Servomechanisms are a type of automatic control system. In this system, an input is applied and an output obtained.
The action of the output in slavishly following the demands of Figure 10.1 shows an example; assume an aircraft rudder
the input gives the system its name. (Servus is the Latin controlled by an open loop system. The demand, made by the
name for slave). pilot on the rudder bar, is picked up by the transducer which
Human operators are incapable of providing the degree of converts it to an electrical signal; i.e. the demand signal. This
precision necessary to operate complex machines requiring signal is amplified and fed to the motor, which responds by
fast and accurate control. They are also limited in the amount moving the load; i.e. the rudder. There is no positional
of power they can apply to a load. Servomechanisms provide feedback and the pilot does not know if the rudder has
the precise control and power that humans are unable to adopted the position requested.
provide.
The speed of response and the final position of the load
Servomechanisms possess the following properties: depend on the following factors:
 They are error activated.  Any variations in load conditions.

 They have power amplification.  Frictional forces within the motor and its load.
 They contain moving parts.  Variations in power supplies.
 They are automatic in operation.  The value of the demand voltage.
 Variations in amplifier gain.
Categories of Servo Systems
Servomechanisms can be classified according to two main

categories:
 Open loop systems.

 Closed loop systems.

back any difference between input demand and output to an

error detector. The error detector outputs an error signal to
the amplifier to make any positional corrections necessary at
the servo motor and thus the load (or rudder) is positioned as
demanded.
If, for example, the pilot wanted to move the rudder 5°, a
demand is made at the rudder bar and this is converted to a
voltage at the transducer, say +5 volts. The error detector
immediately gives an output signal corresponding to +5 volts
error and this is amplified to drive the motor, moving the
rudder.
The output position transducer converts the output position to

Figure 10.1 Open Loop Servo System an electrical signal, which corresponding to the new position
of the rudder. This negative feedback signal to the error
As the open loop system suffers from the variable factors detector is summed with the demand, and the error signal will
shown above, the output is unlikely to follow the input reduce. This process, called 'follow up', continues until the
precisely and cannot provide the close tolerance required. demanded position is achieved and the error signal has
reduced to zero. (Error = Demand – Feedback). The feedback
Closed Loop will have reached -5 volts.
In the closed loop system, the demand is made in the same

way. In a basic system, positional feedback would be given
to the pilot who would make adjustments accordingly, but this
is
not practical with systems such as aircraft flying controls.
Figure 10.2 shows a closed loop automatic system (Remote
Positional Control System or RPC). An output position
transducer has been added to the servomotor and this feeds

The essential features of a closed loop system are: There are two main classes of servomechanism - remote
position control (RPC) servos and velocity control servos
 Information concerning the behaviour of the load is fed (velodynes).
back to the input. This is called feedback.
 The position of the output (feedback) is compared to that As we have seen above, RPCs are used to control the
demanded by the input typically in a summing amplifier. angular, or linear position of a load (e,g. the rudder).
 An error signal is produced proportional to the
difference between the demand and feedback signals. Remote Position Control Servomechanisms (RPCs)
 Power amplification of the error signal to control the
load. The essential parts of an RPC servo are as follows:
 Movement of the load in such a direction as to reduce
the error signal to zero, at which point the output is the Transducers - In general, a transducer is a device for
same as that demanded by the input. converting one form of energy into another, for example,
electrical to mechanical, heat to electrical or light to electrical.
In servo systems these are generally used to convert a
mechanical input to an electrical signal for the servo.
Amplifier - The amplifier increases the power of the input

signal to a level suitable to drive the device being positioned.
Large mechanical work outputs are therefore possible for very
small work inputs.
Motors - Motors are used to move the device being

controlled. They are usually coupled to a gearbox and
produce either a linear or rotary motion.
Velocity Control Servomotors - Velodynes.

Figure 10.2 Closed Loop Servo System
Unlike RPCs, these are used to control the speed of a load.
In this case, the speed of the driving motor is made

proportional to the input demand, usually a voltage. (e.g. the

control of a radar scanner, which is required to rotate with a
constant angular velocity).
Velodynes are similar to RPCs, but have some form of

Tacho-Generator to give velocity feedback to the error
detector, as opposed to the RPC’s positional feedback.
They are described in more detail later in these notes. Figure 10.3 Types of Input
Types of Inputs System Response
There are three possible types of inputs to a servo, these are: How well servomechanisms responds to a particular change
in input signal, in terms of transient response and overshoot,
Step Input - This type of input can be achieved by switching is a measure of its overall performance. Any servomechanism
off the servo power, moving the input shaft and then re- will take a finite time to start to move and also to settle down
applying power. The response of a servo system to this type at a new position. 'Setting Time' is defined as the time taken
of input reveals a great deal of information about the servo to approach a final steady state within specific limits. Fig 10.4
system. It is therefore used as a test signal. shows the response of an RPC system to a step input.
Ramp Input - This type of input is created when the input

shaft is suddenly rotated at a constant angular velocity. The
units would be radians / second. The diagram shows an
example of a ramp Input. Servo systems are subjected to this
type of input during normal operation.
Accelerating Input - An accelerating function is created

when the input shaft is rotated with a constant acceleration.
The units would be radians / second2. The diagram shows an
example of an accelerating input. Systems are also subject to
this type of input during normal operation.

then accelerates it back in the opposite direction where it will

again overshoot the desired position, at point Z. This process
can continue indefinitely if the frictional losses in the system
are negligible, and the system would oscillate continuously.
This is called 'hunting'. To avoid oscillation and subsequent
hunting, some form of damping is required
Damping
Different amounts of damping produce different response

curves:
Under-damped (a) - When overshoots and transient

oscillations are observed at the output of a system the
servomechanism is said to be under-damped.
Figure 10.4 RPCs Response to a Step Input
Critically-damped (c) - When the system responds to an
We would like our servo to instantly respond to any change of error in such a way that the output moves to the required
the demand signal, but due to stiction this does not happen. position at the fastest possible rate without producing
Especially, where the change in demand is very small, the overshoots it is said to be critically damped. This is a
servo may not respond at all. This is known as the theoretical position and provides the division between under-
‘Deadband’ of the servo. It can be lessened by increasing the damping and over-damping.
amplifier gain, but this can lead to instability.
Over-damped (d) - When no overshoots are produced, but a
Unless special precautions are taken the servomechanism time lag is introduced into the system, the servomechanism is
will oscillate. In Fig 10.4; when the output response reaches said to be over-damped.
the required value at point 'X', the load has acquired
considerable momentum and consequently overshoots. The In practice, servo systems are designed to be slightly under-
error now increases in the opposite sense and a reverse- damped in order to reduce response delays. This is shown by
torque is applied which brings the load to rest at point 'Y', and

the green line in the diagram. This degree of damping is Frictional Forces which Produce Damping
often called 'ideal or required damping' (b).
There are frictional forces inherent in a servo system, which
Under ideally damped conditions, the system reaches the provide damping. These are coulomb friction and viscous
required position more quickly than when critically damped, friction. Another friction present when the servo is at rest is
but it over swings the demanded position and has to move stiction.
back onto it. This means the system takes slightly longer to
reach the steady state. Stiction
Stiction is present in the system when it is at rest. This initial

friction must be overcome in order for the system to move.
Once moving, stiction falls to zero. The name stiction comes
from Static Friction.
Figure 10.6 Coulomb Friction versus Undamped

Figure 10.5 Degrees of Damping

Coulomb Friction
Coulomb Friction is a constant force independent of speed;

e.g. the rubbing friction between two plates. Fig 10.6 shows
systems both undamped and damped with Coulomb friction.
The number of overshoots in the system using Coulomb
friction is proportional to the size of the initial error.
It will be noted that the response curve of the system using

Coulomb friction brings the system to a steady state but with
a positional error. For this reason coulomb friction is not used
in practical systems, and although always present in the form Figure 10.6 Viscous Friction Showing Velocity Lag
of inherent friction, good design keeps it to a minimum.
Velocity Feedback Damping
Viscous Friction
Both Coulomb and Viscous damping have the great
Viscous Friction is proportional to velocity and provides disadvantage of being applied to the output of systems. This
satisfactory damping for servo systems. When the velocity of requires large amounts of energy to control high power
the system is zero, viscous friction is zero, and therefore it will outputs. This generates heat, which entails the provision of
not cause a position error. As the system moves more rapidly, complex cooling systems. It is more efficient to apply damping
the viscous friction increases, providing the additional to the input of the system, where power levels are much
damping required. lower. A simple, commonly used method of damping at the
The response of a system to a ramp input is shown below. input is to use Negative Velocity Feedback (NVFB).
The oscillations of the system are damped out, but a constant
steady state error is produced. This error is called 'Velocity A system using NVFB damping is shown in figure10.8. The
Lag'. The amount of Velocity Lag is proportional to the feedback is applied to the input and therefore must be
amount of viscous damping. (Fig 10.7) electrical. Velocity feedback provides damping similar to
viscous friction, but because it is applied to the input, little
power is required.

In servomechanisms, velocity feedback is achieved by using Velocity Feedback Curves

a tacho-generator (TG) driven by the output shaft of the
system as shown. A Tacho-generator is a small D.C. Figure 10.9 shows velocity feedback applied to the circuit
electrical generator. The great advantage of this type of shown in Fig 10.2. As RPC servos are concerned with the
feedback is that the amount of voltage fed back to the system, position of the load, the velocity lag will only be present when
and therefore the amount of damping, can be controlled by the load is moving and will therefore only cause a slight
using a simple potentiometer. increase in the response time. Figure 10.9 shows velocity
feedback curves.
Figure 10.8 RPCs using Velocity Feedback Damping
Figure 10.9 Velocity Feedback Curves

Velocity Control Servomechanisms demand and the actual speed will always be present. By
using high gain in the amplifier this difference can be kept
In some applications it is the rotational speed of a shaft and very low.
not its position that must be controlled. A Rate or Velocity
Control Servomechanism Servo is shown in figure 10.10. The Velocity Lag
input demand signal is used to control the angular velocity of
the output shaft and not its position. To make the speed of the A Rate Servo using velocity feedback is just as prone to
driving motor exactly proportional to the input demand a velocity lag as a RPC Servo, but as it is only the speed and
servomechanism is essential. If a servomechanism were not not the actual position of the output that is measured, it may
used the speed of the output motor would vary with changes be ignored.
in the supply voltage or any changes of the friction in the
motor or its load.
Note that there is no position feedback.
Movement of the speed control potentiometer produces a

voltage proportional to the demanded speed. The tacho-
generator provides a voltage proportional to the angular
velocity of the output shaft. If there is a difference between
these two signals an error voltage will be fed to the amplifier.
The output of the amplifier will accelerate or decelerate the
motor until the output of the tacho-generator produces a
voltage exactly equal to the input demand voltage and the Figure 10.10 Velocity Control Servomechanism
motor will run at the demanded speed.
Residual Error
Because of inherent frictional and damping losses, some

torque is always required to turn the motor and load at a
constant speed and therefore a difference between the input

A.C. Servomechanism Components
Introduction
The components associated with dc servo systems are simple

in operation and require no further explanation; however,
some of the components in a.c. servo systems require
additional consideration.
Before we look at E and I and synchro system components

we need to revise some basic principles of transformer /
inductor coupling theory from module 3, especially regarding
the phase relationship between input and output voltages.
If we look at figure 10.11 we can see the effect of rotating the

secondary winding of a transformer w.r.t. the primary winding.
We are applying a constant A.C. voltage to the input, V1.
We can see that the output voltage, V2, is at the same phase
angle to the input voltage, V1, as the physical angle between
the two windings.
The amplitude of the voltage in the secondary changes with

the cosine of the angle between the windings (i.e. at 0 and
180 degrees the amplitude is at maximum; at 90 and 270
degrees it is at a minimum of zero).
Figure 10.11 Phase and Amplitude Relationships

E & I Bar Transducer (Transformer) central to the E bar. Note that the diagram contains a
complete servo system.
The E & I bar transducer is so called because of the shape of
its component parts. Figure 10.12 shows the construction
and operation of an angular displacement E & I bar
transducer. A winding on the centre limb of the E bar carries
an A.C. excitation supply. Secondary coils are connected in
series opposition.
With the I bar in the central position (a) equal flux will flow in
the outer limbs of the E bar. The voltages induced in the two
secondary coils will be equal and opposite and will therefore
cancel out, so there will be no output signal. If the I bar is Figure 10.12 E and I Bar Transducer / Transformer
displaced from the central position, (b or c) more flux will flow
in the limb of the E bar with the smaller air gap and less flux
will flow in the limb with the larger air gap. The induced
voltages in the two windings will no longer cancel out and an
output voltage will be produced.
The phase of the output voltage is determined by the direction

of movement of the I bar. The magnitude is determined by
how far the bar moves. In a servo system the amount of
movement will be kept small due to the follow-up action.
The E & I Bar may also be used to convert linear movement
to an electrical signal. A practical application of this is shown
in the diagram of an altimeter (Fig. 10.13 ). As altitude
increases, the I bar is moved linearly to the left by the
evacuated capsule. More voltage will be induced in the left
hand leg of the E bar. This output is amplified and the motor Figure 10.13 E and I Bar in a Servo Altimeter
drives the capsule and I bar to the right so that it is once more

Other Transducers displaced by 180º, and therefore cancel out, producing no

output.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
When the iron core is moved, the emf induced in one output
Linear variable differential transforms (LVDT's) are used to winding increases, and in the other it decreases. The two
produce an electrical signal proportional to a linear voltages no longer cancel, and an output is produced. If the
movement. LVDT's consists of a moveable iron core that is core is moved the same amount in the opposite direction, an
mounted inside three windings wound on a coil former. The emf of the same size, but of opposite phase will be produced.
centre winding is the excitation winding and is connected to
an a.c. reference voltage. The two outer windings are Rotary Variable Differential Transformer
connected in series opposition and provide the output (Fig
10.14). Rotary Variable Differential transformers work on the same
principle as the LVDT. In the RVDT the linear displacement
iron core is replaced with a rotating cardioid (heart-shaped)
iron core. There is an excitation coil and two series opposition
output coils. When the core is central to the output coils there
is zero output. When the core is rotated the RVDT produces
an electrical signal proportional to this rotational movement,
both in amplitude and phase.
Inductive Type Transducers
Inductive type transducers use the principles associated with

inductance that were discussed earlier in the course.
Inductance is generally used in one of two ways in aircraft
Figure 10.14 Linear Variable Differential Transformer transducers. Firstly a changing magnetic field is used as the
transducer output and secondly by using changes in flux
With the core centralised and a.c. applied to the excitation density to control a.c. current flow.
coil, an emf is induced in each of the output windings. The
emf's induced in each winding are the same size, but phase

Induced EMF Type When the steel target is placed in close proximity to the
transducer the magnetic flux density increases due to the
reduction in reluctance, again, although the flux density
increased, no emf is induced because there is no relative
movement between the conductor and coil.
If the target is moved continually back and forward past the

transducer, the flux density continually increases and
decreases. This changing flux induces an emf in the
transducer. The frequency of the induced emf depends on
the speed of movement; the faster the target is moved, the
higher the frequency.
This form of transducer is used to measure rotational speed

of items such as engine shafts (commonly called a ‘Phonic
Wheel’).
A.C. Current Control and Capacitive Transducers
When a.c. current flows in an inductor or capacitor, the

continually changing flux produces a continually changing
Figure 10.15 Induced EMF Transducer (Phonic Wheel)
back emf that opposes the current flow. This opposition to
current flow is called reactance, and is dependent on the
This type of transducer comprises a coil and a permanent
value of inductance or capacitance. The reactance of a coil
magnet and requires a steel target for its operation. When
can be changed by placing a piece of steel adjacent to it.
the target is displaced from the transducer the field of the
permanent magnet surrounds the coil, but does not induce an
Placing a plate of aluminium near a second one forms a
emf in it because the lines of flux are not moving relative to
capacitor. If one of the plates is mounted on the moving part
the conductor.
of an undercarriage and the other on the fixed part, then the

change in capacitance can be used to sense the position of ‘muscle’ power, whereas the control type control some sort of
the undercarriage. closed loop servo motor system.
Synchronous Data Transmission Systems (Synchros) Let us first look at a d.c. synchro system, called a ‘Desynn’.
These are found mainly on older and on small ‘DC’ aircraft.
Synchronous data transmission systems are designed to
indicate the position of a component or control surface that Desynn
cannot be directly observed. The systems fall into one of two
categories; d.c. systems called 'Desynn Systems' and a.c. In the basic Desynn system the transmitter comprises an
systems which are generally grouped under the heading of endless resistance wound on a circular former, this
'Synchro Systems'. arrangement being referred to as a 'Toroidal Resistance'.
Equally spaced at 120 intervals around the resistor are 3
Both a.c. and d.c. systems comprise two main components, a tappings. It is to these that the signal wires are connected.
transmitting element and a receiving element. The two being Running on the resistor are two wiper arm type contacts that
interconnected by wiring that provides the signal path. The are spaced apart by 180 and insulated from one another, it is
word 'synchronous' means 'happening at the same time', to these that system power is applied. (Fig 10.16)
which infers that when the transmitter is moved, the receiving
element, normally an indicator, will follow that movement
instantly.
The transmitter and receiver are both some form of

transducer, with the transmitter converting a position into an
electrical signal, and the receiver turning that electrical signal
back into an indication of position. The simplest of these is a
potentiometer, which is straightforward and was covered as
part of Module 3.
More sophisticated transmitters and receivers are classified

as ‘Torque’ or ‘Control’ types. Torque types provide their own
Figure 10.16 Basic Desynn Transmitter and Indicator

The indicator comprises a permanent magnet rotor, pivoted to If power is removed, the small permanent magnet attracts the
rotate inside a soft iron stator, the pointer being attached to permanent magnet rotor, moving the pointer off scale.
the spindle. The stator carries three star connected windings
connected to the three wires coming from the transmitter. A.C. Synchro Systems
When dc power is applied to the wiper arms of the transmitter, Synchros are electromagnetic devices used to transmit
current will enter the positive wiper arm and divide to flow in positional data electrically from one position to another.
both directions, left and right, around the Toroidal resistor. Unlike Desynns they can also be used to compute the sum of
Both halves of the resistor has the same resistance, therefore two rotations or the difference in angle between them.
the current in each path will be equal. First we will look at synchro types and their definitions:
The resistance of the resister varies linearly; therefore when Synchro Types
28 volts is applied to the system as shown in the diagram, the
voltage at tapping 2 will be approx. 9.3 volts, as will the Synchro types may be classified as follows:
voltage at tapping 3. The voltage at tapping 1 will be 28 volts.  Torque transmitter
The differences in potential at the three tappings cause  Torque receiver
currents to flow in the wires that connect to the receiver. The  Control transmitter
flow of current creates magnetic fields around the 3 stator  Control transformer
windings in the receiver, which combine to produce a  Torque differential receiver
resultant field across the stator. The permanent magnet  Torque differential transmitter
aligns with the resultant stator field, in turn aligning with the  Control differential transmitter
wiper arms of the transmitter.
 Resolver
Irrespective of the position of the wiper arms in the
Torque Transmitter - TX
transmitter, the current flow between transmitter and receiver
will always create a field across the stator that aligns with
A synchro, the rotor of which is mechanically positioned, for
their position.
transmitting electrical information corresponding to the
A problem is that should the d.c. power to the system fail, the
angular position of the rotor relative to the stator.
pointer will remain in its last position. To prevent false
indication a small permanent magnet is fitted in the indicator.

Torque Receiver - TR Control Differential Transmitter – CDX
A synchro, the rotor of which is free to turn, which develops a A synchro, the rotor of which is mechanically positioned, for
torque dependent on the difference between its rotor position modifying electrical angular information received from a
and the electrical angular information received from its control transmitter and transmitting electrical angular
connected torque transmitter or torque differential transmitter. information corresponding to the sum of, or difference
between, the electrical input angle and its own rotor position
Control Transmitter – CX angle.
A synchro, the rotor of which is mechanically positioned for Torque Differential Receiver – TDR
transmitting electrical information corresponding to the
angular position of the rotor relative to the stator. Normally A synchro, the rotor of which is free to turn, which develops a
used to supply control differential transmitters or control torque dependent on the difference between its own rotor
transformers. position and the sum of or difference between the two sets of
angular information received from two connected torque
Control Transformer – CT transmitters.
A synchro which is supplied with electrical angular information Resolver

and which supplies a voltage proportional to the sine of the
difference between the electrical input angle and its own rotor A resolver has two windings, whose axes are mutually
position angle. perpendicular, on the rotor and on the stator (4 windings in
total). It can resolve an input signal into its sine and cosine
Torque Differential Transmitter – TDX components, perform the operations of vector addition and
subtraction or convert polar to cartesian co-ordinates and vice
A synchro, the rotor of which is mechanically positioned, for versa.
modifying electrical angular information received from a
torque transmitter and transmitting electrical information
corresponding to the sum of, or difference between, the
electrical input and its own rotor position angle.

Synchro Schematics
All synchros are represented by the same basic schematic

symbol which may be drawn in any one of three different
ways:
Fig 10.17: This is the simplest and possibly the most

commonly used
representation in
maintenance manuals.
The code letters are Fig. 10.18 Synchro Schematic (b)
inserted in the centre
circle to identify the type Fig 10.19: This is now commonly used when an explanation is
and function. given of the operation of a synchro.
Fig 10.17 Synchro Schematic (a)
Fig 10.18: Used when an explanation is given of the operation

of a synchro. The schematic shows the rotor in the zero
degree position.
Fig 10.19 Synchro Schematic (c)
Note: By convention, the vertical winding in the last 2

schematics is identified as S2, the lower right as S1 and the
lower left as S3.

The differential synchro symbols are shown in fig. 10.20.
Figure 10.20 Differential Synchro Symbols

Fig 10.21 Resolver Symbol (b)
The resolver synchro can be represented schematically by
the following symbols, Fig 10.21, (a) or (b). When connections to earth are required, the stator wire
designated S2 or Z is earthed and the C end of the rotor
winding is earthed.
XYZ Synchro system
Synchros often appear in aircraft wiring and schematic

diagrams with the letters X, Y, Z indicating the free end of
Fig 10.21 Resolver Symbol (a) each stator winding and the letters H and C indicating the
ends of the rotor (Hot and Cold).
Synchro Supplies
S1 ----- X
Synchros used in aircraft data transmission systems are S2 ----- Z
operated from either 115V 400Hz or 26V 400Hz alternating S3 ----- Y
current supplies. Radio systems commonly employ 26V R1 ----- H
400Hz. R2 ----- C

Torque Synchro System In practice R2 and S2 will be connected to earth.

The transmitter rotor will be mechanically rotated by suitable
Torque synchro systems are used where the turning force or means appropriate to the system whose positional information
torque required is very small. The system only produces has to be transmitted. A pointer, which will indicate the
sufficient torque to move a pointer over a scale, or to operate transmitted data, will normally be attached to the rotor of the
a micro switch, because of this they are limited to indicating receiver. The ac power supply is connected to both rotors, the
systems. rotors being in parallel.
Operation
With supply current flowing, voltages are induced in the stator

winding of both the TX and TR by transformer action. With the
rotors in the same angular position, as shown in the diagram,
the voltages in the TX and TR will be equal and opposite,
hence no current will flow in the stator coils and
interconnecting wires. The system is said to be balanced or
nulled.
The voltage induced in the stator coils will depend on the ratio
of the number of turns on the rotor to the number of turns on
the stator and the angular position of the rotor with respect to
the stators.
For the position of the rotors shown in the diagram, the

Figure 10.23 Torque Synchro System
voltages induced in the stators of both transmitter and
receiver would be:
Construction
 S1 half maximum voltage
The torque synchro system comprises a Torque transmitter
 S2 maximum voltage
(TX) and a Torque Receiver (TR) interconnected as shown.
 S3 half maximum voltage

If the transmitter rotor is rotated through any angle, the

voltages induced in the stator coils of the TX will change. The
voltages induced in the stator coils of the TR will remain
unchanged. This creates potential differences across the
interconnecting wires, and current flow in them. The current
flows produce magnetic fields around the stator windings
which combine to form a resultant field across the stator of
both the TX and TR.
A torque reaction will now exist between the resultant stator

field and the field that exists around the rotor. This torque
reaction will exist at both the TX and TR. The rotor of the TX
is held by the system whose positional information has to be
transmitted and cannot move. The rotor of the TR is however
free to rotate and moves around in response to the torque.
Once the TR rotor is in the same angular position as the Figure 10.25 Torque Differential Synchro System
transmitter rotor, the voltages induced in the stators will again
be equal and opposite, current will cease to flow and the The rotor of the differential synchro has three equally spaced
system will once again be balanced. windings and is connected to the transmitter and receiver
stators. When connected as shown it will provide an output
which is the difference between the two inputs from the
Differential Torque Synchro System mechanical drives. It can also be wired to produce an addition
of the two inputs. There is no connection between the
A differential synchro system consists of a differential synchro differential synchros and the supply.
used in conjunction with a synchro transmitter and receiver. It
is electrically connected as shown in the diagram below. Consider the differential synchro to be three 1:1 transformers
between the three stator windings of the transmitter and the
three stator windings of the receiver. When the system is set
as shown in fig 10.25, the induced voltages in the stators and

across the transformers will be equal and no current will flow Difference of Two Inputs
in any of the interconnecting wires.
If the TX is left stationary and the TDX is rotated by 15º the
voltages will be different and current will flow around the
stator windings. A torque reaction will occur and the rotor on
the receiver will turn until the voltages are equal and current
stops flowing. It should be noted that when the TDX is wired
as shown in fig 10.27, clockwise rotation of the TDX results in
anticlockwise rotation of the TR.
Figure 10.26 Induced Voltages after turning TX 60º
If the transmitter (on the left) is turned by 60º, the TX stator

voltages will change and current will flow around the stator
windings. (the interconnecting wires have been removed for
clarity). Resultant fields will be set up and the TR rotor will
feel torque, so the rotor will turn until, again, the voltages are
equal and current stops flowing (Fig 10.26).
Figure 10.27 Difference Output, TDX only rotated 15º
Remember all three components feel the torque reaction
created by the interaction of rotor and stator fields, but
because the transmitter rotors are mechanically connected to
other systems they will not be free to move. Only the receiver
rotor (on the right) is free to respond.

If both the TX and the TDX were rotated then the TR would
show the difference between the two movements (Fig 10.28).
This system is commonly used in radio navigation systems to
output the difference between commanded and actual
heading (or course).
Figure 10.29 Control Synchro with Servo Loop
Construction
Figure 10.28 Difference Output, TX rotated 60º; TDX 15º
In construction, control synchros are similar to torque
synchros but because they do not have to handle any motive
power for driving a load they may be of lighter construction.
Control Synchro System Also, because the signal from the receiver is going to be
amplified to drive an output, the impedance of the windings
Control synchros are used in electromechanical servo and can be made much higher and there is no danger of the
shaft positioning systems. They only produce a signal system burning out. The control synchro system is the most
representative of the position of the transmitter. This signal common of all synchros and has extensive use in aircraft
can then be amplified many times to power very large motors instrument and navigational systems
to move very large loads to a desired position.

Operation (Fig 10.29 and 10.30)
In a control synchro system the ac power supply is only

connected to the rotor of the transmitter, the CX. The signal
representing the position of the transmitter is obtained from
the rotor of the receiving element, the CT. Note that in the
balanced or nulled position, the rotors of the CX and CT are
at 90 to each other (Minimum coupling, see fig. 10.10).
When the rotor of the CX is in the position shown, maximum

voltage is induced in stator S2 and half maximum voltage is
induced in S1 and S3. No emfs are induced in the stator
windings of the CT, therefore a potential difference exists
between each stator winding of the CX and CT and currents
flow in the transmission wires.
The currents flowing in the CT stator windings produce

magnetic fields that combine to form a resultant field across
the stator. This field induces an emf in the CT rotor winding,
whose size and phase depend on the position of the rotor
relative to the resultant field. When the rotor winding is
parallel to the resultant field, maximum voltage is induced in
it, when the rotor is at 90 to the resultant field, zero emf is
induced in it. The control transformer can therefore be
considered as a null detector and is most often used in servo Figure 10.30 Control Synchro Operation
systems.

The emf is applied to a discriminator amplifier to sense its

phase relationship to the excitation supply, to obtain direction
information, and then applied to the motor (Fig 10.29 & 30).
The motor turns, driving the pointer and at the same time
driving the rotor of the CT towards the balanced position (90
to the resultant field). When the rotor is at 90 to the resultant
field, the induced emf falls to zero and the motor stops, the
pointer having moved to indicate the new position.
If the rotor of the CX had been moved anticlockwise, the error

signal in the CT rotor would have been of opposite phase and
the motor would have turned in the opposite direction to once
again null or balance the system.
Differential Control Synchros END OF MODULE 4

These are in common use. Their operation is the same as for
Torque differential synchros, and they can also be wired to
produce an electrical signal proportional to the sum or
difference between two inputs. Note: Power is only supplied
to the CX; CT output is an error signal used to drive a servo
loop until it is nulled.

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Faculty of Transport Engineering Technologies

School of Aeronautical Engineering

Module 4 B1 Electronic Fundamentals

Amendment Incorporated Date Annual Completed by Date

4.1.1P-N JUNCTIONS AND THE DIODE 18

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Atomic Number The Number of Electrons in Each Shell

Figure 1.3, shows a Carbon atom with 6 protons, two electrons

EASA Module 4 B1 Electronics Page 7 of 89

Electrons in orbits further from the nucleus have more energy

EASA Module 4 B1 Electronics Page 8 of 89

Electrical Properties of Materials Conductors

An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical

A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and

EASA Module 4 B1 Electronics Page 9 of 89

Ionisation amount of energy that a valence electron must have in order to

If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy, it

EASA Module 4 B1 Electronics Page 10 of 89

Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom to a Conductor

Let's examine why silicon is a semiconductor and copper is a

The valence electron in the copper atom "feels" an attractive

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In a semiconductor the number of free electrons increases

Figure 3.1 Silicon and Germanium Atoms Compared

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Atoms are held together by covalent bonds, to form a solid

If we consider, for simplicity, five atoms within a silicon

This effectively creates eight valence electrons for each atom

EASA Module 4 B1 Electronics Page 13 of 89

N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors

Semiconductor materials are of little value in their intrinsic

Controlled addition of impurities to intrinsic semiconductor

Pentavalent atoms, such as arsenic (As), phosphorus (P),

EASA Module 4 B1 Electronics Page 14 of 89

This is called an n-type semiconductor as the majority

Note: There will be a small number of holes created when

Figure 3.4 Pentavalent Doping of a Silicon Crystal

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Trivalent atoms such as aluminium (Al), boron (B), indium

This is called a p-type semiconductor as the majority

Note: There will be a small number of electrons created when

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Heavy and Light Doping of N and P Type Crystals

Figure 3.6 at left represents

Figure 3.9 at right

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4.1.1 P-N Junctions and the Diode

A diode lets current flow through it in one direction only

Depletion Region Formation

A diode is made by joining a p-type and an n-type region to

Electrons near the junction on the n side will tend to diffuse

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A state of equilibrium will be reached when the depletion

The barrier potential of a pn junction depends on several

EASA Module 4 B1 Electronics Page 19 of 89

Biasing a Diode Current flow is by majority carriers (electrons in the n-type,